GNU Grep: Print lines matching a

pattern
version 3.1, 25 June 2017

Alain Magloire et al.

This manual is for grep, a pattern matching engine.
Copyright c 1999-2002, 2005, 2008-2017 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under
the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.3 or any later
version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections,
with no Front-Cover Texts, and with no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license
is included in the section entitled “GNU Free Documentation License”.
 i

Table of Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Invoking grep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1 Command-line Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1.1 Generic Program Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1.2 Matching Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1.3 General Output Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1.4 Output Line Prefix Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.5 Context Line Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1.6 File and Directory Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1.7 Other Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2 Environment Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Exit Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4 grep Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

3 Regular Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.1 Fundamental Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2 Character Classes and Bracket Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3 The Backslash Character and Special Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.4 Anchoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.5 Back-references and Subexpressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.6 Basic vs Extended Regular Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

4 Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

5 Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

6 Reporting bugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.1 Known Bugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

7 Copying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7.1 GNU Free Documentation License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
 1

1 Introduction
grep searches input files for lines containing a match to a given pattern list. When it finds
a match in a line, it copies the line to standard output (by default), or produces whatever
other sort of output you have requested with options.
Though grep expects to do the matching on text, it has no limits on input line length
other than available memory, and it can match arbitrary characters within a line. If the
final byte of an input file is not a newline, grep silently supplies one. Since newline is also
a separator for the list of patterns, there is no way to match newline characters in a text.
 2

2 Invoking grep
The general synopsis of the grep command line is
grep options pattern input_file_names
There can be zero or more options. pattern will only be seen as such (and not as an
input file name) if it wasn’t already specified within options (by using the ‘-e pattern’ or
‘-f file’ options). There can be zero or more input file names.

2.1 Command-line Options

grep comes with a rich set of options: some from POSIX and some being GNU extensions.
Long option names are always a GNU extension, even for options that are from POSIX
specifications. Options that are specified by POSIX, under their short names, are explic-
itly marked as such to facilitate POSIX-portable programming. A few option names are
provided for compatibility with older or more exotic implementations.
Several additional options control which variant of the grep matching engine is used.
See Section 2.4 [grep Programs], page 12.

2.1.1 Generic Program Information

--help Print a usage message briefly summarizing the command-line options and the
bug-reporting address, then exit.
-V
--version
Print the version number of grep to the standard output stream. This version
number should be included in all bug reports.

2.1.2 Matching Control

-e pattern
--regexp=pattern
Use pattern as the pattern. If this option is used multiple times or is combined
with the -f (--file) option, search for all patterns given. (-e is specified by
POSIX.)
-f file
--file=file
Obtain patterns from file, one per line. If this option is used multiple times
or is combined with the -e (--regexp) option, search for all patterns given.
The empty file contains zero patterns, and therefore matches nothing. (-f is
specified by POSIX.)
-i
-y
--ignore-case
Ignore case distinctions, so that characters that differ only in case match each
other. Although this is straightforward when letters differ in case only via
lowercase-uppercase pairs, the behavior is unspecified in other situations. For
Chapter 2: Invoking grep 3

example, uppercase “S” has an unusual lowercase counterpart “” (Unicode char-

acter U+017F, LATIN SMALL LETTER LONG S) in many locales, and it is
unspecified whether this unusual character matches “S” or “s” even though
uppercasing it yields “S”. Another example: the lowercase German letter “ß”
(U+00DF, LATIN SMALL LETTER SHARP S) is normally capitalized as the
two-character string “SS” but it does not match “SS”, and it might not match
the uppercase letter “” (U+1E9E, LATIN CAPITAL LETTER SHARP S) even
though lowercasing the latter yields the former.
-y is an obsolete synonym that is provided for compatibility. (-i is specified
by POSIX.)
-v
--invert-match
Invert the sense of matching, to select non-matching lines. (-v is specified by
POSIX.)
-w
--word-regexp
Select only those lines containing matches that form whole words. The test
is that the matching substring must either be at the beginning of the line, or
preceded by a non-word constituent character. Similarly, it must be either at
the end of the line or followed by a non-word constituent character. Word-
constituent characters are letters, digits, and the underscore. This option has
no effect if -x is also specified.
-x
--line-regexp
Select only those matches that exactly match the whole line. For a regular
expression pattern, this is like parenthesizing the pattern and then surrounding
it with ‘^’ and ‘$’. (-x is specified by POSIX.)

2.1.3 General Output Control

-c
--count Suppress normal output; instead print a count of matching lines for each input
file. With the -v (--invert-match) option, count non-matching lines. (-c is
specified by POSIX.)
--color[=WHEN]
--colour[=WHEN]
Surround the matched (non-empty) strings, matching lines, context lines, file
names, line numbers, byte offsets, and separators (for fields and groups of
context lines) with escape sequences to display them in color on the termi-
nal. The colors are defined by the environment variable GREP_COLORS and
default to ‘ms=01;31:mc=01;31:sl=:cx=:fn=35:ln=32:bn=32:se=36’ for bold
red matched text, magenta file names, green line numbers, green byte offsets,
cyan separators, and default terminal colors otherwise. The deprecated envi-
ronment variable GREP_COLOR is still supported, but its setting does not have
priority; it defaults to ‘01;31’ (bold red) which only covers the color for matched
text. WHEN is ‘never’, ‘always’, or ‘auto’.
Chapter 2: Invoking grep 4

-L
--files-without-match
Suppress normal output; instead print the name of each input file from which
no output would normally have been printed. The scanning of each file stops
on the first match.

-l
--files-with-matches
Suppress normal output; instead print the name of each input file from which
output would normally have been printed. The scanning of each file stops on
the first match. (-l is specified by POSIX.)

-m num
--max-count=num
Stop after the first num selected lines. If the input is standard input from a
regular file, and num selected lines are output, grep ensures that the standard
input is positioned just after the last selected line before exiting, regardless of
the presence of trailing context lines. This enables a calling process to resume
a search. For example, the following shell script makes use of it:
while grep -m 1 PATTERN
do
echo xxxx
done < FILE
But the following probably will not work because a pipe is not a regular file:
# This probably will not work.
cat FILE |
while grep -m 1 PATTERN
do
echo xxxx
done
When grep stops after num selected lines, it outputs any trailing context lines.
When the -c or --count option is also used, grep does not output a count
greater than num. When the -v or --invert-match option is also used, grep
stops after outputting num non-matching lines.

-o
--only-matching
Print only the matched (non-empty) parts of matching lines, with each such
part on a separate output line. Output lines use the same delimiters as input,
and delimiters are null bytes if -z (--null-data) is also used (see Section 2.1.7
[Other Options], page 8).

-q
--quiet
--silent Quiet; do not write anything to standard output. Exit immediately with zero
status if any match is found, even if an error was detected. Also see the -s or
--no-messages option. (-q is specified by POSIX.)
Chapter 2: Invoking grep 5

-s
--no-messages
Suppress error messages about nonexistent or unreadable files. Portability note:
unlike GNU grep, 7th Edition Unix grep did not conform to POSIX, because
it lacked -q and its -s option behaved like GNU grep’s -q option.1 USG-style
grep also lacked -q but its -s option behaved like GNU grep’s. Portable shell
scripts should avoid both -q and -s and should redirect standard and error
output to /dev/null instead. (-s is specified by POSIX.)

