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Innocence and the Other World.
The Tales of Miyazawa Kenji

Author(s): Takao Hagiwara
Source: Monumenta Nipponica, Vol. 47, No. 2 (Summer, 1992), pp. 241-263
Published by: Sophia University
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Innocence and the Other World
The Tales of Miyazawa Kenji
TAKAO HAGIWARA
M L , OIYAZAWA KENJI -9RiW, 1896-1933, was an exceptionally energetic

and creative figure. Throughout his short life he engaged in a diverse
range of activities and occupations. Along with his career as a poet
and 'children's story' writer,' he was also a soil scientist, religious thinker,
teacher, farmer, social reformer, and engineer-salesman. In many of these
roles he was not merely active, but outstanding, demonstrating great original-
ity of thought and expression. Certainly, if we consider only Kenji's literary
career, it can be argued that he is unique in the tradition of Japanese literature.
His exuberant style, based upon a highly idiosyncratic cosmology, seems to
place him in a category of his own.
Although Kenji received little recognition as a writer during his lifetime, his
literary fame grew rapidly after his death. To date, seven different editions of
his collected works and innumerable books, periodicals, and articles related to
Kenji studies have been published. In the postwar period, few primary or sec-
ondary school students graduate without having read one or two of Kenji's
poems or tales. Even in the non-academic world, Kenji has recently become
popular. Comic books and animated movies based on or adapted from his
tales have been published commercially, while in Hanamaki, his birthplace,
various public works commemorate him.
Outside Japan, however, there is relatively little scholarship concerned with
Kenji, although there has recently been a growing interest in his literature
among academics. A number of translations and studies have been published
in English, French, German, and Swedish. In English, these include Gary
Snyder's translations of Kenji's poems in his Back Country,2 Hiroaki Sato's
THE AUTHOR is an assistant professor in the Department of East Asian Languages and
Literatures, Smith College. He wishes to thank Professors William A. Oram and Robert T.
Petersson, and Geoffrey Brown, and the anonymous reader for their kind help and suggestions.
1 In spite of the fact that Kenji himself called his stories dowa =W-, children's stories, and
wrote them in that style, the term 'children's story' does not seem to be entirely appropriate
because his stories often seem too abstruse for children. In this article, therefore, I shall gener-
ally use the term 'tales' (or occasionally 'stories') rather than 'children's stories'.
2 Gary Snyder, The Back Country, New Directions, New York, 1968.
242 Monumenta Nipponica, 47:2
Spring and Asura: Poems of Kenji Miyazawa3 and A Future of Ice: Poems and
Stories of a Japanese Buddhist: Miyazawa Kenji,4 John Bester's Winds and
Wildcat Places5 and Winds from Afar,6 both translations of Kenji's tales,
Mallory Fromm's 'The Ideals of Miyazawa Kenji'", Makoto Ueda's substan-
tial chapter on Kenji in his Modern Japanese Poets and the Nature of
Literature,8 and Sarah M. Strong's 'The Poetry of Miyazawa Kenji',9
'Miyazawa Kenji and the Lost Gandharan Painting', 1 and Night of the Milk
Way Railway.' 1
One may wonder why Kenji attracts such widespread attention today, both
in Japan and increasingly in the West, when he was almost totally unknown to,
or rather ignored by, literary circles in Tokyo during his lifetime. In the most
general terms, each of the studies mentioned above may be seen as an attempt
to answer this question. Certainly, to the extent that it is concerned with
explaining the meaning-and hence the appeal-of Kenji, the present article
is also such an attempt. More specifically, however, this study is about
Miyazawa's idea of innocence in its relation to his literary style and his idea
of the 'other world' or 'other realm'. While literary scholars, critics, and
translators have noted the issue of innocence in Kenji's work,12 few have
grappled with this issue in terms of how Kenji's idea of innocence relates to his
literary style, and the bearing it has on various other themes in his thought and
literature: themes such as symbolism, nature, the 'other world', and the
center-periphery dichotomy.
The first part of the present article will focus on various aspects of Kenji's
3 Hiroaki Sato, tr., Spring and Asura: Poems of Kenji Miyazawa, Chicago Review Press,
1973.
4 Hiroaki Sato, tr., A Future of Ice: Poems and Stories of a Japanese Buddhist: Miyazawa
Kenji, North Point Press, San Francisco, 1989.
5 John Bester, tr., Winds and Wildcat Places, Kodansha International, 1967.
6 John Bester, tr., Winds from Afar, Kodansha International, 1972.
7 Mallory Fromm, 'The Ideals of Miyazawa Kenji: A Critical Account of Their Genesis,
Development, and Literary Expression', doctoral dissertation, University of London, 1980.
8 Makoto Ueda, Modern Japanese Poets and the Nature of Literature, Stanford U.P., 1983,
pp. 184-231.
9 Sarah M. Strong, 'The Poetry of Miyazawa Kenji', doctoral dissertation, University of
Chicago, 1984.
10 Sarah M. Strong, 'Miyazawa Kenji and the Lost Gandharan Painting', in MN 41:2 (Sum-
mer 1986), pp. 175-97.
11 Sarah M. Strong, tr., Night of the Milky Way Railway, Sharpe, Armonk, NY, 1991. For
more information about studies and translations of Kenji's works outside Japan, see Strong,
'The Poetry', pp. 4-5, Ueda, pp. 425-29, and 'Bibliography of Miyazawa Kenji' in Miyazawa
Kenji Kenkyui Annual, 1991, 1, pp. 1-15.
12 See, for instance, the following remarks by Bester in his Winds from Afar, p. 8: 'Yet still
more essential in Miyazawa than this humanism is an intense nostalgia for innocence, for the
childlike state that precedes all such things as society and morality. This nostalgia, together with
the sensitivity towards nature with which it is so closely linked is, above all, what gives his work
its special flavor. The harking back to innocence is not so much a retreat into childhood as a
reaffirmation of certain aspects of our relationship with the universe about us.'
HAGIWARA: Innocence and the Other World 243
style. His diction, sentence structure, rhythm, onomatopoeia, genre, and im-
agery will be examined particularly in terms of how they are related to the con-
cept of innocence and that of the other world (or other realm). In the second
part, I will focus on the relationship between the other realm and innocence in
his literature. By analyzing how Kenji used stylistic devices to express his ideas
of the other realm and innocence, I hope to show how intrinsically, and how
inevitably, those ideas are welded with his style.
Aspects of Style
In Kenji's literature, style and innocence are related most fundamentally to the
issue of center-periphery. Indeed, innocence in Kenji's work is above all a mat-
ter of the 'marginal', which, in the present context, overlaps with the idea of
the 'marked' as opposed to the 'unmarked'. In Kenji's tales children represent
marginal existences insofar as they do not play the central power roles that
society reserves for 'mature adults'. As non- (or rather sub-) adults, they are
'marked off' as beings not yet fully human, and for Kenji, it is children, the
mentally retarded, animals, plants, water, air, rocks, etc (in other words, all
beings in the universe besides adult humans, with their manipulative intellect)
who are potentially close to innocence.
Kenji uses various stylistic means of expressing, or rather 'marking', the in-
nocence (or the capacity for innocence) of such beings. In his prose works,
perhaps the most apparent 'marking' is the fact that he chose to write them
in the form and style of the children's story rather than in the more popular,
orthodox, and hence 'unmarked' style of the novel. The reasons behind
this choice are significant. Of course, the most obvious is that the children's
literature movement was in full swing when Kenji thought seriously of pursu-
ing a literary career. A deeper reason for this choice was perhaps his intuitive
knowledge that the genre of the children's story was, along with poetry, the
form best suited to the expression of his particular ideas and emotions that
were radically different and thus 'marked off' from the prevailing intellectual
and emotional climate of the time.
Kenji writes in the advertisement for the collection of his tales, Chumon no
Oi Rvoriten i 44I+t &h-JTrg:
Ihatovu is a place name. If we dare to locate the place, it is considered to be in
the same world as the fields that Big Claus and Little Claus used to till and the
land in the mirror that the girl Alice visited, located in the far northeast of Tepan-
tar Desert and in the far east of Ivan's kingdom.
Indeed, it is the Iwate prefecture of Japan as a dreamland that really exists in
the mind of the author taking such forms as above.
There, everything is possible. One can instantly jump over the field of snow
and ice to travel toward the north, riding the great wind that circles around the
earth, or one can talk with ants that crawl under the red cups of flowers.
There, even sins and sorrows radiate in pure, holy light. A deep grove of
beech, winds and shadows, grass of meat,13 a row of el

