Geologic Time

Introduction
Relative Time
Geologic Time Scale
Numerical Time
Rates of Change
Summary

All things in nature work silently. They come into being and possess
nothing. They fulfill their function and make no claim. All things alike do
their work, and then we see them subside. When they have reached their
bloom, each returns to its origin . . . This reversion is an eternal law. To
know that law is wisdom.
Lao-tsu

The eye of the trilobite tells us that the sun shone on the old beach where
he lived; for there is nothing in nature without a purpose, and when so
complicated an organ was made to receive the light, there must have been
light to enter it.
Louis Agassiz
Introduction
• The concept of time scales measured in billions of years is
central to our understanding of geologic processes.
• Deep time corresponds to the bulk of the history of Earth,
before fossils became abundant.
• The building blocks for life - water, heat, chemical
elements - were all present nearly four billion years ago,
soon after Earth had formed.
• Geologic time is measured in time intervals of millions of
years and Earth is estimated to be 4.6 billion years old
(4,600 million years).

One of the most important ideas in all of Earth science is the

concept of geologic time. Advances in astronomy have shown
us that the universe is a vast place, measured in
incomprehensible distances far beyond the human experience.
Time, the fourth dimension, is little different. We function in
the here and now, a tiny fraction of Earth's history. Our
commonly used dimensions of time, minutes-hours-days-
weeks-months-years, are essentially indistinguishable in a
geologic record that spans billions of years. We must train
ourselves to think in units of time measured in millions or
billions of years.

Standing at the rim of the Grand Canyon we can appreciate

the immensity of the physical feature itself as we peer down
over a thousand meters to the Colorado River below (Fig. 1).
What is less obvious is the slow grinding of the river that has
cut steadily downward through the rock pile. It has taken
millions of years for the Colorado River to slice through the
stack of sedimentary rock layers to expose the ancient igneous
and metamorphic rocks at river level. This natural process has
stripped away the physical representations of time. Each
successive layer and the fossils it contains are like a page in
Earth's history. As the river cut downward it carried us

Figure 1. The rock

layers exposed in the
Grand Canyon
represent intervals of
time stretching back
hundreds of millions of
years.

2
backward through time until it reached the billion-year-old
rocks that make up the foundation of the canyon. Back in that
distant time life on Earth was considerably different than it is
today.

Geologic time is unevenly divided into the most recent 12% of

Earth history that is represented by rocks with fossils and deep
time, the much longer interval that occurred before the
evolution of organisms with hard skeletons suitable for
preservation. The oldest known rock that was deposited in
water is nearly four billion years old and is found along the
west coast of Greenland. These rocks contain the key chemical
elements considered essential for life (carbon, nitrogen, sulfur).
However, the state of Earth at this time would have been much
different from the planet we call home today. About 3.9 billion
years ago Earth would have been much hotter with surface
temperatures around 50 to 70oC (compared with 15oC today),
there would have been more extensive volcanism, the Sun was
less bright, there was no oxygen in the atmosphere and no
ozone layer to protect against incoming ultraviolet radiation.
To make matters worse, Earth was being regularly bombarded
by large asteroids and comets. Given the extreme conditions
and the chemicals necessary for metabolic processes, scientists
hypothesize that primitive life evolved from heat-loving
bacteria in environments that might have been similar to those
found today in the hot springs of Yellowstone National Park.

We begin by describing the observations used to place geologic

events in sequential order. The earliest geologists were able to
match rock units around the world and to place them in their
relative order without the use of the sophisticated instruments
available to us today. The section on Relative Time describes
the evidence these scientists used to arrange rocks in their
correct sequence of formation. Once described, even novice
geologists can apply these rules to unravel the geologic history
of the rocks below their feet.

The evolution of Earth's biosphere can be discerned from clues

in the rocks. For much of our planet's past, life was dominated
by primitive forms such as bacteria and later multicelled soft-
bodied organisms not unlike jellyfish or worms. Such
organisms were only preserved in ancient rocks on rare
occasions under unusual conditions. It was not until 540
million years ago, when organisms developed hard skeletons
with shells or bones, that fossils were commonly preserved
(Fig. 2). Geologists use fossils in sedimentary rocks to

3
 Figure 2. An
example of a
fossil: a fish from
Tertiary rocks

subdivide the most recent segment of Earth history into time

intervals known as eras and periods. We discuss how rocks
can be matched between separate regions using their fossils in
the section on Relative Time.