2.1.4 Output Line Prefix Control

When several prefix fields are to be output, the order is always file name, line number, and
byte offset, regardless of the order in which these options were specified.
-b
--byte-offset
Print the 0-based byte offset within the input file before each line of output. If
-o (--only-matching) is specified, print the offset of the matching part itself.
-H
--with-filename
Print the file name for each match. This is the default when there is more than
one file to search.
-h
--no-filename
Suppress the prefixing of file names on output. This is the default when there
is only one file (or only standard input) to search.
--label=LABEL
Display input actually coming from standard input as input coming from file
LABEL. This is especially useful when implementing tools like zgrep; e.g.:
gzip -cd foo.gz | grep --label=foo -H something
-n
--line-number
Prefix each line of output with the 1-based line number within its input file.
(-n is specified by POSIX.)
-T
--initial-tab
Make sure that the first character of actual line content lies on a tab stop, so
that the alignment of tabs looks normal. This is useful with options that prefix
their output to the actual content: -H, -n, and -b. This may also prepend
spaces to output line numbers and byte offsets so that lines from a single file
all start at the same column.
-Z
--null Output a zero byte (the ASCII NUL character) instead of the character that
normally follows a file name. For example, ‘grep -lZ’ outputs a zero byte after
1
Of course, 7th Edition Unix predated POSIX by several years!
Chapter 2: Invoking grep 6

each file name instead of the usual newline. This option makes the output
unambiguous, even in the presence of file names containing unusual characters
like newlines. This option can be used with commands like ‘find -print0’,
‘perl -0’, ‘sort -z’, and ‘xargs -0’ to process arbitrary file names, even those
that contain newline characters.

2.1.5 Context Line Control

Context lines are non-matching lines that are near a matching line. They are output only
if one of the following options are used. Regardless of how these options are set, grep never
outputs any given line more than once. If the -o (--only-matching) option is specified,
these options have no effect and a warning is given upon their use.
-A num
--after-context=num
Print num lines of trailing context after matching lines.
-B num
--before-context=num
Print num lines of leading context before matching lines.
-C num
-num
--context=num
Print num lines of leading and trailing output context.
--group-separator=string
When -A, -B or -C are in use, print string instead of -- between groups of lines.
--no-group-separator
When -A, -B or -C are in use, do not print a separator between groups of lines.
Here are some points about how grep chooses the separator to print between prefix fields
and line content:
• Matching lines normally use ‘:’ as a separator between prefix fields and actual line
content.
• Context (i.e., non-matching) lines use ‘-’ instead.
• When context is not specified, matching lines are simply output one right after another.
• When context is specified, lines that are adjacent in the input form a group and are
output one right after another, while by default a separator appears between non-
adjacent groups.
• The default separator is a ‘--’ line; its presence and appearance can be changed with
the options above.
• Each group may contain several matching lines when they are close enough to each
other that two adjacent groups connect and can merge into a single contiguous one.

2.1.6 File and Directory Selection

-a
--text Process a binary file as if it were text; this is equivalent to the
‘--binary-files=text’ option.
Chapter 2: Invoking grep 7

--binary-files=type
If a file’s data or metadata indicate that the file contains binary data, assume
that the file is of type type. Non-text bytes indicate binary data; these are
either output bytes that are improperly encoded for the current locale (see
Section 2.2 [Environment Variables], page 9), or null input bytes when the -z
(--null-data) option is not given (see Section 2.1.7 [Other Options], page 8).
By default, type is ‘binary’, and grep suppresses output after null input binary
data is discovered, and suppresses output lines that contain improperly encoded
data. When some output is suppressed, grep follows any output with a one-line
message saying that a binary file matches.
If type is ‘without-match’, when grep discovers null input binary data it as-
sumes that the rest of the file does not match; this is equivalent to the -I
option.
If type is ‘text’, grep processes binary data as if it were text; this is equivalent
to the -a option.
When type is ‘binary’, grep may treat non-text bytes as line terminators even
without the -z (--null-data) option. This means choosing ‘binary’ versus
‘text’ can affect whether a pattern matches a file. For example, when type is
‘binary’ the pattern ‘q$’ might match ‘q’ immediately followed by a null byte,
even though this is not matched when type is ‘text’. Conversely, when type is
‘binary’ the pattern ‘.’ (period) might not match a null byte.
Warning: The -a (--binary-files=text) option might output binary
garbage, which can have nasty side effects if the output is a terminal and if the
terminal driver interprets some of it as commands. On the other hand, when
reading files whose text encodings are unknown, it can be helpful to use -a or
to set ‘LC_ALL=’C’’ in the environment, in order to find more matches even if
the matches are unsafe for direct display.
-D action
--devices=action
If an input file is a device, FIFO, or socket, use action to process it. If action
is ‘read’, all devices are read just as if they were ordinary files. If action is
‘skip’, devices, FIFOs, and sockets are silently skipped. By default, devices are
read if they are on the command line or if the -R (--dereference-recursive)
option is used, and are skipped if they are encountered recursively and the -r
(--recursive) option is used. This option has no effect on a file that is read
via standard input.
-d action
--directories=action
If an input file is a directory, use action to process it. By default, action is
‘read’, which means that directories are read just as if they were ordinary files
(some operating systems and file systems disallow this, and will cause grep
to print error messages for every directory or silently skip them). If action is
‘skip’, directories are silently skipped. If action is ‘recurse’, grep reads all
files under each directory, recursively, following command-line symbolic links
and skipping other symlinks; this is equivalent to the -r option.
Chapter 2: Invoking grep 8

--exclude=glob
Skip any command-line file with a name suffix that matches the pattern glob,
using wildcard matching; a name suffix is either the whole name, or any suffix
starting after a ‘/’ and before a non-‘/’. When searching recursively, skip any
subfile whose base name matches glob; the base name is the part after the
last ‘/’. A pattern can use ‘*’, ‘?’, and ‘[’...‘]’ as wildcards, and \ to quote a
wildcard or backslash character literally.
--exclude-from=file
Skip files whose name matches any of the patterns read from file (using wildcard
matching as described under --exclude).
--exclude-dir=glob
Skip any command-line directory with a name suffix that matches the pat-
tern glob. When searching recursively, skip any subdirectory whose base name
matches glob. Ignore any redundant trailing slashes in glob.
-I Process a binary file as if it did not contain matching data; this is equivalent
to the ‘--binary-files=without-match’ option.
--include=glob
Search only files whose name matches glob, using wildcard matching as de-
scribed under --exclude.
-r
--recursive
For each directory operand, read and process all files in that directory, recur-
sively. Follow symbolic links on the command line, but skip symlinks that are
encountered recursively. Note that if no file operand is given, grep searches the
working directory. This is the same as the ‘--directories=recurse’ option.
-R
--dereference-recursive
For each directory operand, read and process all files in that directory, recur-
sively, following all symbolic links.

2.1.7 Other Options

--line-buffered
Use line buffering on output. This can cause a performance penalty.
-U
--binary On platforms that distinguish between text and binary I/O, use the latter when
reading and writing files other than the user’s terminal, so that all input bytes
are read and written as-is. This overrides the default behavior where grep
follows the operating system’s advice whether to use text or binary I/O. On
MS-Windows when grep uses text I/O it reads a carriage return–newline pair
as a newline and a Control-Z as end-of-file, and it writes a newline as a carriage
return–newline pair.
When using text I/O --byte-offset (-b) counts and --binary-files heuris-
tics apply to input data after text-I/O processing. Also, the --binary-files
Chapter 2: Invoking grep 9

heuristics need not agree with the --binary option; that is, they may treat the
data as text even if --binary is given, or vice versa. See Section 2.1.6 [File and
Directory Selection], page 6.
This option has no effect on GNU and other POSIX-compatible platforms,
which do not distinguish text from binary I/O.
-z
--null-data
Treat input and output data as sequences of lines, each terminated by a zero
byte (the ASCII NUL character) instead of a newline. Like the -Z or --null op-
tion, this option can be used with commands like ‘sort -z’ to process arbitrary
file names.