as far as the mysterious city, Bering-we see all of these in this truly enigmatic,
yet happy land. The series of tales in this collection is, indeed, a part of the
mental sketch of the author's psyche. It takes the form of a literature aimed at
those readers who are in between the end of boyhood or girlhood and mid-
adolescence. (11:388)14
From this standpoint Kenji then enumerates four characteristics of his tales,
the third of which reads as follows:
(3) These tales are neither falsehood and fabrication nor plagiarism. Although
they were given some amount of reflection and analysis, they faithfully represent
what occurred in the author's imagination at particular moments. Therefore,
however ridiculous or abstruse they may appear, everyone, deep in his or her
psyche, should certainly be able to understand them. They will be unintelligible
only to mean and jaded adults. (11:389)
The tenor of the above passages is related to Kenji's temperament and

world view. Certainly his visionary temperament and Buddho-pantheistic (or
animistic) world view are far more compatible with the style of fantasy than
with that of the novel. Kenji would undoubtedly have found the novel more
suitable to 'those mean and jaded adults', who are incorrigibly satisfied with
the visible and tangible world around them. As Ian Watt suggests, the rise of
the novel genre may be understood in terms of the growth of bourgeois culture
in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Europe, a culture committed to in-
dustrial capitalism as well as to new views of individualism and citizenship.15
The novel, it has been argued, was a genre that responded to the bourgeois
taste for realism and for knowledge of the ordinary reality of everyday life.
Therefore, even though a certain degree of sentimentalism and romanticism
may be tolerated, or even called for, in the novel, its essence is verisimilitude.
In contrast to Kenji's tales the novel is a genre in which 'everything is not
possible.' It is intended primarily for adults, the 'unmarked'. If the novel
speaks more to the conscious, 'adult' part of the human mind, the children's
story surely speaks more to the unconscious part. In this most fundamental
sense Kenji's literature is 'marked'.
Kenji's style is related to innocence in various other ways as well. A domi-
nant feature of his tales, for instance, is his frequent use of the Iwate dialect.
He often put this dialect in the mouths of both his child characters as well as
his good-natured, and sometimes mentally retarded, adult characters (such as
13 One critic argues that this is a printer's typographical error and that Kenji intended the
words to be tsukimiso Ff AV, 'evening primroses', instead of niku no kusa , 'grass of
meat'. Kihara Yoshiki tJ1;XM, 'Kenji Memorandamu: "Mukaibi" ni tsuite' W / e v?A:
Fr n.uicot, in Kenji Kenkyui -W , 40 (1986), pp. 41-43.
14 Miyazawa Seiroku 9RI- et al., ed., Kohon Miyazawa Kenji Zenshii RIWMV;i!t
Chikuma, 1973-1977, 11, p. 388. Hereafter quotations from this edition will be specified in
parentheses.
15 Ian Watt, The Rise of the Novel, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1976.
Kojuiro /Jt+P in 'Nametokoyama no Kuma' fszt5 e ca LUoA and

'Kenji! Koenrin' +tp1). This use of dialect is said to have been one of the
reasons why his works were ignored by children's story writers from Tokyo in
Kenji's own time, but today it strikes us as one of the most charming aspects of
his literature. To the ears of the reader who is a non-speaker of the dialect, it
sounds both fresh and attractive. The main reason for this perhaps relates to
a general principle of literary and artistic effect: the principle of presenting
something different from what the reader is accustomed to in everyday life. But
this is, of course, a general argument. A more subtle secret of its effect seems to
be in the connection between this dialect and innocence, for both are 'marked'
and peripheral. Through the use of dialect, Kenji's works, and especially his
tales, begin to resonate with fresh and surprising tones. The dialect gives us an
impression not only of simplicity and roughness but also of innocence and
purity. This is particularly true when the words are spoken by children or men-
tally retarded adults. The Iwate dialect, often the target of ridicule and disdain
among 'standard' Japanese speakers, is an appropriate language for those who
represent marginal existences.
It should be noted, however, that Kenji also often has his child characters
speak a very refined Tokyo dialect. Moreover, he often gives them Western
names such as Giovanni and Campanella and lets them act in international
(often Western) settings, as seen, for instance, in Ginga Tetsudo no Yoru Vfii
MT-k. This can be explained partially by Kenji's haikara shumi i\- t4
SE (stylishness or dandyism), which, in the Japan of his time, was more or
less equivalent to modernism and Westernism. But the deeper reason lies in
his cosmopolitan, or rather, cosmic, attitude and temperament. Along with
possessing a deep knowledge of Buddhism, Kenji had been educated in natural
science as well as in Western languages such as English, German, and Esperan-
to. Tokyo, where he often went and stayed for periods up to several months at
a time, was for Kenji a quasi- or surrogate 'West'. The charm of Kenji and his
literature lies in the fact that he does not regard Tokyo and the West (moder-
nity) as being in opposition to Iwate (primitivism), but rather, by virtue of
his transcendental or cosmic point of view, sees them as equivalent kinds of
provincial locales. His cosmopolitanism is based on a cosmic vision, which
subsumes both modern and primitive sensibilities, both Tokyo and the West,
and Iwate.
Kenji is both ultra-modern and ultra-primitive. He is ultra-modern in that
within his sensitivities for animism, shamanism, and the Buddhist doctrine of
mujo -, or the transience and relativity of the world, he firmly embraces the
findings of modern science such as astronomy, geology, and Einstein's relati-
vity theory; he is ultra-primitive in that through this knowledge of modern
sciences, his understanding of such ancient sensibilities as shamanism,
animism, and Buddhism goes beyond the order of mere thousands or ten
thousands of years and reaches back in an astronomical scale of billions of
years. One concrete example of this is Ginga Tetsudo no Yoru, a story about
a boy's journey into the Milky Way on a galactic railroad. This story com-
bines and harmonizes modern, Western elements such as the characters'
names, Giovanni and Campanella, the galactic train, an ocean liner, and
an archeological excavation, with primitive elements such as Giovanni's
shamanistic flight into the night sky and the animistic image of the buffalo-like
ancient beasts whose fossils a scientist excavates on the beach of the Milky
Way (or Ama no gawa TiaODjII, literally, heaven's river) in order to prove his
cosmological theory.
For these reasons we can say that Kenji's cosmopolitanism is supported by
his cosmic vision, which is at once ultra-modern and ultra-primitive. To quote
Takamura Kotaro i6t4YA], 1883-1956, in his description of Kenji:
Those who have a cosmos within themselves are always at the center of the
world, even when they are at the fringe of the world, but those who do not have a
cosmos within will end up with a local existence, even if they live in the center of
the world. Miyazawa Kenji, the poet of Hanamaki, Iwate prefecture, was a rare
man who had a cosmos within himself.16
Kenji and his literature are at once peripheral and central. The mixing of the
refined Tokyo 'dialect' and Western names with Iwate dialect, then, is his
temperamental strategy for expressing his cosmic vision.
Related to his use of Iwate dialect are certain syntactic anomalies that are
characteristic of his style:
'Ano hito tori e oshieterundesho ka.' 'Is he signaling to the birds?' (10:158)
Soshite sonokoro nara kisha wa shinsekai kokyogaku no yo ni narimashita.
And if around that time, the train resounded like the New World Symphony.
(10:159)
Hi ga tsuyoku teru toki wa iwa wa kawaite masshiro ni mie, tate yoko ni hashitta
hibiware mo ari, okina boshi o kamutte sono ue o utsumuite aruku nara,
kageboshi wa kuroku ochimashita shi, mattaku mo igirisu atari no hakua no
kaigan o aruite iru yo na ki ga surunodeshita.
When the sunshine was strong, the bedrock dried up, looking very white, with
even, crisscross fissures in it, and if you walked on it with a big hat on and with
downcast eyes, your shadow darkly fell onto it, and indeed you felt as if you were
walking on the cretaceous beach somewhere around England. (9:35)
The English translations, or rather glosses, inevitably provide only a rough
clue to the concepts of the original, rather than faithful translations of the tex-
tual nuances that arise from such stylistic features as imagery, rhythm, diction,
and syntax. Speakers of Japanese, familiar with the Tokyo dialect, will in-
tuitively sense slight grammatical deviations in these quotations. The examples
quoted above are a mere fraction of Kenji's syntactic idiosyncrasies. His
16 Quoted by Kusano Shimpei Vff iA, in Aporon Kasetto Raiburarr, Aporon Ongaku
KOgy6, 8, KSA 2008, n.d.
literature is full of such pleasant deviations. It is almost impossibl