The Geologic Time Scale section provides a review the history

of Earth including the major changes in the biosphere over the
last half-billion years. We describe abrupt changes in the fossil
record with special emphasis on a mass extinction event that
wiped out most of life on Earth 250 million years ago. We
consider the factors that may contribute to mass extinctions and
why some species recover while others disappear.

The methods we use to measure time on a daily basis are

useless for delving into the history of Earth. Rather than
measuring time in minutes or years, we need techniques that
enable us to measure rocks that are millions of years old.
Numerical Time discusses how scientists attribute actual ages
to igneous and metamorphic rocks by analyzing the
spontaneous decay of radioactive isotopes.

Much of Earth appears fixed and unchanging when viewed

through the lens of human experience. However, as we look
more closely at the components of the Earth System we can
recognize changes that occur on a variety of time scales.
Geologic processes that occur over time intervals measured in
minutes to decades typically operate on a local or regional
scale and can often be observed directly. The patterns they
create can be matched to those preserved in older rocks to help
unravel some stories of the history of Earth. However, our
planet is estimated to be 4.6 billion years old and has been
shaped by processes that operate on time scales measured in
hundreds of millions of years. For example, the shape, size, and
positions of the continents and ocean basins have changed
dramatically throughout the geologic past. We must rely on our
interpretation of the characteristics of the incomplete rock
record to determine the temporal and spatial extent of such
events. In Rates of Change, we examine how different

4
geologic processes operate on a range of time scales measured
from seconds to hundreds of millions of years.

Relative Time
• Three simple rules, the principles of superposition, cross-
cutting relationships, and original horizontality, can be
applied to determine the sequence of formation of rock
units in a specific area.
• Continental-scale interpretations require the correlation of
sequences of rock units or fossils between different regions.

Local-Scale Interpretations
Relative time deals with the order of events. When using
relative time it is not important that we know when an event
occurred, but only that we know if it occurred before or after
another event. Sedimentary rocks lie uppermost in the crust. By
interpreting the sequence of layers (beds) in sedimentary rocks,
variations in the rocks themselves, and any associated igneous
or metamorphic rocks, we can unravel the geologic history of a
local area. When geologists examine a sequence of rocks they
apply several rules (principles) to help them determine the
relative order of events that occurred at that location.

Principle of Superposition
Sometimes papers pile up on my desk for several weeks before
I have time to put them away. The oldest papers are at the
bottom of the pile, the most recent additions near the top. The
same principle holds for stacking plates, cards, books or any
other flat objects. The lowermost objects must be placed first.
Rocks are no different. This is simple idea behind the principle
of superposition.

When we examine a series of undisturbed sedimentary rock

layers we assume the rocks at the bottom of the stack are the
oldest and the rocks at the top are the youngest (Fig. 3). The
image below shows beds at Dead Horse Point, Utah. Using the
principle of superposition we can assume that the beds at river
level are older than the beds higher on the slopes. The same

5
 Figure 3. Left: The
principle of
principle can be extended to apply to many forms of volcanic
superposition tells us
igneous rocks. Volcanic eruptions can produce layers from lava that the beds near the
flows or ash and other debris falling back to Earth. river are older than
the beds at the top of
the slope. Right: the
Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships layers are numbered
Older rocks may be cut by younger rocks or other geologic from oldest (1) to
features (Fig. 4). For example, an igneous intrusion must be youngest (4)
younger than the rock it intrudes. The pink rock (an igneous according to their
intrusion) in the image below cuts across the layering in a sequence of
boulder. The intrusion must have followed the formation of the formation.
surrounding rock. Similarly, a river channel is younger than the
rocks it cuts through. The Colorado River’s channel in the
image above was the last thing to form as it cuts across the
existing layering in the sedimentary rocks.