2.2 Environment Variables

The behavior of grep is affected by the following environment variables.
The locale for category LC_foo is specified by examining the three environment variables
LC_ALL, LC_foo, and LANG, in that order. The first of these variables that is set specifies
the locale. For example, if LC_ALL is not set, but LC_COLLATE is set to ‘pt_BR’, then the
Brazilian Portuguese locale is used for the LC_COLLATE category. As a special case for
LC_MESSAGES only, the environment variable LANGUAGE can contain a colon-separated list
of languages that overrides the three environment variables that ordinarily specify the LC_
MESSAGES category. The ‘C’ locale is used if none of these environment variables are set,
if the locale catalog is not installed, or if grep was not compiled with national language
support (NLS). The shell command locale -a lists locales that are currently available.
Many of the environment variables in the following list let you control highlighting
using Select Graphic Rendition (SGR) commands interpreted by the terminal or terminal
emulator. (See the section in the documentation of your text terminal for permitted values
and their meanings as character attributes.) These substring values are integers in decimal
representation and can be concatenated with semicolons. grep takes care of assembling the
result into a complete SGR sequence (‘\33[’...‘m’). Common values to concatenate include
‘1’ for bold, ‘4’ for underline, ‘5’ for blink, ‘7’ for inverse, ‘39’ for default foreground color,
‘30’ to ‘37’ for foreground colors, ‘90’ to ‘97’ for 16-color mode foreground colors, ‘38;5;0’ to
‘38;5;255’ for 88-color and 256-color modes foreground colors, ‘49’ for default background
color, ‘40’ to ‘47’ for background colors, ‘100’ to ‘107’ for 16-color mode background colors,
and ‘48;5;0’ to ‘48;5;255’ for 88-color and 256-color modes background colors.
The two-letter names used in the GREP_COLORS environment variable (and some of the
others) refer to terminal “capabilities,” the ability of a terminal to highlight text, or change
its color, and so on. These capabilities are stored in an online database and accessed by the
terminfo library.
GREP_OPTIONS
This variable specifies default options to be placed in front of any explicit op-
tions. As this causes problems when writing portable scripts, this feature will be
removed in a future release of grep, and grep warns if it is used. Please use an
alias or script instead. For example, if grep is in the directory ‘/usr/bin’
you can prepend $HOME/bin to your PATH and create an executable script
$HOME/bin/grep containing the following:
Chapter 2: Invoking grep 10

#! /bin/sh
export PATH=/usr/bin
exec grep --color=auto --devices=skip "$@"
GREP_COLOR
This variable specifies the color used to highlight matched (non-empty) text.
It is deprecated in favor of GREP_COLORS, but still supported. The ‘mt’, ‘ms’,
and ‘mc’ capabilities of GREP_COLORS have priority over it. It can only specify
the color used to highlight the matching non-empty text in any matching line
(a selected line when the -v command-line option is omitted, or a context line
when -v is specified). The default is ‘01;31’, which means a bold red foreground
text on the terminal’s default background.
GREP_COLORS
This variable specifies the colors and other attributes used to highlight various
parts of the output. Its value is a colon-separated list of terminfo capabilities
that defaults to ‘ms=01;31:mc=01;31:sl=:cx=:fn=35:ln=32:bn=32:se=36’
with the ‘rv’ and ‘ne’ boolean capabilities omitted (i.e., false). Supported
capabilities are as follows.
sl= SGR substring for whole selected lines (i.e., matching lines when
the -v command-line option is omitted, or non-matching lines when
-v is specified). If however the boolean ‘rv’ capability and the
-v command-line option are both specified, it applies to context
matching lines instead. The default is empty (i.e., the terminal’s
default color pair).
cx= SGR substring for whole context lines (i.e., non-matching lines
when the -v command-line option is omitted, or matching lines
when -v is specified). If however the boolean ‘rv’ capability and
the -v command-line option are both specified, it applies to se-
lected non-matching lines instead. The default is empty (i.e., the
terminal’s default color pair).
rv Boolean value that reverses (swaps) the meanings of the ‘sl=’ and
‘cx=’ capabilities when the -v command-line option is specified.
The default is false (i.e., the capability is omitted).
mt=01;31 SGR substring for matching non-empty text in any matching line
(i.e., a selected line when the -v command-line option is omitted,
or a context line when -v is specified). Setting this is equivalent to
setting both ‘ms=’ and ‘mc=’ at once to the same value. The default
is a bold red text foreground over the current line background.
ms=01;31 SGR substring for matching non-empty text in a selected line. (This
is used only when the -v command-line option is omitted.) The
effect of the ‘sl=’ (or ‘cx=’ if ‘rv’) capability remains active when
this takes effect. The default is a bold red text foreground over the
current line background.
mc=01;31 SGR substring for matching non-empty text in a context line. (This
is used only when the -v command-line option is specified.) The
Chapter 2: Invoking grep 11

effect of the ‘cx=’ (or ‘sl=’ if ‘rv’) capability remains active when
this takes effect. The default is a bold red text foreground over the
current line background.
fn=35 SGR substring for file names prefixing any content line. The de-
fault is a magenta text foreground over the terminal’s default back-
ground.
ln=32 SGR substring for line numbers prefixing any content line. The
default is a green text foreground over the terminal’s default back-
ground.
bn=32 SGR substring for byte offsets prefixing any content line. The de-
fault is a green text foreground over the terminal’s default back-
ground.
se=36 SGR substring for separators that are inserted between selected line
fields (‘:’), between context line fields (‘-’), and between groups of
adjacent lines when nonzero context is specified (‘--’). The default
is a cyan text foreground over the terminal’s default background.
ne Boolean value that prevents clearing to the end of line using Erase
in Line (EL) to Right (‘\33[K’) each time a colorized item ends.
This is needed on terminals on which EL is not supported. It is oth-
erwise useful on terminals for which the back_color_erase (bce)
boolean terminfo capability does not apply, when the chosen high-
light colors do not affect the background, or when EL is too slow
or causes too much flicker. The default is false (i.e., the capability
is omitted).
Note that boolean capabilities have no ‘=’... part. They are omitted (i.e., false)
by default and become true when specified.
LC_ALL
LC_COLLATE
LANG These variables specify the locale for the LC_COLLATE category, which might
affect how range expressions like ‘[a-z]’ are interpreted.
LC_ALL
LC_CTYPE
LANG These variables specify the locale for the LC_CTYPE category, which determines
the type of characters, e.g., which characters are whitespace. This category also
determines the character encoding, that is, whether text is encoded in UTF-8,
ASCII, or some other encoding. In the ‘C’ or ‘POSIX’ locale, all characters are
encoded as a single byte and every byte is a valid character.
LANGUAGE
LC_ALL
LC_MESSAGES
LANG These variables specify the locale for the LC_MESSAGES category, which deter-
mines the language that grep uses for messages. The default ‘C’ locale uses
American English messages.
Chapter 2: Invoking grep 12

POSIXLY_CORRECT
If set, grep behaves as POSIX requires; otherwise, grep behaves more like other
GNU programs. POSIX requires that options that follow file names must be
treated as file names; by default, such options are permuted to the front of the
operand list and are treated as options. Also, POSIXLY_CORRECT disables special
handling of an invalid bracket expression. See [invalid-bracket-expr], page 16.
_N_GNU_nonoption_argv_flags_
(Here N is grep’s numeric process ID.) If the ith character of this environment
variable’s value is ‘1’, do not consider the ith operand of grep to be an option,
even if it appears to be one. A shell can put this variable in the environment
for each command it runs, specifying which operands are the results of file
name wildcard expansion and therefore should not be treated as options. This
behavior is available only with the GNU C library, and only when POSIXLY_
CORRECT is not set.