analytically exactly why his anomalous sentence structures sound quite so
pleasant and refreshing to our ears, except to state that his strange, somewhat
uncouth expressions remind us of things written or said by children or
'uneducated' adults. Kenji's 'child-like' style disarms our sophisticated, rigid,
and rational attitude toward the world and takes us back to the realm of in-
nocence and simplicity. By twisting, deforming, and thus 'marking' what is
considered to be the 'normal', 'unmarked', standard syntax of the language,
Kenji shows us an extraordinary realm, which our 'normal', 'unmarked' sen-
sibility has marginalized and alienated as the 'other realm' or 'other world'.
The anomalous character of Kenji's child-like style is also related to other
issues, such as rhythm, onomatopoeia, songs, and incantation. Unusual uses
of onomatopoeia and songs appear suddenly in his tales. 'Kaze no
Matasaburo' WDRE, for instance, opens with an onomatopoeic song of the
wind:
Doddodo dododo dododo dodo Doddodo dododo dododo dodo

Aoi kurumi mo fukitobase Blow off the green walnuts!
Suppai karin mo fukitobase Blow off the green quinces!
Doddodo dododo dododo dodo Doddodo dododo dododo dodo
Tanigawa no kishi ni chiisa na A small school was standing by the

gakko ga arimashita (10:172) side of a mountain stream.
Or to quote the Snow Boy's greeting songs to the stars in 'Suisenzuki no

Yokka' A)mg o1iH:
KashiopTa, Cassiopeia!
mO suisen ga sakidasu zo Narcissus will bloom soon!
omae no garasu no mizuguruma Turn and squeak your glass
kikki to mawase. waterwheel!
Andoromeda, Andromeda!
azemi no hana ga mo saku zo, your namesake flower will
omae no rampu no arukohoru, bloom soon!
shashu to fukase. (11:47) Hiss, hiss the alcohol of your lamp!17
The sudden appearance of these songs surprises and at the same time
pleasantly excites aesthetic sensitivities. Perhaps this is because the energy of
nature, of the universe itself, is expressed in their lyrics. They are strange and
even slightly incongruous in the contexts in which they are placed. But it is this
very strangeness or 'incongruity' that becomes the source of an energy and
sense of life that revitalizes the reader. These songs sound strange to human
ears because they are, in a sense, the sounds or cries of nature itself, or more ex-
17 Based on the translation by C. W. Nicol & Tanigawa Gan WJII IW in Tanigawa Gan, Kenji
Shoki Dowa Ko fff- Shiode, 1985, pp. 279-80.
actly those parts of nature that human culture has found incomprehensible,
and thus excluded, peripherized, and rendered alien.
In fact, Kenji's songs are like incantations, and in this connection it is sig-
nificant to note his longstanding fascination with Buddhist scripture. As a
small child, Kenji could chant Pure Land sutras fluently, apparently without
knowing their meanings, and he later became dedicated to the Lotus Sutra. A
significant characteristic of Japanese Buddhist sutras is that they are chanted
primarily for their incantatory effects, not for their discursive meanings.
Note how Kenji ends the following verses with the untranslated Sanskrit
syllables that can be found in Japanese Buddhist scripture:
Kifuku no yuki wa The snow on the undulating hills

akarui momo no shiru o sosogare is poured with bright peach juice
aozora ni tokenokoru tsuki wa and the moon that remains
yasashiku ten ni nodo o narashi unmelted in blue sky
moichido sanran no hikari o nomu purring gently in heaven
(harasamu gyatei boju sowaka) drinks once more the dispersed
(2:24) light
(parasamgate bodhi svCah
Machi ya hatoba no kiraraka sa The brilliance of the town and the

sono se no nadaraka na kyuryo no port
tokiiro wa The pink of the gently sloping hills
ichimen no yanagiran no hanada is that of the orchid flowers
Sawayaka na ringosei no kusachi to blooming all over
kuromidori to todomatsu no retsu The fresh apple-green meadow,
(namosadarumapufundarikasasutora) the dark green and the row of white firs
(2:172) (Namo Saddharma-pundartka-satra)
Thus, it seems that the songs and onomatopoeia in Kenji's literature have
much to do with the incantatory effects of the sutras he chanted.18 In this
regard, his tales come close to nonsense, or wordplay; 'childish' language
imbued with innocence.19
In the passages above, Kenji has the incantations from Buddhist scripture
contained in his poems placed in parentheses and indented so as to be 'marked
off' from the rest of the text. Both the sudden appearance of songs and
onomatopoeia in his tales and the presence of sutra incantations in his poems
create incongruities and fissures in the texture of his style. These incongruities
and fissures reveal the 'other realm'.
18 The 7-5 and 7-7 syllable patterns prevalent not only in Kenji's poems but also in some of
his tales seem to be related to the issue of incantation as well. See Sugaya Kikuo f
Shiteki Rizumu a-49 7Z , 1975, rpt. Yamato Shobo, 1978, pp. 193-246; Sugaya Kikuo,
Miyazawa Kenji Josetsu -9RW6;M, Yamato, 1980, pp. 184-207; and Ueda, pp. 215-24.
19 Note the similarity to English nursery rhymes and other 'nonsense' songs for children such
as 'Zui Zui Zukkorobashi'. Also refer to the greeting songs to the stars and the comico-cosmic
laughter of the Snow Boy in 'Suisenzuki no Yokka'.
This kind of unexpected gap or fissure can also be created by imagery and
diction. Kenji's frequent use of mineral images is one outstanding example.
For instance, the following tanka from his college days:
sono mukashi, In ancient times
namako no gotoku the rough-faced quartzite
minasoko o, like a sea slug
haite nagareshi, flowed, crawling
sekiei somengan. (1:290) along the water's bed
kohaku haru Covered with amber,

