Lecture 3:

Neurons & synapses

Alard Roebroeck
E-mail:
[email protected] 1
The Bigger Picture:
Levels of analysis (Again)
• Computational level
• What’s the problem to be solved?
• Algorithmic level

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• What (abstract) set of rules solves the problem?
• Implementational level
• How are those rules physically implemented?
• At many scales….

David Marr, Vision, 1982

 The Bigger Picture:
Scales of analysis
Macroscale Mesoscale Microscale Nanoscale

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whole Long-range Short-range Topographic Layered Layer of Axonal Synaptic Neuro-
human association association projection Intra- avg. large density & contacts transmitters
brain projections projections organization cortical projection diameters Receptors
circuits termination

µm3: 1015 1012 109 106 103 100 10-3 10-6 10-9
µm: 105 104 103 102 101 100 10-1 10-2 10-3
cm mm µm nm
Neural systems level: macroscale

Brodmann’s areas
Circuit level:
mesoscale
Cellular level: Microscale
Synaptic level: Nanoscale
Literature
• Gazzaniga 4th edition
• Ch 2. Structure and Function of the Nervous System (pages 22-37)
• The Structure of Neurons
• Neuronal signaling
• Synaptic transmission
• The Role of Glial cells
• The Bigger picture

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Cells of the brain: neurons
• Soma

• Dendrites
• Many dendrites
• Input

• Axon
• One axon
• Output

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Cells of the brain: neurons

• Dendrites
• Many dendrites
• Input
• Dendritic spines

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Cells of the brain: neurons

• Axon hillock

• One axon
• Can branch
• Axon hillock
• Axon terminal
• Myelin
• Output 11
Cells of the brain: neurons
• Many types and kinds of
neurons

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Cells of the brain: glia cells
• Astrocytes:
• Blood Brain Barrier
• Nutrition
• Waste management
• Signaling?

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Cells of the brain: glia cells
• Oligodendrocytes:
• Myelinisation
• CNS
• Schwann cells:
• Myelinisation
• PNS

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Cells of the brain: glia cells
• Microglia:
• Brains immune system
• Eat up pathogens

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Neurons: communicating cells
• Brain is a large parallel computer

• Each neuron is pre-synaptic and post-synaptic to many

(thousands of) other neurons

• There is communication/information massing:

• Within neurons: electrical (membrane potentials)
• Resting potential
• Action potentials
• Post-synaptic potentials
• Between neurons: chemical (synaptic transmission) 16
Neurons: resting potential
• Inside is more
negative:
-70 mV at rest

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 Neurons: resting potential

• Charged particles
• Around the cell:
• Sodium (Na+)
• Chloride (Cl-)
• Potassium (K+)
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• Negatively charged proteins (A-)
• Found primarily within the neuron
 Neurons: resting potential
• Two forces act on all ions:
• Concentration gradient (concentration force):
• particles move down concentration gradient,
• Force/pressure from high concentration to low
• E.g. : Concentration pressure on Na+ is inward
• Electrostatic pressure: particles move to opposite charge
• E.g. : Electrostatic pressure on Na+ is inward

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Neurons: resting potential
 Neurons: resting potential
• Summary:
• K+ wants to leave cell, but is pumped in
• Na+ wants to enter cell, but is pumped out
• Consequences?
• Neuron = biological circuit
• Neuron is in constant ready state to…
• … fire an action potential!
• Enabled by
• selective permeability
• voltage-gated channels

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 Neurons: ion channels & pump
• Membrane is selectively permeable
• Sodium-potassium pump Inside is more
• Channels/pores for specific ions negative:
• Non-gated -70 mV at rest
• Gated
 Neurons: resting potential
• Membrane is selectively permeable
• Sodium-potassium pump Inside is more
• Channels/pores for specific ions negative:
• Non-gated -70 mV at rest
• Gated
• Open/close based on Voltage
• Change conductance

-70mV -60mV
 Neurons: action potential
• Neurons transmit output signals
internally through the action
potential…
• …If the right input us received at the
dendrites
• Integrate incoming signals from
dendrites
• When threshold is reached: transmit signal
via axon
• EPSP: Excitatory PostSynaptic Potential
• IPSP: Inhibitory PostSynaptic Potential 24
The Action Potential
• Multiple input signals are needed at the dendrites to produce an
AP
• EPSPs depolarize (e.g. -65mV)
• IPSPs hyperpolarize (e.g. -75mV)

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The Action Potential
• EPSPs must sum
• Spatially
• Temporally
• To reach threshold at the axon hillock

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The Action Potential

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• Can think of opening (voltage gated channels) in terms of changing
ionic conductance

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 The Action Potential
• The AP is an all-or-nothing response
• Refractory period:
• Absolute
• Relative
• An AP travels slow
• Can be made faster by myelination of axon
• Saltatory conduction
• Regenerate AP at nodes of Ranvier

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PSP vs AP
EPSPs/IPSPs Action Potentials
 Dendrites/Soma  Axon

 Decremental  Nondecremental

 Fast  Conducted more

slowly than PSPs
 But much faster

 Passive (energy is not when saltatory

used)  Passive and active
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(energy is used)
 Synaptic transmission
• AP
• in pre-synaptic neuron
• Leads to PSP
• in post-synaptic neuron

(E/I)PSP

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Receptor =
Neurotransmitter-activated
Ion-channel

• E.g. Cl-
• IPSP
• E.g. Na+
• EPSP

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 Synaptic transmission: summary
• AP
• in pre-synaptic neuron
• Leads to PSP
• in post-synaptic neuron

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(E/I)PSP
Ending synaptic transmission

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Gap-junctions
• Between neurons
• But electrically

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Neurotransmitters
• Synthesized in neuron or present in it
• Released when activated and produce post-synaptic response
• Must be removed after action has been completed
• Effect depends on post-synaptic receptor!

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Neurotransmitters: Many!

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Neurotransmitters:
amino acids
• Usually found at fast-acting directed synapses in the CNS
• Glutamate – Most prevalent excitatory neurotransmitter in the
CNS
• GABA
• Synthesized from glutamate
• Most prevalent inhibitory NT in the CNS

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Neurotransmitters:
monoamines
• Dopamine: pleasure, addiction
• Norepinephrine: arousal, wakefullness 去甲肾上腺素

• Epinephrine: periphery
• Serotonin: sleep, eating ⾎血清素

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Neurotransmitters:
acetylcholine
• Acetylcholine (Ach)
• Operates
• In the brain
• At neuromuscular junction

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