2.3 Exit Status

Normally the exit status is 0 if a line is selected, 1 if no lines were selected, and 2 if an error
occurred. However, if the -q or --quiet or --silent option is used and a line is selected,
the exit status is 0 even if an error occurred. Other grep implementations may exit with
status greater than 2 on error.

2.4 grep Programs

grep searches the named input files for lines containing a match to the given pattern. By
default, grep prints the matching lines. A file named - stands for standard input. If no input
is specified, grep searches the working directory . if given a command-line option specifying
recursion; otherwise, grep searches standard input. There are four major variants of grep,
controlled by the following options.
-G
--basic-regexp
Interpret the pattern as a basic regular expression (BRE). This is the default.
-E
--extended-regexp
Interpret the pattern as an extended regular expression (ERE). (-E is specified
by POSIX.)
-F
--fixed-strings
Interpret the pattern as a list of fixed strings (instead of regular expressions),
separated by newlines, any of which is to be matched. (-F is specified by
POSIX.)
-P
--perl-regexp
Interpret the pattern as a Perl-compatible regular expression (PCRE). This is
experimental, particularly when combined with the -z (--null-data) option,
Chapter 2: Invoking grep 13

and ‘grep -P’ may warn of unimplemented features. See Section 2.1.7 [Other
Options], page 8.
In addition, two variant programs egrep and fgrep are available. egrep is the same
as ‘grep -E’. fgrep is the same as ‘grep -F’. Direct invocation as either egrep or fgrep
is deprecated, but is provided to allow historical applications that rely on them to run
unmodified.
 14

3 Regular Expressions
A regular expression is a pattern that describes a set of strings. Regular expressions are
constructed analogously to arithmetic expressions, by using various operators to combine
smaller expressions. grep understands three different versions of regular expression syntax:
basic (BRE), extended (ERE), and Perl-compatible (PCRE). In GNU grep, there is no
difference in available functionality between the basic and extended syntaxes. In other im-
plementations, basic regular expressions are less powerful. The following description applies
to extended regular expressions; differences for basic regular expressions are summarized
afterwards. Perl-compatible regular expressions give additional functionality, and are doc-
umented in the pcresyntax (3) and pcrepattern(3) manual pages, but work only if PCRE is
available in the system.

3.1 Fundamental Structure

The fundamental building blocks are the regular expressions that match a single charac-
ter. Most characters, including all letters and digits, are regular expressions that match
themselves. Any meta-character with special meaning may be quoted by preceding it with
a backslash.
A regular expression may be followed by one of several repetition operators:
‘.’ The period ‘.’ matches any single character.
‘?’ The preceding item is optional and will be matched at most once.
‘*’ The preceding item will be matched zero or more times.
‘+’ The preceding item will be matched one or more times.
‘{n}’ The preceding item is matched exactly n times.
‘{n,}’ The preceding item is matched n or more times.
‘{,m}’ The preceding item is matched at most m times. This is a GNU extension.
‘{n,m}’ The preceding item is matched at least n times, but not more than m times.
The empty regular expression matches the empty string. Two regular expressions may be
concatenated; the resulting regular expression matches any string formed by concatenating
two substrings that respectively match the concatenated expressions.
Two regular expressions may be joined by the infix operator ‘|’; the resulting regular
expression matches any string matching either alternate expression.
Repetition takes precedence over concatenation, which in turn takes precedence over
alternation. A whole expression may be enclosed in parentheses to override these precedence
rules and form a subexpression. An unmatched ‘)’ matches just itself.

3.2 Character Classes and Bracket Expressions

A bracket expression is a list of characters enclosed by ‘[’ and ‘]’. It matches any single
character in that list; if the first character of the list is the caret ‘^’, then it matches any
character not in the list. For example, the regular expression ‘[0123456789]’ matches any
single digit.
Chapter 3: Regular Expressions 15

Within a bracket expression, a range expression consists of two characters separated by

a hyphen. It matches any single character that sorts between the two characters, inclusive.
In the default C locale, the sorting sequence is the native character order; for example,
‘[a-d]’ is equivalent to ‘[abcd]’. In other locales, the sorting sequence is not specified,
and ‘[a-d]’ might be equivalent to ‘[abcd]’ or to ‘[aBbCcDd]’, or it might fail to match
any character, or the set of characters that it matches might even be erratic. To obtain the
traditional interpretation of bracket expressions, you can use the ‘C’ locale by setting the
LC_ALL environment variable to the value ‘C’.
Finally, certain named classes of characters are predefined within bracket expressions, as
follows. Their interpretation depends on the LC_CTYPE locale; for example, ‘[[:alnum:]]’
means the character class of numbers and letters in the current locale.
‘[:alnum:]’
Alphanumeric characters: ‘[:alpha:]’ and ‘[:digit:]’; in the ‘C’ locale and
ASCII character encoding, this is the same as ‘[0-9A-Za-z]’.
‘[:alpha:]’
Alphabetic characters: ‘[:lower:]’ and ‘[:upper:]’; in the ‘C’ locale and
ASCII character encoding, this is the same as ‘[A-Za-z]’.
‘[:blank:]’
Blank characters: space and tab.
‘[:cntrl:]’
Control characters. In ASCII, these characters have octal codes 000 through
037, and 177 (DEL). In other character sets, these are the equivalent characters,
if any.
‘[:digit:]’
Digits: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9.
‘[:graph:]’
Graphical characters: ‘[:alnum:]’ and ‘[:punct:]’.
‘[:lower:]’
Lower-case letters; in the ‘C’ locale and ASCII character encoding, this is a b c
d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z.
‘[:print:]’
Printable characters: ‘[:alnum:]’, ‘[:punct:]’, and space.
‘[:punct:]’
Punctuation characters; in the ‘C’ locale and ASCII character encoding, this is
! " # $ % & ’ ( ) * + , - . / : ; < = > ? @ [ \ ] ^ _ ‘ { | } ~.
‘[:space:]’
Space characters: in the ‘C’ locale, this is tab, newline, vertical tab, form feed,
carriage return, and space. See Chapter 4 [Usage], page 18, for more discussion
of matching newlines.
‘[:upper:]’
Upper-case letters: in the ‘C’ locale and ASCII character encoding, this is A B
C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z.
Chapter 3: Regular Expressions 16

‘[:xdigit:]’
Hexadecimal digits: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F a b c d e f.
Note that the brackets in these class names are part of the symbolic names, and must
be included in addition to the brackets delimiting the bracket expression.
If you mistakenly omit the outer brackets, and search for say, ‘[:upper:]’, GNU grep
prints a diagnostic and exits with status 2, on the assumption that you did not intend to
search for the nominally equivalent regular expression: ‘[:epru]’. Set the POSIXLY_CORRECT
environment variable to disable this feature.
Most meta-characters lose their special meaning inside bracket expressions.
‘]’ ends the bracket expression if it’s not the first list item. So, if you want to make
the ‘]’ character a list item, you must put it first.
‘[.’ represents the open collating symbol.
‘.]’ represents the close collating symbol.
‘[=’ represents the open equivalence class.
‘=]’ represents the close equivalence class.
‘[:’ represents the open character class symbol, and should be followed by a valid
character class name.
‘:]’ represents the close character class symbol.
‘-’ represents the range if it’s not first or last in a list or the ending point of a
range.
‘^’ represents the characters not in the list. If you want to make the ‘^’ character
a list item, place it anywhere but first.