tsumetaki sora wa the cold sky,
ake chikaku, near the dawn,
otokage ra no is letting float
kumo o hitaseri (1:304) clouds of giant reptiles
The sense of incongruity here is created by the striking use of inorganic im-
agery within the traditional tanka form, which is often saturated with lyrical,
organic nature imagery.
Ginga Tetsudo no Yoru, written much later in Kenji's life, is another case
where mineral images create gaps in the texture of his style. As can be surmised
from the story's title, which includes the Chinese characters for 'silver' and
'iron' as well as the images of planets and stars, mineral images abound
throughout the work. But from the outset, even before Giovanni, the hero,
rides the train, the author skillfully introduces the micro-cosmic image of the
galaxy in the form of a galaxy model that Giovanni's teacher uses in class:
The teacher pointed to a large double convex lens with many shining grains of
sand in it. 'The shape of the Milky Way is just like this. Let's say that each of
these shiny grains of sand is a star that emits light by itself-like our sun. Our sun
is situated in about the middle of this lens, and the earth is right next to it. Sup-
pose that you stood in the middle of it at night and looked around yourself. Then
because this side is thin, you could see only a few stars, whereas these sides are
thick, so you would see lots of shining sands or stars and the farther ends of
those sides would look hazily white. This is the theory of the Milky Way of to-
day. As to the question of how big this lens is in reality or as to the various stars
in it, we are running out of time, so we shall talk about these matters next time.
Today is the festival of the Milky Way, so everyone should go out and take a
good look at the sky. That's all for today. Put away your books and notebooks.'
(10:124-25)
Kenji also creates incongruity through the coincidence of opposites in the

imagery of fire and water. Immediately before the passage quoted above, the
teacher compares the Milky Way (stars or fire) to a huge heavenly river (water).
This kind of coincidence of contradictory images is one example of incon-
gruity. Another similar example is seen in the image of the Centaur, the
surrealistic, imaginary creature of Greek mythology, that Giovanni sees in
the show window of the jewelry shop before he journeys into the night sky.
Immediately after this scene, there is a scene in which children, whistling

the song of stars, run around shouting, 'Centaur, send down dewdrops!' as
others play with the blue flames of magnesium fireworks in front of a power
company where the atmosphere is like that of a palace of mermaids.
Is there any relationship between the Centaur's dew and the burning
magnesium? What first comes to mind are the recurring images of the floating
lanterns that appear before and after this scene. The blue fire of the gourd
lanterns and that of the magnesium fire overlap, as do the river water and the
dew of the Centaur. Furthermore, ama no gawa, literally, heaven's river, or
the Milky Way, insofar as it gives us the impression of lanterns floating in
heaven, is at once an image of both fire (stars) and water (river). The same can
be said of the Centaur's dew and its stars.
We come across this fusion of fire and water in various other works. In Ken-
ji's poem 'Oka no Genwaku' Th , for instance, he writes: 'The snow on
the bamboo leaves / burns down / burns down' (2:15). And in 'Suisenzuki
no Yokka' there is a scene in which the snow boys talk about a paradoxical
correlation between snowfall and the burning of Cassiopeia's blue fire. It may
be that fire and water are not so diametrically opposed as they appear at first
glance. Water is synthesized through the combustion of hydrogen. The
children may be burning the magnesium fireworks in order to call down Cen-
taur's dew. According to myth, the Centaur was born out of the union be-
tween a man and a mare in the Greek district of Magnesia, where magnesium is
mined. This may be why the dew of the Centaur is invoked by the magnesium
fireworks.
Such a coincidence of opposites as the union of fire and water, is not, of
course, Kenji's invention. Other poets have made use of it. Yeats, for example,
writes in his 'Vacillation' about a tree 'that from its topmost bough / Is half all
glittering flame and half all green.' Similarly, in his play 'At the Hawk's Well',
he describes a dried-up spring at which an old man burns hazel leaves to make
the spring well up again. But compared with Kenji's fire and water imagery,
that of Yeats is rather intellectual and mechanical. Yeats's images do not
express a union so much as a juxtaposition of water and fire.
Be that as it may, Kenji's imagery, when placed in the context of traditional
Japanese sensitivity, is unique. His images of fire and water are chemical and
mineral rather than organic. In contrast, the images of fire and water in the
noh Momijigari tIV t are all quite organic. The rainstorm, lightning, and
blood of the demons in this traditional drama are all prefigured and subsumed
in the organic image of the crimson maple leaves colored by autumn rain
or of the maple leaves that the beautiful demon-lady burns to warm sake
for Koremochi fiR, the warrior-hero. While Kawabata Yasunari's )JiIAX
imagery of water and fire in Yukiguni -M is similar, at least on the surface,
to that of Kenji's, the former is still much closer to traditional sensitivities
2 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . ..................
Miyazawa Kenji, 1924
in presenting such images as a hot spring resort in the mountains, geisha,

shamisen, noh chanting, and maple leaves.
The strange sense of 'incongruity' or 'gap' in Kenji's imagery seems to
come, partially, from the blending of his 'primitive' sensitivity with a
knowledge of natural science and an ultra-scientific Buddhist philosophy. Cer-
tainly his mineral imagery can be ascribed to his primitivism, but it also can be
linked to the cosmology of modern science and to Indian Buddhist imagery.20
A typical example of non-organic nature imagery can be seen in the tale 'Julrik
no Kongoseki' +t Ijo)i&U in which the plants and other natural forms are
described through images of jewels.
This characteristic incongruity of describing the organic in non-organic
terms can be linked to Kenji's avoidance, both in life and literature, of sex and
eroticism (typically 'organic' matters). He is said to have practiced celibacy
throughout his life, and unlike writers and poets such as Izumi Kyoka 7%?t,
Hagiwara Sakutaro qtR, Kawabata Yasunari, and Tanizaki Jun'ichiro
b60MM-M, Kenji seldom deals with erotic images. To further elucidate his
20 See, for example, the frequent use of the images of gold, silver, and jewels in describing
the land of the buddhas in the Lotus Sutra.
peculiar 'inorganic' nature imagery in relation to his sexuality, it is worthwhile

to compare his use of images with that of another writer. The images of the iris
in Kenji's poem 'Taneyama ga Hara' b- 'rJ, and in Mishima Yukio's _=-h
A novel Kinkakuji *X+ provide a useful comparison. 'Taneyama ga Hara'
contains the following passages:
Passing through this beautiful field on a mountain,