Figure 4. Top right: The broad diagonal band in the

image is an igneous intrusion that cuts across the
preexisting layering; therefore the intrusion must
have followed formation of the layering. Top left:
Place the lettered rock units in their correct
chronological sequence from oldest to youngest.
Left: Plutonic igneous rocks often incorporate
chunks of surrounding "country" rock during their
formation as inclusions, recognizable pieces of the
original rock.

6
 Igneous plutons often incorporate pieces of surrounding rocks
as magma forces its way upward through Earth's crust. These
Figure 5. Left: Tilted and isolated pieces may be completely melted to become part of the
folded layers near magma or may be preserved in their original form as
Greybull, Wyoming, inclusions (Fig. 4). A rock preserved as an inclusion must be
indicate that originally
older than the pluton in which it is found. This is a variation of
horizontal sedimentary
beds were deformed after the principle of cross-cutting relationships.
formation. Right: Layers 1,
2, and 3 were deposited in
order as horizontal beds; Principle of Original Horizontality
these layers were then Sedimentary rocks are deposited in nearly horizontal layers
uplifted, tilted and eroded (beds; Fig. 5). If layers are no longer horizontal they must have
before layer 4 was undergone deformation after formation. The majority of
deposited. Erosion sedimentary rocks are deposited under water. They may be
requires that the rocks pushed above sea level and tilted during the formation of
were uplifted above sea mountains. These processes expose rocks to weathering and
level and then re-
erosion that serves to erase parts of the geologic record as rock
submerged for layer 4 to
be deposited. units are worn away.

Applying the Rules

Identifying examples of these three principles in nature allows
geologists to reconstruct the geologic history of a rock

Figure 6. This block

diagram provides clues
to the geologic history of
an idealized region.
Units A, B, C, D, F, and
G are all sedimentary
rocks. Unit E is an
igneous pluton
composed of a rock such
as granite.

7
sequence. The geologic history of the figure below can be
deconstructed using the three principles (Figs. 6, 7).

Superposition: A lies below B so A Figure 7. The

must be the oldest unit. sequence of events
for the lowermost
Original horizontality: A, B, and C figure determined
must have been deposited as using the simple
horizontal layers. Because they rules of
have the same orientation we can superposition,
probably consider them a discrete cross-cutting
group that experienced a similar relationships, and
geological history. original horizontality.

Original horizontality: Because A, B,

and C are more steeply tilted than
the overlying units they must have
been uplifted and tilted early in the
geologic history of the region.

A, B, and C were subjected to

weathering and erosion at Earth's
surface. A relatively flat land surface
was formed by erosion. A significant
time interval may have passed while
erosion occurred. This eroded
surface is known as an
unconformity and is the physical
expression of a gap in time. An
unconformity occurs when no beds
are deposited or when part of the
rock record is removed by erosion.
Superposition: D must have been
deposited after C as it overlies B
and C.
Original horizontality: D was
deposited as a horizontal bed.
Cross-cutting: D must be younger
than B and C because it cuts across
the underlying layers.

Original horizontality: D is no longer

horizontal so it must have been
slightly tilted after formation. This
would also have increased the
inclination of layers A, B, and C.

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 Cross-cutting: All layers A through
D are cut by the younger igneous
pluton. The pluton contains
inclusions of layers B and C, further
indication that it must have formed
subsequent to the deposition of
those beds. We have no evidence
to tell us whether E formed before
or after D was tilted.

D and E were subjected to

weathering and erosion at Earth's
surface. A relatively flat land surface
was formed by erosion. A second
unconfomity surface is formed.

Superposition: Layers F and G must

have been deposited after E
because they lie atop all other
units.
Original horizontality: F and G were
deposited as horizontal beds.
Cross-cutting: F must be younger
than D and E because it cuts across
the underlying units. The river
carved a valley through the upper
part of G.

Think about it . . .
Examine the block diagram at the end of the chapter and
place the lettered units in their sequence of formation from
oldest to youngest. Can you also answer the questions
related to the rocks that accompany the diagram?