3.3 The Backslash Character and Special Expressions

The ‘\’ character, when followed by certain ordinary characters, takes a special meaning:
‘\b’ Match the empty string at the edge of a word.
‘\B’ Match the empty string provided it’s not at the edge of a word.
‘\<’ Match the empty string at the beginning of word.
‘\>’ Match the empty string at the end of word.
‘\w’ Match word constituent, it is a synonym for ‘[_[:alnum:]]’.
‘\W’ Match non-word constituent, it is a synonym for ‘[^_[:alnum:]]’.
‘\s’ Match whitespace, it is a synonym for ‘[[:space:]]’.
‘\S’ Match non-whitespace, it is a synonym for ‘[^[:space:]]’.
For example, ‘\brat\b’ matches the separate word ‘rat’, ‘\Brat\B’ matches ‘crate’ but
not ‘furry rat’.
Chapter 3: Regular Expressions 17

3.4 Anchoring
The caret ‘^’ and the dollar sign ‘$’ are meta-characters that respectively match the empty
string at the beginning and end of a line. They are termed anchors, since they force the
match to be “anchored” to beginning or end of a line, respectively.

3.5 Back-references and Subexpressions

The back-reference ‘\n’, where n is a single digit, matches the substring previously matched
by the nth parenthesized subexpression of the regular expression. For example, ‘(a)\1’
matches ‘aa’. When used with alternation, if the group does not participate in the match
then the back-reference makes the whole match fail. For example, ‘a(.)|b\1’ will not
match ‘ba’. When multiple regular expressions are given with -e or from a file (‘-f file’),
back-references are local to each expression.

3.6 Basic vs Extended Regular Expressions

In basic regular expressions the meta-characters ‘?’, ‘+’, ‘{’, ‘|’, ‘(’, and ‘)’ lose their special
meaning; instead use the backslashed versions ‘\?’, ‘\+’, ‘\{’, ‘\|’, ‘\(’, and ‘\)’.
Traditional egrep did not support the ‘{’ meta-character, and some egrep implemen-
tations support ‘\{’ instead, so portable scripts should avoid ‘{’ in ‘grep -E’ patterns and
should use ‘[{]’ to match a literal ‘{’.
GNU grep -E attempts to support traditional usage by assuming that ‘{’ is not special
if it would be the start of an invalid interval specification. For example, the command ‘grep
-E ’{1’’ searches for the two-character string ‘{1’ instead of reporting a syntax error in
the regular expression. POSIX allows this behavior as an extension, but portable scripts
should avoid it.
 18

4 Usage
Here is an example command that invokes GNU grep:
grep -i ’hello.*world’ menu.h main.c
This lists all lines in the files menu.h and main.c that contain the string ‘hello’ followed
by the string ‘world’; this is because ‘.*’ matches zero or more characters within a line.
See Chapter 3 [Regular Expressions], page 14. The -i option causes grep to ignore case,
causing it to match the line ‘Hello, world!’, which it would not otherwise match. See
Chapter 2 [Invoking], page 2, for more details about how to invoke grep.
Here are some common questions and answers about grep usage.
1. How can I list just the names of matching files?
grep -l ’main’ *.c
lists the names of all C files in the current directory whose contents mention ‘main’.
2. How do I search directories recursively?
grep -r ’hello’ /home/gigi
searches for ‘hello’ in all files under the /home/gigi directory. For more control
over which files are searched, use find, grep, and xargs. For example, the following
command searches only C files:
find /home/gigi -name ’*.c’ -print0 | xargs -0r grep -H ’hello’
This differs from the command:
grep -H ’hello’ *.c
which merely looks for ‘hello’ in all files in the current directory whose names end in
‘.c’. The ‘find ...’ command line above is more similar to the command:
grep -rH --include=’*.c’ ’hello’ /home/gigi
3. What if a pattern has a leading ‘-’?
grep -e ’--cut here--’ *
searches for all lines matching ‘--cut here--’. Without -e, grep would attempt to
parse ‘--cut here--’ as a list of options.
4. Suppose I want to search for a whole word, not a part of a word?
grep -w ’hello’ *
searches only for instances of ‘hello’ that are entire words; it does not match ‘Othello’.
For more control, use ‘\<’ and ‘\>’ to match the start and end of words. For example:
grep ’hello\>’ *
searches only for words ending in ‘hello’, so it matches the word ‘Othello’.
5. How do I output context around the matching lines?
grep -C 2 ’hello’ *
prints two lines of context around each matching line.
6. How do I force grep to print the name of the file?
Append /dev/null:
grep ’eli’ /etc/passwd /dev/null
Chapter 4: Usage 19

gets you:
/etc/passwd:eli:x:2098:1000:Eli Smith:/home/eli:/bin/bash
Alternatively, use -H, which is a GNU extension:
grep -H ’eli’ /etc/passwd
7. Why do people use strange regular expressions on ps output?
ps -ef | grep ’[c]ron’
If the pattern had been written without the square brackets, it would have matched
not only the ps output line for cron, but also the ps output line for grep. Note that
on some platforms, ps limits the output to the width of the screen; grep does not have
any limit on the length of a line except the available memory.
8. Why does grep report “Binary file matches”?
If grep listed all matching “lines” from a binary file, it would probably generate
output that is not useful, and it might even muck up your display. So GNU
grep suppresses output from files that appear to be binary files. To force GNU
grep to output lines even from files that appear to be binary, use the -a or
‘--binary-files=text’ option. To eliminate the “Binary file matches” messages, use
the -I or ‘--binary-files=without-match’ option.
9. Why doesn’t ‘grep -lv’ print non-matching file names?
‘grep -lv’ lists the names of all files containing one or more lines that do not match.
To list the names of all files that contain no matching lines, use the -L or --files-
without-match option.
10. I can do “OR” with ‘|’, but what about “AND”?
grep ’paul’ /etc/motd | grep ’franc,ois’
finds all lines that contain both ‘paul’ and ‘franc,ois’.
11. Why does the empty pattern match every input line?
The grep command searches for lines that contain strings that match a pattern. Every
line contains the empty string, so an empty pattern causes grep to find a match on
each line. It is not the only such pattern: ‘^’, ‘$’, ‘.*’, and many other patterns cause
grep to match every line.
To match empty lines, use the pattern ‘^$’. To match blank lines, use the pattern
‘^[[:blank:]]*$’. To match no lines at all, use the command ‘grep -f /dev/null’.
12. How can I search in both standard input and in files?
Use the special file name ‘-’:
cat /etc/passwd | grep ’alain’ - /etc/motd
13. How to express palindromes in a regular expression?
It can be done by using back-references; for example, a palindrome of 4 characters can
be written with a BRE:
grep -w -e ’\(.\)\(.\).\2\1’ file
It matches the word “radar” or “civic.”
Guglielmo Bondioni proposed a single RE that finds all palindromes up to 19 characters
long using 9 subexpressions and 9 back-references:
grep -E -e ’^(.?)(.?)(.?)(.?)(.?)(.?)(.?)(.?)(.?).?\9\8\7\6\5\4\3\2\1$’ file
Chapter 4: Usage 20