I have collected many irises
that burn rich purple in the sunlight.
I am indeed a greedy caliph
under the hushed Turkish heaven,
for I have looted as tall and
as gorgeous flowers as possible.
Besides, having stabbed this gentle slope of the highland a number of times
to measure and record the quantity of humus and the depth of the topsoil,
I am a caliph drunk with triumph.
Now, holding the flowers overflowing from my bosom,
I have come into this grove of low alders.
Here are the cool shadows of zinc and
the carpet of jasmine-colored young ferns,
while the moss is richly moist.
Perhaps, until their petals burn out
the flowers' grace will last
... A cuckoo suddenly flies over me, crying ...
I am now going to take in my hand each of the supple flower stalks
made of wax and silk
and let the beautiful twin floral envelopes
sway in the sparkling south wind
... Cuckoo! What are you so afraid of to pass over me, chirping so loudly...
(3:732-33)
As Onda Itsuo points out, we can detect in this passage a slightly sadistic
attitude toward irises, a symbol of the female.2' As is usual with Kenji, he uses
inorganic, or otherwise unexpected, images for organic plants as in the 'zinc
shadow' and in the flower stalks of 'blue wax and silk'. But on the other hand,
there is no doubt that the 'I' in the poem is enjoying a strong sense of commu-
nion with nature. Furthermore, at the end of Part 2, 'I' repents of what he has
done to the irises.
A somewhat similar, yet essentially different, iris image is seen in Mishima's
Kinkakuji, where Mizoguchi an steals some irises for his friend, Kashiwagi
tM*:
Near the Sosei, a small waterfall, half surrounded by a weir, carried the water
21 Onda Itsuo , Miyazawa Kenji Ron 9WifM, T6kyo Shoseki, 1981, 1, pp. 102-
04.
from a lotus pond into the large Kyoko Pond. It was here that the irises grew in
the greatest profusion. They were exceptionally beautiful at that time. As I
approached, I heard the clusters of irises rustling in the night wind. The lofty
purple petals trembled within the quiet sound of the water. It was very dark
in that part of the garden: the purple of the flowers and the dark green of
the leaves looked equally black. I tried to pick a few of the irises, but in the
wind the flowers and the leaves managed to avoid my hands, and one of the
leaves cut my finger.22
The image of the irises in this passage resembles that of the wax and silk stems
of the irises in Kenji's poem in the sense that both give the impression of preci-
sion-made, artificial flowers. In both cases the sexual connotation is rather ob-
vious. But the resemblances between the two end there. Unlike Kenji's irises,
those of Mishima are placed in the traditional Japanese aesthetic atmosphere,
but strangely, they fail to impart the satisfying organic sensation that a reader
usually receives from tanka and other traditional Japanese literary works. One
reason for this seems to lie in Mishima's style, which, although by no means
rigid or stilted, is extremely neat, refined, and orderly. Even when he describes
the rustling and the trembling of the flowers, he does it in an orderly fashion.
The life and energy of the wind, of the irises and of the night, are thwarted
from freely expressing themselves. In this, we can detect a sense of frustration,
unrest, and hatred toward life and the world. Thus Mishima's irises rustle and
tremble with uneasiness, and their cutting blades of leaves 'attack' Mizoguchi,
the misogynist. Mizoguchi later witnesses his friend Kashiwagi, another
misogynist, arranging the flowers, cutting the stems with scissors, and sticking
them on a flower holder (a kenzan I0[L or 'mountain of swords'), all with
sadistic coolness and accuracy:
The movement of Kashiwagi's hands could only be described as magnificent.

One small decision followed another, and the effects of contrast and symmetry
converged with infallible artistry. Nature's plants were brought vividly under the
sway of an artificial order and made to conform to an established melody. The
flowers and leaves, which had formerly existed as they were, had now been
transformed into flowers and leaves as they ought to be. The cattails and the
irises were no longer individual, anonymous plants belonging to their respective
species, but had become terse, direct manifestations of what might be called the
essence of the irises and the cattails.
Yet there was something cruel about the movement of his hands. They be-
haved as though they had some unpleasant, gloomy privilege in relation to
the plants. Perhaps it was because of this that each time I [Mizoguchi] heard the
sound of the scissors and saw the stem of one of the flowers being cut, I had the
impression that I could detect the dripping of blood.23
22 Yukio Mishima, The Temple of the Golden Pavilion, tr., Ivan Morris, Knopf, New York,
1968, p. 141.
23 Mishima, p. 145.
Shortly after this, Kashiwagi has a fierce fight with a war widow, his mistress
and flower-arrangement teacher, who tears down the flowers he has arranged.
The iris image in Mishima indicates a strong fear and hatred of the feminine
(and of life in general) on the part of the male characters discussed.
Kenji, too, occasionally writes poems that have a slightly misogynist flavor.
The poem 'Taneyama ga Hara', discussed above, is an example of this. The
comparison of the cherry blossoms in 'Aru Nogakusei no Nisshil ;6 i H
e to frogs' eggs is another example. As in the following excerpts from his
poems, nature often assumes the form of an erotic female figure with negative
implications:
Atatakaku haramite kurokumo no, nobara no yabu o wataru ari

aruiwa sarani majirai o, motomu to tsuchi o haeru ari (5:10)
A dark cloud, warmly pregnant, floats over wild-rose bushes.
While seeking for further intercourse, another one crawls over the ground.
Sono osoroshii kurokumo ga When that horrible, dark cloud

mata watakushi o toro to kureba comes down to take me again
watakushi wa setsunaku atsuku hitori I writhe alone feverishly distressed.
modaeru That I would marry that nimbus
kitakami no kakoku o ou covering the valley of Kitakami,
ano amagumo to konsuru to ii or that I loved the deluvian plateau
mori to nohara o komogomo noseta bearing both the woods and fields on it,
sono koseki no daichi o kou to I declared to other people half jestingly
nakaba wa tawamure ni hito ni mo yose and to myself half seriously,
nakaba wa ki o otte honto ni so mo just to brace myself up.
omoi Thus the blue mountains and rivers
aoi sanga o sanagara ni I considered myself to be as they were,
jibun jishin to kangaeta Ah, that tortures me now.
Ca sono koto wa watashi o semeru
(6:311)
In such passages Kenji's libido becomes so dispersed throughout nature and

the universe that it becomes cosmic and asexual. This process is also apparent
in his 'Nomin Geijutsu Gairon Koyo' ATRjAMf where he appeals to the
reader to 'First of all become, together with others, the shining modica of the
universe and be scattered throughout the limitless sky' (12A: 15).
Kenji's repression of his sexual libido, which sometimes finds its vent in the
slightly negative imagery of nature as the feminine and at other times in ap-
parently asexual, cosmic images, can perhaps be ascribed to his ascetic life and
sexual abstinence. Even so, he also writes works that eulogize the simple, yet
'healthy' beauty of village girls and young wives, such as 'Mura Musume' fAkM
and 'Kogen Shukujo' MAiAh . He even parodies himself in various humorous
poems that describe his 'love affair' with nature. The above passage from
'Taneyama ga Hara' is one example of this, and the following excerpt from
'Ippongi-no' -*t*f is another:
Watakushi wa mori ya nohara no I am the beloved of the woods and fields.

koibito When I make my way through the reeds
yoshi no aida o gasagasa ikeba green messages, coyly folded,
tsutsumashiku orareta midoriiro no slip into my pockets.
tsiushin wa When I walk in a shady forest
itsuka poketto ni haitte iru shi crescent-shaped lipmarks
hayashi no kurai toko o aruite iru to cover my elbows and trousers.24
mikazukigata no kuchibiru no ato de
hiji ya zubon ga ippai ni naru (2:212)
Innocence and the Other World