Continental-Scale Interpretations
The principles outlined above work well in distinguishing the
sequence of events for a specific region where the rocks remain
consistent. However, when we try to match rocks from
different areas of the U.S. and Canada we find that the rock
types often are not consistent even within different parts of the
same state or county. Consequently, if we are to determine the
geologic history of a continent we must use other methods to
correlate equivalent rock units separated by large distances.

9
How are we to determine if the thick layers of sandstone that
form the upper cliffs of the Grand Canyon, Arizona, are the
same sandstone beds that dominate the landscape of Dinosaur
National Monument along the Utah/Colorado state line? There
are two types of features that geologists use to correlate rock
units separated by hundreds or thousands of kilometers:
physical characteristics and fossil content.

Geologists long ago discovered that they could match similar

physical characteristics between sequences of multiple rock
units. For example, geologists may find two shale units with
similar characteristics (color, grain size, bed thickness) in
different parts of Utah (Fig. 8). Are these rocks the same age?
We can first compare the sequences of beds above and below
the shales to see if they match. The presence of relatively
unusual rock types such as salt or lava flows in a section often
aid correlation. If the physical characteristics of the beds are
similar we can form the hypothesis that the shale layers were
deposited at the same time.

Figure 8. Rock units

can be matched
between several
locations in northern
Arizona and Utah by
correlating specific
groups of units such
as the salt and
limestone units
toward the base of
the section and the
thick shale units
near the upper parts
of the sections.

The most straightforward method of correlating units is to

compare their fossil content. Some fossils extend over long
intervals of geologic time and are therefore found in many rock
units spanning millions of years. These units allow broad
correlations but make it difficult to match individual layers
between different regions. Geologists can make more precise
correlations using index fossils. Fossils that lived for relatively

10
 short periods are known as index fossils because they are
found in a only a few units. This makes them useful because
their appearance in the rock record represents a specific time
interval that can readily be identified and correlated between
different regions.

Paleontologists, geologists who study fossils, have applied

these methods not only to correlate the rocks of individual
continents but also to match rocks from around the world.
Consequently, they have been able to make interpretations
about Earth history based upon the characteristics of the rocks
themselves and the fossils they contain. The most recent 540
million years of Earth history is summarized in the section on
the Geologic Time Scale.

Geologic Time Scale

• Earth history is divided into four eons, the most recent of
which (Phanerozoic) is characterized by abundant fossils.
• The Phanerozoic is further divided into three eras separated
by mass extinction events.
• The fossil record has been interpreted to reveal the changes
in the biosphere over the most recent 600 million years of
Earth history.
Figure 9. Geologic
time is divided into Time can be considered in relative or absolute terms.
four long eons. The Geologists used relative time for a couple of centuries to
Hadean, Archean, arrange geologic events in the correct sequence (see Relative
and Proterozoic eons Time). Early in this century, scientists realized they could use
have not been
separated into shorter
time intervals
because of the
relative absence of
fossils. The
Phanerozoic, the
most recent eon, is
characterized by
abundant fossils that
allow it to be further
subdivided into three
eras that are in turn
broken down into
shorter time intervals
known as periods.

11
the radioactive decay of isotopes to determine the actual age of
some kinds of rocks and put dates on the sequence of events
(see Numerical Time).

The presence or absence of fossils has been used to compare

the relative ages of rocks around the world and to arrange
sedimentary rocks into a geologic time scale. Eons are the
largest intervals of the time scale and range from 540 to 2,050
million years in length (Fig. 9). The Earth was a hostile and
inhospitable place for most of its early history spanning much
of the first three eons. Life did not evolve beyond primitive
bacteria until the latter half of the Proterozoic eon and few
fossils were preserved until the Phanerozoic eon. Geologists
use the informal term Precambrian to refer to all geologic time
prior to the Phanerozoic.

Mass Extinctions
Rock units of the Phanerozoic eon have been assigned to three
eras of varying lengths based upon their fossils (Fig. 9). The
eras were further subdivided into shorter time intervals known
as periods; we recognize 12 periods (see Geologic Time
Scale). Rocks of the same age typically contain similar fossils.
The beginning of the oldest period, the Cambrian, signaled an
explosion of diversity within the biosphere. The number of
species represented by the fossil record increased progressively
from the Cambrian onward and evolving organisms left behind
more complex fossil forms moving forward in time.