Note this is done by using GNU ERE extensions; it might not be portable to other
implementations of grep.
14. Why is this back-reference failing?
echo ’ba’ | grep -E ’(a)\1|b\1’
This gives no output, because the first alternate ‘(a)\1’ does not match, as there is
no ‘aa’ in the input, so the ‘\1’ in the second alternate has nothing to refer back to,
meaning it will never match anything. (The second alternate in this example can only
match if the first alternate has matched—making the second one superfluous.)
15. How can I match across lines?
Standard grep cannot do this, as it is fundamentally line-based. Therefore, merely
using the [:space:] character class does not match newlines in the way you might
expect.
With the GNU grep option -z (--null-data), each input and output “line” is null-
terminated; see Section 2.1.7 [Other Options], page 8. Thus, you can match newlines
in the input, but typically if there is a match the entire input is output, so this usage
is often combined with output-suppressing options like -q, e.g.:
printf ’foo\nbar\n’ | grep -z -q ’foo[[:space:]]\+bar’
If this does not suffice, you can transform the input before giving it to grep, or turn
to awk, sed, perl, or many other utilities that are designed to operate across lines.
16. What do grep, fgrep, and egrep stand for?
The name grep comes from the way line editing was done on Unix. For example, ed
uses the following syntax to print a list of matching lines on the screen:
global/regular expression/print
g/re/p
fgrep stands for Fixed grep; egrep stands for Extended grep.
 21

5 Performance
Typically grep is an efficient way to search text. However, it can be quite slow in some cases,
and it can search large files where even minor performance tweaking can help significantly.
Although the algorithm used by grep is an implementation detail that can change from
release to release, understanding its basic strengths and weaknesses can help you improve
its performance.
The grep command operates partly via a set of automata that are designed for effi-
ciency, and partly via a slower matcher that takes over when the fast matchers run into
unusual features like back-references. When feasible, the Boyer–Moore fast string searching
algorithm is used to match a single fixed pattern, and the Aho–Corasick algorithm is used
to match multiple fixed patterns.
Generally speaking grep operates more efficiently in single-byte locales, since it can
avoid the special processing needed for multi-byte characters. If your pattern will work just
as well that way, setting LC_ALL to a single-byte locale can help performance considerably.
Setting ‘LC_ALL=’C’’ can be particularly efficient, as grep is tuned for that locale.
Outside the ‘C’ locale, case-insensitive search, and search for bracket expressions like
‘[a-z]’ and ‘[[=a=]b]’, can be surprisingly inefficient due to difficulties in fast portable
access to concepts like multi-character collating elements.
A back-reference such as ‘\1’ can hurt performance significantly in some cases, since
back-references cannot in general be implemented via a finite state automaton, and instead
trigger a backtracking algorithm that can be quite inefficient. For example, although the
pattern ‘^(.*)\1{14}(.*)\2{13}$’ matches only lines whose lengths can be written as a
sum 15x + 14y for nonnegative integers x and y, the pattern matcher does not perform
linear Diophantine analysis and instead backtracks through all possible matching strings,
using an algorithm that is exponential in the worst case.
On some operating systems that support files with holes—large regions of zeros that are
not physically present on secondary storage—grep can skip over the holes efficiently without
needing to read the zeros. This optimization is not available if the -a (--text) option is
used (see Section 2.1.6 [File and Directory Selection], page 6), unless the -z (--null-data)
option is also used (see Section 2.1.7 [Other Options], page 8).
For more about the algorithms used by grep and about related string matching algo-
rithms, see:
• Aho AV. Algorithms for finding patterns in strings. In: van Leeuwen J. Handbook of
Theoretical Computer Science, vol. A. New York: Elsevier; 1990. p. 255–300. This sur-
veys classic string matching algorithms, some of which are used by grep.
• Aho AV, Corasick MJ. Efficient string matching: an aid to bibliographic search. CACM.
1975;18(6):333–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/360825.360855. This introduces the
Aho–Corasick algorithm.
• Boyer RS, Moore JS. A fast string searching algorithm. CACM. 1977;20(10):762–72.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/359842.359859. This introduces the Boyer–Moore
algorithm.
• Faro S, Lecroq T. The exact online string matching problem: a review of the most
recent results. ACM Comput Surv. 2013;45(2):13. http: / / dx . doi . org / 10 . 1145 /
Chapter 5: Performance 22

2431211.2431212. This surveys string matching algorithms that might help improve
the performance of grep in the future.
 23

6 Reporting bugs
Bug reports can be found at the GNU bug report logs for grep (http://debbugs.gnu.
org/cgi/pkgreport.cgi?package=grep). If you find a bug not listed there, please email
it to [email protected] to create a new bug report.

6.1 Known Bugs

Large repetition counts in the ‘{n,m}’ construct may cause grep to use lots of memory. In
addition, certain other obscure regular expressions require exponential time and space, and
may cause grep to run out of memory.
Back-references are very slow, and may require exponential time.
 24

7 Copying
GNU grep is licensed under the GNU GPL, which makes it free software.
The “free” in “free software” refers to liberty, not price. As some GNU project advocates
like to point out, think of “free speech” rather than “free beer”. In short, you have the right
(freedom) to run and change grep and distribute it to other people, and—if you want—
charge money for doing either. The important restriction is that you have to grant your
recipients the same rights and impose the same restrictions.
This general method of licensing software is sometimes called open source. The GNU
project prefers the term “free software” for reasons outlined at http://www.gnu.org/
philosophy/open-source-misses-the-point.html.
This manual is free documentation in the same sense. The documentation license is
included below. The license for the program is available with the source code, or at http://
www.gnu.org/licenses/gpl.html.

7.1 GNU Free Documentation License

Version 1.3, 3 November 2008
Copyright
c 2000, 2001, 2002, 2007, 2008 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
http://fsf.org/

Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies

of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.
0. PREAMBLE
The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other functional and
useful document free in the sense of freedom: to assure everyone the effective freedom
to copy and redistribute it, with or without modifying it, either commercially or non-
commercially. Secondarily, this License preserves for the author and publisher a way
to get credit for their work, while not being considered responsible for modifications
made by others.
This License is a kind of “copyleft”, which means that derivative works of the document
must themselves be free in the same sense. It complements the GNU General Public
License, which is a copyleft license designed for free software.
We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for free software, because
free software needs free documentation: a free program should come with manuals
providing the same freedoms that the software does. But this License is not limited to
software manuals; it can be used for any textual work, regardless of subject matter or
whether it is published as a printed book. We recommend this License principally for
works whose purpose is instruction or reference.
1. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS
This License applies to any manual or other work, in any medium, that contains a
notice placed by the copyright holder saying it can be distributed under the terms
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duration, to use that work under the conditions stated herein. The “Document”,
below, refers to any such manual or work. Any member of the public is a licensee, and
Chapter 7: Copying 25

is addressed as “you”. You accept the license if you copy, modify or distribute the work
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The “Cover Texts” are certain short passages of text that are listed, as Front-Cover
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Chapter 7: Copying 26