Unlike Mishima's nature imagery, which is precise but artificial and dead,
Kenji's use of unconventional nature imagery enhances the sense of life in
his work. The fissures created in the texture of his style do not jar our senses,
but on the contrary, create a pleasant tension between death and life, between
the other realm and this world. What is more, we feel that in Kenji's literature,
as in M. C. Escher's pictures, the two realms are not set far apart from one
another, as they are in Mishima's work. Indeed, the fissure between the two
realms is more apparent than real; one turns into the other before we even
realize it, just as 'this side' of the Mobius band turns out to be the 'other side'
before we are aware of it. Pampas grass suddenly turns into flames of silver,
and the leaves of an alder tree become an iron mirror cracked into a thousand
pieces, dazzling in the setting sun, as in the climax scene of 'Shishi Odori no
Hajimari' IN 0 e(t :lD t 0 :
Now the sun had reached the middle branches of the alder tree and was shining
with a slightly yellowish light. The deer's dance grew slower and slower. They
began nodding to each other busily, and soon drew themselves up in a line facing
the sun, standing perfectly straight as though they were worshipping it. Kaju
watched in a dream, forgetful of everything else. Suddenly, the deer at the right-
hand end of the line began to sing in a high, thin voice.
See the setting sun decline,
Blazing out behind the leaves
That delicately shine
Green upon the alder tree.
Kaju shut his eyes and shivered all over at the sound of the voice, which was
like a crystal flute.
Now the second deer from the right suddenly leaped up and, twisting his body
to and fro, ran in and out between the others, bowing his head time and time
again to the sun till finally he came back to his own place, stopped quite still, and
began to sing.
Now the sun's behind its back,

See the leafy alder tree
24Ueda, p. 198.
Like a[n] [iron] mirror crack

And shatter in a million lights.
Kaju caught his breath and himself bowed low to the sun in its glory, and
to the alder tree. The third deer from the right began to sing now, bowing and
raising his head busily all the while.
Homeward though the sun may go,

Down beyond the alder tree,
See the grass aglow,
Dazzling white across the plain.
It was true-the pampas grass was all ablaze, like a sea of white fire.
Long and black the shadow lies

On the shimmering pampas grass
Where against the skies
Straight and tall the alder grows.
Now the fifth deer hung his head low and started singing in a voice that was
hardly more than a mutter.
See, the sun is sinking low

In the shimmering pampas grass.
Ants now homeward go
Through the moss upon the plain.
Now all the deer were hanging their heads. But suddenly the sixth deer raised
his head proudly and sang:
Shy white flower, content to pass

Your days unnoticed in the tall
And shimmering pampas grass-
You are dearest of them all!
Then all the deer together gave a short, sharp call like the cry of a flute, leaped
up in the air, and began to dash round and round in a ring.
A cold wind came whistling from the north. The alder tree sparkled as though
it really were a broken [iron] mirror. Its leaves actually seemed to tinkle as they
brushed against each other, and the plumes of the pampas grass seemed to be
whirling round and round with the deer.25
These lines depict what Kenji calls 'Ihatovu' 4 h , or 'Dreamland

Iwate', a realm of innocence. Compare this with the following passage from
Mishima's Tennin Gosui T,,AK, the last volume of his tetralogy Hojo no
Umi 9VA, where Toru A, the young hero, and his fiancee, Momoko H?,
are sitting by the side of a pond in a traditional Japanese garden:
There were autumn cicadas in the evening groves, and the roar of the subway
came through the calls of the birds. A yellow leaf dangled from a spider web on
a branch far out over the swamp, catching a divine light each time it revolved.
It was as if a tiny revolving door were floating in the heavens.
25 Bester, Winds from Afar, pp. 132-36.
We gazed at it in silence. I [Toru] was asking what world would be opening