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these Cover Texts: Front-Cover Texts on the front cover, and Back-Cover Texts on
the back cover. Both covers must also clearly and legibly identify you as the publisher
of these copies. The front cover must present the full title with all words of the title
equally prominent and visible. You may add other material on the covers in addition.
Copying with changes limited to the covers, as long as they preserve the title of the
Document and satisfy these conditions, can be treated as verbatim copying in other
respects.
If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to fit legibly, you should put
the first ones listed (as many as fit reasonably) on the actual cover, and continue the
rest onto adjacent pages.
If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document numbering more than 100,
you must either include a machine-readable Transparent copy along with each Opaque
copy, or state in or with each Opaque copy a computer-network location from which
the general network-using public has access to download using public-standard network
protocols a complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added material. If
you use the latter option, you must take reasonably prudent steps, when you begin
distribution of Opaque copies in quantity, to ensure that this Transparent copy will
Chapter 7: Copying 27

remain thus accessible at the stated location until at least one year after the last time
you distribute an Opaque copy (directly or through your agents or retailers) of that
edition to the public.
It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the Document well
before redistributing any large number of copies, to give them a chance to provide you
with an updated version of the Document.
4. MODIFICATIONS
You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the Document under the conditions
of sections 2 and 3 above, provided that you release the Modified Version under precisely
this License, with the Modified Version filling the role of the Document, thus licensing
distribution and modification of the Modified Version to whoever possesses a copy of
it. In addition, you must do these things in the Modified Version:
A. Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title distinct from that of the
Document, and from those of previous versions (which should, if there were any,
be listed in the History section of the Document). You may use the same title as
a previous version if the original publisher of that version gives permission.
B. List on the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or entities responsible for
authorship of the modifications in the Modified Version, together with at least five
of the principal authors of the Document (all of its principal authors, if it has fewer
than five), unless they release you from this requirement.
C. State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the Modified Version, as the
publisher.
D. Preserve all the copyright notices of the Document.
E. Add an appropriate copyright notice for your modifications adjacent to the other
copyright notices.
F. Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license notice giving the public
permission to use the Modified Version under the terms of this License, in the form
shown in the Addendum below.
G. Preserve in that license notice the full lists of Invariant Sections and required Cover
Texts given in the Document’s license notice.
H. Include an unaltered copy of this License.
I. Preserve the section Entitled “History”, Preserve its Title, and add to it an item
stating at least the title, year, new authors, and publisher of the Modified Version
as given on the Title Page. If there is no section Entitled “History” in the Docu-
ment, create one stating the title, year, authors, and publisher of the Document
as given on its Title Page, then add an item describing the Modified Version as
stated in the previous sentence.
J. Preserve the network location, if any, given in the Document for public access to
a Transparent copy of the Document, and likewise the network locations given in
the Document for previous versions it was based on. These may be placed in the
“History” section. You may omit a network location for a work that was published
at least four years before the Document itself, or if the original publisher of the
version it refers to gives permission.
Chapter 7: Copying 28

K. For any section Entitled “Acknowledgements” or “Dedications”, Preserve the Title

of the section, and preserve in the section all the substance and tone of each of the
contributor acknowledgements and/or dedications given therein.
L. Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the Document, unaltered in their text and
in their titles. Section numbers or the equivalent are not considered part of the
section titles.
M. Delete any section Entitled “Endorsements”. Such a section may not be included
in the Modified Version.
N. Do not retitle any existing section to be Entitled “Endorsements” or to conflict in
title with any Invariant Section.
O. Preserve any Warranty Disclaimers.
If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections or appendices that qualify
as Secondary Sections and contain no material copied from the Document, you may at
your option designate some or all of these sections as invariant. To do this, add their
titles to the list of Invariant Sections in the Modified Version’s license notice. These
titles must be distinct from any other section titles.
You may add a section Entitled “Endorsements”, provided it contains nothing but
endorsements of your Modified Version by various parties—for example, statements of
peer review or that the text has been approved by an organization as the authoritative
definition of a standard.
You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front-Cover Text, and a passage of up
to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to the end of the list of Cover Texts in the Modified
Version. Only one passage of Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover Text may be
added by (or through arrangements made by) any one entity. If the Document already
includes a cover text for the same cover, previously added by you or by arrangement
made by the same entity you are acting on behalf of, you may not add another; but
you may replace the old one, on explicit permission from the previous publisher that
added the old one.
The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this License give permission
to use their names for publicity for or to assert or imply endorsement of any Modified
Version.
5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS
You may combine the Document with other documents released under this License,
under the terms defined in section 4 above for modified versions, provided that you
include in the combination all of the Invariant Sections of all of the original documents,
unmodified, and list them all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in its license
notice, and that you preserve all their Warranty Disclaimers.
The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and multiple identical
Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single copy. If there are multiple Invariant
Sections with the same name but different contents, make the title of each such section
unique by adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original author or
publisher of that section if known, or else a unique number. Make the same adjustment
to the section titles in the list of Invariant Sections in the license notice of the combined
work.
Chapter 7: Copying 29

In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled “History” in the vari-
ous original documents, forming one section Entitled “History”; likewise combine any
sections Entitled “Acknowledgements”, and any sections Entitled “Dedications”. You
must delete all sections Entitled “Endorsements.”
6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS
You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other documents released
under this License, and replace the individual copies of this License in the various
documents with a single copy that is included in the collection, provided that you
follow the rules of this License for verbatim copying of each of the documents in all
other respects.
You may extract a single document from such a collection, and distribute it individu-
ally under this License, provided you insert a copy of this License into the extracted
document, and follow this License in all other respects regarding verbatim copying of
that document.
7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS
A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate and independent
documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or distribution medium, is called
an “aggregate” if the copyright resulting from the compilation is not used to limit the
legal rights of the compilation’s users beyond what the individual works permit. When
the Document is included in an aggregate, this License does not apply to the other
works in the aggregate which are not themselves derivative works of the Document.
If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these copies of the Document,
then if the Document is less than one half of the entire aggregate, the Document’s Cover
Texts may be placed on covers that bracket the Document within the aggregate, or the
electronic equivalent of covers if the Document is in electronic form. Otherwise they
must appear on printed covers that bracket the whole aggregate.
8. TRANSLATION
Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may distribute translations
of the Document under the terms of section 4. Replacing Invariant Sections with
translations requires special permission from their copyright holders, but you may
include translations of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to the original versions
of these Invariant Sections. You may include a translation of this License, and all the
license notices in the Document, and any Warranty Disclaimers, provided that you
also include the original English version of this License and the original versions of
those notices and disclaimers. In case of a disagreement between the translation and
the original version of this License or a notice or disclaimer, the original version will
prevail.
If a section in the Document is Entitled “Acknowledgements”, “Dedications”, or “His-
tory”, the requirement (section 4) to Preserve its Title (section 1) will typically require
changing the actual title.
9. TERMINATION
You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document except as expressly
provided under this License. Any attempt otherwise to copy, modify, sublicense, or
distribute it is void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this License.
Chapter 7: Copying 30