beyond the dark gold each time it turned. Perhaps, as it revolved in the busy
wind, it would give me a glimpse of the bustle in some miniature street beyond,
shining through some tiny city in the air.26
Toru tries to see the other world behind and beyond a leaf, a revolving door
to the different realm, thus indicating how alienated he is from this world. But
ironically the more Toru detests this world in favor of the other, ideal world,
the more the latter eludes his grasp. He does not realize how intimately these
worlds are linked: a fact that is comprehensible if we assume that the universe
has a Mobius strip-like or a Klein bottle-like twist built into it, and thus this
side, or the inside, is no other than the other side, or the outside. Just as
Mizoguchi in Kinkakuji wants to be both inside and outside the temple, and
just as Noboru i, the precocious boy in another of Mishima's novellas, Gogo
no EikO 4lko , desires to be both inside and outside his room at once,
Toru inevitably vacillates between both worlds without the ability to belong to
either. The catastrophic result of this vacillation is an impulse to annihilate the
entire universe, as seen in the quasi-Buddhistic ending of the tetralogy.
In Kenji's literature, too, we sense a strong tone of dissatisfaction with this
world as it is. Sometimes his heroes escape from this world to the other in the
form of stars or birds, but their overall tendency is to return in order to change
this world into another, or rather to realize the other, ideal world in this one.
We can cite two writers, Kawabata and Shiga Naoya -LMAM, for comparison
to clarify the point in question-Kenji's view of the distance or relation be-
tween this world and the other. First, Kawabata's sensitivity toward the other
world seems to lie somewhere between that of Mishima and Kenji. For in-
stance, in the chapter 'Semi no Hane' 9oM3 in his Yama no Oto XUcEl, Shingo
, the elderly hero, is watching butterflies flitting behind the bush clovers in
his garden:
There were butterflies beyond. Shingo could see them flickering past gaps in
the leaves, more than one butterfly, surely. He waited to see whether they would
alight on the bush clover or come out from behind it. They went on fluttering
through the leaves, however.
He began to feel that there was some sort of special little world apart over
behind the shrubbery. The butterfly wings beyond the leaves of bush clover
seemed to him extraordinarily beautiful.
He thought of the stars he had seen through the trees on the hilltop, that night
a month earlier, when the moon had been near full.27
As Shingo watches the butterflies, they fly up from behind the bush, and from
an unexpected direction, another butterfly flits across the garden, barely
touching the tip of the bush. Immediately after this passage follow Shingo's
words to Yasuko ?f , his wife: 'This morning I had two dreams about dead
26 Yukio Mishima, The Decay of the Angel, tr., Edward G. Seidensticker, Knopf, New York,
1974, pp. 150-51.
27 Yasunari Kawabata, The Sound of the Mountain, tr., Edward G. Seidensticker, Putnam's
New York, 1981, p. 29. Emphasis added.
people,'28 and he goes on to describe his dreams about a cabinet-maker and his
friend Aida zE1, both of whom have been dead for some time. The cabinet-
maker had six daughters, and Shingo has sexual intercourse with one of them
in his dream.
At first glance, this sudden shift from the butterflies to the dreams appears
to be an illogical jump from one topic to another, but, as some critics have
pointed out,29 this kind of seemingly illogical shift is not unrelated to the
technique of association in renga poetry. Indeed, upon closer examination,
we find nothing particularly illogical about it. Shingo's dream about the dead
people and about his sexual encounter with the girl are thematically con-
nected with the butterfly scene: both scenes contribute to the other-world theme
of the novel. The aging Shingo's fear of death and his desire to be united
with Yasuko's beautiful sister in the distant world of the dead, represented by
Shinshui GflP, are symbolically expressed through these scenes. We might
say that Kawabata's cryptic style, usually consisting of short sentences, is,
itself, like bush clovers and pampas grass with many gaps among the leaves
and stems, through which we can glimpse the hidden world behind.
Like Mishima and Kenji, Kawabata was deeply attracted by the other world.
But he treats 'nature' rather differently from both of these authors; his nature
is not artificial in the way that Mishima's is, and neither does it assume that
quality of other-worldliness or explosive joy that characterizes Kenji's. On the
contrary, Kawabata calmly tries to see a different world behind and beyond
nature, a world that is totally organic and steeped in traditional Japanese sen-
sitivities such as yugen M and mono no aware fo)4. Even this tendency
becomes subdued at times, as in the image of the red maple leaves that Shingo
and his son Shuiichi S- see on the train toward the conclusion of the story, or
in the novel's famous ending where the image of the trout at dinner suggests
the possibility of Shingo's peaceful merger with nature.
If we push Kawabata's nature to its logical end, we approach the kind of
'nature' characteristic of Shiga Naoya's work. Compare the following passage
from Shiga's short story 'Kinosaki nite' fAo% r- with the above quotations
from Kenji, Mishima, and Kawabata. The hero of the story is recuperating at
Kinosaki, a spa, from an injury received from a streetcar accident. One eve-
ning he takes a walk outside the town:
There was a large mulberry tree beside the road. A leaf on one branch that
protruded out over the road from the far side fluttered rhythmically back and
forth. There was no wind, everything except the stream was sunk in silence,
only that one leaf fluttered on. I thought it odd. I was a little afraid even,
but I was curious. I went down and looked at it for a time. A breeze came up.
28 Kawabata, p. 30.
29 See, for instance, Tsuruta Kinya, Kawabata Yasunari no Geijutsu: Junsui to Ky

~~~ ~Meiji Shoin, 1981, p. 173.
The leaf stopped moving. I saw what was happening, and it came to me that I
had known all this before.30
Although the image of the leaf evoked here is similar to that of Mishima's in
Tennin Gosui, the hero of 'Kinosaki nite' is not at all interested in knowing the
other world that may be concealed behind the fluttering leaf. To him, a leaf is
simply a leaf. It does not stand for anything ideal or abstract, nor is it steeped
in the traditional emotion usually associated with nature as is often the case
with Kawabata's bush clover and pampas grass. And certainly, Shiga's leaf
does not assume the flaming and dazzling other-worldliness of Kenji's alder
leaves and pampas grass. In fact, Shiga's images are so 'concrete' that we feel
as though we are actually touching the particular thing being described. Imme-
diately after the mulberry leaf scene quoted above is the following passage:
It began to get dark. No matter how far I went there were still corners ahead. I de-
cided to go back. I looked down at the stream. On a rock that sloped up perhaps
a yard square from the water at the far bank there was a small dark object. A
water lizard. It was still wet, a good color. It was quite still, its head facing down
the incline as it looked into the stream.... I wanted to startle the lizard into the
water. I could see in my mind how it would run, clumsily twisting its body. Still
crouched by the stream, I took up a stone the size of a small ball and threw it. I
was not especially aiming at the lizard. My aim is so bad that I could not have hit
it had I tried, and it never occurred to me that I might. The stone slapped against
the rock and fell into the water. As it hit, the lizard seemed to jump five inches or
so to the side. Its tail curled high in the air. I wondered what had happened. I did
not think at first that the rock had struck home. The curved tail began quietly to
fall back down of its own weight. The toes of the projecting front feet, braced
against the slope with knee joints cut, turned under and the lizard fell forward,
its strength gone. Its tail lay flat against the rock. It did not move. It was dead.31
In this passage, besides the accurate and concrete description of the lizard,
what draws our attention is the apt use of onomatopoeia (represented by the
verb 'slapped' in the translation). The onomatopoeic kotsu, mimicking the
sound of the stone hitting the rock, is exactly what we would hear in such cir-
cumstances. It is a sound of everyday life, and it does not conceal anything
transcendent. Noting the relative frequency with which these novelists employ
onomatopoeia, we see that, while Mishima uses it rarely and Kawabata some-
what more (although still sparingly), Shiga employs it rather often. Even when
Kawabata does away with onomatopoeia, he achieves in his imagery the sort of
concreteness or earthy quality that typifies Shiga. This is evident, for example,
in Yama no Oto when Kikuko 'apparently could not hear him [Shingo] over
the sound of the dishes.'32
30 Naoya Shiga, At Kinosaki, Edward G. Seidensticker, tr., in Donald Keene, ed., Modern
Japanese Literature: An Anthology, Grove Press, New York, 1956, p. 276.
31 Shiga, pp. 276-77.
Kenji's onomatopoeia, in contrast, does not exactly mimic the sounds we

would hear in daily life,33 but rather it is somehow 'marked off', and in this
way it gives the impression of coming from the other realm. But considering
that it represents sounds from that other realm, it is nevertheless accurate, con-
crete, and vivid. Full of life-force, it seems to reactivate our sense of life. In
spite of our 'rationality', we still feel the other realm or 'other space', the
'primitive' space of the universe: space that is still rapidly expanding following
the cosmic explosion that took place at the creation of the universe, and that
will shrink to its original state after reaching maximum expansion.
The marginal or 'marked' nature of Kenji's style seems to originate in his
strong sensitivity to this explosive expansion, as well as to a possible con-
traction, of the universe. His centrifugal and centripetal style allows us to
experience the thrill of those who have become one of those innumerable
modica, scattering and dispersing throughout the entire universe. Kenji's
readers feel at times as if they are on a cosmic merry-go-round or roller coaster
in a gigantic playground consisting of the entire universe.
Compared with Kenji's dynamic, centrifugal style, both Shiga's and
Kawabata's styles are rather quiet and centripetal. Both of their heroes often
experience unity with the universe, but that unity is usually achieved through
a quiet merger. Indeed, in metaphorical terms, they typically tend to achieve
unity through some form of contraction-they shrink into tiny particles
(which can be seen to correspond to sperm) and retreat into a tiny corner
of the universe (which may be likened to the womb). In contrast, the main
metaphor in Kenji's literature is explosion and dispersal.
This difference becomes more apparent if we consider some further ex-
amples from Shiga and Kawabata. Seeing a dead bee among industrious living
bees, the hero of 'Kinosaki nite' feels:
The industrious living bees gave so completely a sense of life. The other beside
them, rolled over with its legs under it, still in the same spot whenever I looked at
it, morning, noon, night-how completely it gave a sense of death. For three
days it lay there. It gave me a feeling of utter quietness. Of loneliness. It was
lonely to see the dead body left there on the cold tile in the evening when the rest
had gone inside. And at the same time it was tranquil, soothing.
In the night a fierce rain fell.... The body of the dead bee was gone.... It
was likely somewhere covered with mud, unmoving, its legs still tight beneath it,
its feelers still flat against its head. Probably it was lying quiet until a change in
the world outside would move it again. Or perhaps ants were pulling it off. Even
so, how quiet it must be-before only working and working, no longer moving
now. I felt a certain nearness to that quiet.34
Kensaku af, another of Shiga's heroes, in An'ya Koro RAiV , unites
33 Note, for instance, the sound of the wind quoted earlier from his 'Kaze no Matasaburo'.
34 Shiga, pp. 273-74.
himself with the universe in the form of a poppy seed, a metaphor for a sperm
cell implanting itself in the womb of the universe:
He felt his exhaustion turn into a strange state of rapture. He could feel his mind
and his body both gradually merging into this great nature that surrounded him.
It was not nature that was visible to the eyes; rather, it was like a limitless body of
air that wrapped itself around him, this tiny creature no larger than a poppy
seed. To be gently drawn into it, and there be restored, was a pleasure beyond the
power of words to describe. The sensation was a little like that of the moment
when, tired and without a single worry, one was about to fall into a deep sleep.35
Similarly, at the end of Yama no Oto, Shingo compares himself to a

small female trout that goes down the river to the sea to die after laying her
eggs upstream. Kawabata, however, is a little closer to Kenji than Shiga in
that he shows, as we have seen, a predilection for transcendence and cosmic
sensitivity. The symbolic meaning of Shinshui and the dreams in Yama
no Oto is a good example of this.36 Moreover, in the eucharistic last supper
scene of this work, Shingo, in comparing himself to a falling trout, can be
said to offer his body to be eaten symbolically by the rest of his family. This
seems to resemble closely the cosmic autophagy motif in Kenji's literature,
which often deals with the problem of life eating life itself.37 A still further
example of Kawabata's transcendent, cosmic sensitivity is the last scene
of Yukiguni where Shimamura ,4tf and the Milky Way interpenetrate in a
manner symbolic of sexual union. We can see a close affinity between this
and Kenji's remarks in his 'Nomin Geijutsu Gairon Koyo':
A new age lies in the direction where the world becomes one consciousness, one
life.
To live correctly and strongly means to become conscious of the Galaxy in
oneself and to respond to it. (12A:9)
Further, as Kinya Tsuruta argues, we can see Shimamura oscillate, vertically

between the earth and heaven, and horizontally between Komako $?f, the
heroine, and himself.38 At least on the theoretical level, Kawabata's world
view that everything is ultimately one and the same (bambutsu ichinyo 751o-
tn) largely overlaps with that of Kenji.
Of the three writers compared here, Mishima may come closest to Kenji in
his impulse to transcend this world. Even with the sketchy examination of
Mishima's style and his idea of the other world given here. we clearly sense his
35 Naoya Shiga, A Dark Night's Passing, tr., Edwin McClellan, Kodansha International,
1980, p. 400.
36 As for the analysis of the symbolism of Shinshui and the dreams of this work, see Tsuruta,
pp. 136-95.
37 See the following passage from Norman 0. Brown, Love's Body, Random House of
Canada, Toronto, 1966, p. 170: 'This world as food feeds on itself. The mystical body feeds on
itself. Autophagy. The supper as self-sacrifice....'
38 For further discussion on this issue, see Kinya Tsuruta, 'The Flow Dynamics in Snow
Country', in MN 26:3-4 (1971), pp. 267-85.
affinity for the transcendent. But in the final analysis, Mishima seems to fail in
his attempt at transcendence. By negating this imperfect world, he inevitably
negates the other world; the structure of the universe is such that the two
worlds cannot be separated. Mishima's heroes vacillate between the centrifugal
impulse for transcendence and the centripetal desire for immanence, and
finally end up with the annihilation of both worlds. This denouement is ex-
pressed in the images of violence and destruction prevalent everywhere in his
works (and in his chosen way of death).
Kenji's style also expresses 'vacillation'. But more exactly, his style itself
vibrates, reflecting the rhythmic diastole and systole in the life of nature and
the universe. Sometimes it captures the life of a tiny ant that goes among peb-
bles under a flower; at other times it rides the wind up into the strata of the
atmosphere to circle the galactic universe. In the opening passage from 'Kaze
no Matasaburo', the reader's viewpoint that, drawn by the tempestuous song
of the wind, has expanded outwardly, suddenly contracts. This is followed by
the centripetal scene of the small school in a valley with a tiny tennis court and
a spring. This stylistic 'vacillation' is also present in other impressive scenes
from Kenji's tales: it is evident in the centrifugal image of the blizzard and the
centripetal image of the quiet plain with the child buried in the snow and
covered with the red blanket in 'Suisenzuki no Yokka', in Giovanni's journey
on the Milky Way Railway, in the small galactic model in Ginga Tetsudo no
Yoru, and in the concentric mandala scene of the universe with the body of
Kojuiro at its center in 'Nametokoyama no Kuma'.
Kenji's style is uniquely dynamic and rhythmic, mirroring the vibrations of
nature and a cosmos that encloses diverse realms of experience. Both
Kawabata and Shiga sometimes capture this rhythm of the universe, but in a
more subdued way. Mishima is perhaps one of the few exceptions to the
Japanese sensibility of being close to nature-for although he was, like
Kawabata, influenced by traditional Japanese aesthetics, he seems, unlike
Kawabata, to have harbored ambivalent feelings toward these values. In his
hatred of life and his impulse to destroy the world, including himself, in his
predominantly necrophilic inclinations,39 Mishima provides a striking contrast
to Kenji's innocent, life-affirming outlook. This is an outlook that is expressed
through Kenji's unique style-a style rooted in his vision of the other world.
Kenji's style is anything but necrophilic; it is life-loving. It bubbles with
the innocent joys and sorrows of the world, a world that consists of both this
and other worlds. His vivacious style rests upon various signs of innocence,
of 'markedness', such as the use of Iwate dialect, of unexpected songs and
onomatopoeia, of scientific and mineral imagery. The innocence of Kenji's
style is infused with energy generated by the felicitous incongruities or fissures
39 Kawabata, too, sometimes shows this inclination, but usually his necrophilia enhances the
sense of life.
created by these stylistic devices. Conversely, his innocence itself, based upon
a vision that embraces the entire cosmos, necessitates this vibrant literary
style. Using simultaneously ultra-modern and ultra-primitive sensibilities, he
creates what he calls Dreamland Iwate, a realm of innocence that subsumes
both this and other worlds. Kenji's vision of a unique realm of innocence,
invoked by a vital and distinctive literary style, continues to attract and inspire
a growing audience of readers around the world.

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Innocence and the Other World.

The Tales of Miyazawa Kenji

The Tales of Miyazawa Kenji

M L , OIYAZAWA KENJI -9RiW, 1896-1933, was an exceptionally energetic

beech, winds and shadows, grass of meat,13 a row of el

The tenor of the above passages is related to Kenji's temperament and

Kojuiro /Jt+P in 'Nametokoyama no Kuma' fszt5 e ca LUoA and

literature is full of such pleasant deviations. It is almost impossibl

Doddodo dododo dododo dodo Doddodo dododo dododo dodo

Tanigawa no kishi ni chiisa na A small school was standing by the

Or to quote the Snow Boy's greeting songs to the stars in 'Suisenzuki no

Kifuku no yuki wa The snow on the undulating hills

Machi ya hatoba no kiraraka sa The brilliance of the town and the

kohaku haru Covered with amber,

Kenji also creates incongruity through the coincidence of opposites in the

Immediately after this scene, there is a scene in which children, whistling

Miyazawa Kenji, 1924

in presenting such images as a hot spring resort in the mountains, geisha,

peculiar 'inorganic' nature imagery in relation to his sexuality, it is worthwhile

Passing through this beautiful field on a mountain,

The movement of Kashiwagi's hands could only be described as magnificent.

Atatakaku haramite kurokumo no, nobara no yabu o wataru ari

Sono osoroshii kurokumo ga When that horrible, dark cloud

In such passages Kenji's libido becomes so dispersed throughout nature and

Watakushi wa mori ya nohara no I am the beloved of the woods and fields.

Innocence and the Other World

Now the sun's behind its back,

Like a[n] [iron] mirror crack

Homeward though the sun may go,

Long and black the shadow lies

See, the sun is sinking low

Shy white flower, content to pass

These lines depict what Kenji calls 'Ihatovu' 4 h , or 'Dreamland

25 Bester, Winds from Afar, pp. 132-36.

We gazed at it in silence. I [Toru] was asking what world would be opening

29 See, for instance, Tsuruta Kinya, Kawabata Yasunari no Geijutsu: Junsui to Ky

Kenji's onomatopoeia, in contrast, does not exactly mimic the sounds we

Kensaku af, another of Shiga's heroes, in An'ya Koro RAiV , unites

Similarly, at the end of Yama no Oto, Shingo compares himself to a

Further, as Kinya Tsuruta argues, we can see Shimamura oscillate, vertically

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