However, if you cease all violation of this License, then your license from a particular
copyright holder is reinstated (a) provisionally, unless and until the copyright holder
explicitly and finally terminates your license, and (b) permanently, if the copyright
holder fails to notify you of the violation by some reasonable means prior to 60 days
after the cessation.
Moreover, your license from a particular copyright holder is reinstated permanently if
the copyright holder notifies you of the violation by some reasonable means, this is the
first time you have received notice of violation of this License (for any work) from that
copyright holder, and you cure the violation prior to 30 days after your receipt of the
notice.
Termination of your rights under this section does not terminate the licenses of parties
who have received copies or rights from you under this License. If your rights have
been terminated and not permanently reinstated, receipt of a copy of some or all of the
same material does not give you any rights to use it.
10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE
The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of the GNU Free
Documentation License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit
to the present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns.
See http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/.
Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number. If the Document
specifies that a particular numbered version of this License “or any later version”
applies to it, you have the option of following the terms and conditions either of that
specified version or of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by
the Free Software Foundation. If the Document does not specify a version number of
this License, you may choose any version ever published (not as a draft) by the Free
Software Foundation. If the Document specifies that a proxy can decide which future
versions of this License can be used, that proxy’s public statement of acceptance of a
version permanently authorizes you to choose that version for the Document.
11. RELICENSING
“Massive Multiauthor Collaboration Site” (or “MMC Site”) means any World Wide
Web server that publishes copyrightable works and also provides prominent facilities
for anybody to edit those works. A public wiki that anybody can edit is an example of
such a server. A “Massive Multiauthor Collaboration” (or “MMC”) contained in the
site means any set of copyrightable works thus published on the MMC site.
“CC-BY-SA” means the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 license pub-
lished by Creative Commons Corporation, a not-for-profit corporation with a principal
place of business in San Francisco, California, as well as future copyleft versions of that
license published by that same organization.
“Incorporate” means to publish or republish a Document, in whole or in part, as part
of another Document.
An MMC is “eligible for relicensing” if it is licensed under this License, and if all works
that were first published under this License somewhere other than this MMC, and
subsequently incorporated in whole or in part into the MMC, (1) had no cover texts
or invariant sections, and (2) were thus incorporated prior to November 1, 2008.
Chapter 7: Copying 31

The operator of an MMC Site may republish an MMC contained in the site under
CC-BY-SA on the same site at any time before August 1, 2009, provided the MMC is
eligible for relicensing.
Chapter 7: Copying 32

ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents

To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy of the License in the
document and put the following copyright and license notices just after the title page:
Copyright (C) year your name.
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.3
or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation;
with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover
Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled ‘‘GNU
Free Documentation License’’.
If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts and Back-Cover Texts, replace the
“with. . . Texts.” line with this:
with the Invariant Sections being list their titles, with
the Front-Cover Texts being list, and with the Back-Cover Texts
being list.
If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts, or some other combination of the
three, merge those two alternatives to suit the situation.
If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we recommend releasing
these examples in parallel under your choice of free software license, such as the GNU
General Public License, to permit their use in free software.
 33

Index

* --word-regexp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 -a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
-A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
-b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
+ -B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
-c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
-C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
-d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
– -D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
-e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
--after-context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 -E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
--basic-regexp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 -f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
--before-context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
-F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
--binary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
-G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
--binary-files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
-h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
--byte-offset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
-H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
--color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
-i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
--colour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
-l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
--context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
-L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
--count . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
-m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
--dereference-recursive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
-n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
--devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
-num . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
--directories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
-o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
--exclude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
--exclude-dir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 -P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
--exclude-from . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 -q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
--extended-regexp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 -r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
--file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 -R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
--files-with-matches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 -s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
--files-without-match . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 -T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
--fixed-strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 -U . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
--group-separator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 -v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
--help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 -V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
--ignore-case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 -w . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
--include . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 -x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
--initial-tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 -y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
--invert-match . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 -z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
--label . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 -Z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
--line-buffered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
--line-number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
--line-regexp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 .
--max-count . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
--no-filename . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
--no-messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
--null . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
--null-data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
?
--only-matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
--perl-regexp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
--quiet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
--recursive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
--regexp=pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
_N_GNU_nonoption_argv_flags_
--silent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
environment variable. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
--text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
--version . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
--with-filename . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Index 34

{ D
{,m} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 default options environment variable . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
{n,} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 device search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
{n,m} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 digit character class. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
{n} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 digit characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
directory search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
dot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
A
after context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
alnum character class. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
alpha character class. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 E
alphabetic characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 environment variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
alphanumeric characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 exclude directories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
anchoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 exclude files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
asterisk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 exit status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

B
back-reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 F
back-references. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 FAQ about grep usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
backslash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 files which don’t match . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
basic regular expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 fn GREP_COLORS capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
before context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
binary files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6, 7
binary I/O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
blank character class. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 G
blank characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
bn GREP_COLORS capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 graph character class. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
braces, first argument omitted. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 graphic characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
braces, one argument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 grep programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
braces, second argument omitted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 GREP_COLOR environment variable. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
braces, two arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 GREP_COLORS environment variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
bracket expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 GREP_OPTIONS environment variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Bugs, known . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 group separator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
bugs, reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
byte offset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

H
C hexadecimal digits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
case insensitive search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 21 highlight markers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
changing name of standard input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 highlight, color, colour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
character class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 holes in files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
character classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
character type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
classes of characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
cntrl character class. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 I
context lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4, 6 include files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
context lines, after match . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 interval specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
context lines, before match . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 invert matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
control characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
copying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
counting lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
cx GREP_COLORS capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Index 35

L P
LANG environment variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 11 palindromes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
language of messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 pattern from file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
LANGUAGE environment variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 11 pattern list. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
LC_ALL environment variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 11 performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
LC_COLLATE environment variable. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
LC_CTYPE environment variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 plus sign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
LC_MESSAGES environment variable . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 11 POSIXLY_CORRECT environment variable . . . . . . . . . 12
line buffering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 print character class. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
line numbering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 print non-matching lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
printable characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
ln GREP_COLORS capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
punct character class. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
locales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
punctuation characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
lower character class. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
lower-case letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Q
question mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
M quiet, silent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
match expression at most m times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
match expression at most once . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
match expression from n to m times . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
R
match expression n or more times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 range expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
match expression n times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 recursive search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
match expression one or more times . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 regular expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
match expression zero or more times . . . . . . . . . . . 14 return status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
match the whole line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 rv GREP_COLORS capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
matching basic regular expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
matching extended regular expressions . . . . . . . . . 12
matching fixed strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
S
matching Perl-compatible regular expressions . . . 12 searching directory trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
matching whole words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 searching for a pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
max-count . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 sl GREP_COLORS capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
mc GREP_COLORS capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 space character class. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
message language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 space characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
ms GREP_COLORS capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 subexpression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
suppress binary data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
MS-Windows binary I/O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
suppress error messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
mt GREP_COLORS capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
symbolic links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7, 8

N T
names of matching files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 tab-aligned content lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
national language support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 translation of message language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
ne GREP_COLORS capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
NLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
no filename prefix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
U
numeric characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 upper character class. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
upper-case letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
usage summary, printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
usage, examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
O using grep, Q&A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
only matching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
V
variants of grep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
version, printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Index 36

W X
xdigit character class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
xdigit class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

whitespace characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Z
zero-terminated file names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
with filename prefix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 zero-terminated lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9