Occasionally the diversity of life was threatened by mass

extinction events (Fig. 10) that resulted in the death of large
numbers of species. So dramatic were these events that the
assemblages of fossils formed prior to an extinction are
Figure 10. Biodiversity
as measured by the
number of families of
organisms over the last
600 million years.
Decreasing biodiversity
signals extinction
events. Five events are
highlighted with the
Permian-Triassic
extinction representing
the greatest drop in
biodiversity.

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substantially different from those found in rocks deposited
following the extinction event. These differences characterize
the three eras of the Phanerozoic eon. The mass extinction that
ended the reign of the dinosaurs occurred 65 million years ago
at the close of the Mesozoic era. This event is known as the
Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction or K-T event after the two
periods that lie on either side of the time boundary. No
dinosaurs survived the event and their places in nature were
taken over by mammals that had been a relatively minor group
until that point. This extinction is attributed to a large asteroid
or comet colliding with Earth.

Spectacular as the K-T extinction event was, it pales in

comparison to an even more widespread disruption of the
biosphere that occurred at the end of the Paleozoic era, 250
million years ago. This event is known as the Permian-
Triassic extinction or P-T event after the two periods that lie
on either side of the time boundary. The P-T mass extinction,
often called "The Great Dying," killed off up to 90% of all
marine species and 70% of land species. There are two basic
questions scientists hope to answer by studying such events:
What causes mass extinctions? and Why do some species
survive the event while others perish? In the case of the P-T
extinction scientists are closing in on a potential explanation of
the event that may help answer these questions.

The P-T event was global in scale and impacted both land and
marine species. Extinction was not instantaneous but occurred
over approximately 500,000 to 5 million years. Some groups of
organisms died off more rapidly in response to regional
environmental changes and others may have already been in
decline prior to the event. Geologists have identified several
phenomena that appear to have contributed to the global P-T
extinction.
• Sea-level dropped by nearly 100 meters as the size of the
world's ocean basins increased. Sea-level began to decline a
few million years before the culmination of the P-T
extinction. The drop in sea-level exposed much of the
shallow ocean floor around the continents that was home to
a majority of marine species. Organisms that lived directly
on the sea floor were more likely to be wiped out than those
that were more active swimmers.
• 251 million years ago there was a massive eruption of
lava in Siberia, northeastern Russia. Over 1.6 million
square kilometers (1 million square miles) was covered
with lava, an area equivalent to the western half of the

13
 conterminous U.S. Volcanic dust blocked incoming solar
radiation resulting in a short-term cooling and sulfur
dioxide and other gases would have contributed to
widespread acid rain. Carbon dioxide emissions from the
eruptions exaggerated the global greenhouse effect,
increasing long-term global temperatures following the
eruption.
• A large asteroid is suspected of colliding with Earth
approximately 250 million years ago. The impact site has
not been found but scientists have discovered chemical
substances in P-T rocks that are considered indicative of an
impact event.

Although none of these events would have caused a mass

extinction on the scale of the P-T event on their own, together
their combined effects resulted in a massive change in Earth's
physical and chemical environments. Those species that were
able to adapt to the changes survived to thrive in the Mesozoic
era that followed whereas others breathed for the last time and
their remains became part of the fossil record.

The Geologic Time Scale

The table below divides the Phanerozoic eon into its
constituent eras and periods and describes the evolution of the
biosphere through the most recent interval of Earth history.

Think about it . . .
Develop a metaphor for geologic time. Select some of the
most significant geologic events from the geologic time
scale and convert them into your own metaphor. Go here
to view an example of a time metaphor and learn how to
construct your own.

14
 The Geologic Time Scale
TIME
ERA PERIOD REMARKS
(Myrs)
Ice Age over North America – large mammals
Quaternary abundant (e.g., mastodons, mammoths)
1.6 - 0
Cenozoic Age of Mammals began – first elephants,
Tertiary horses, deer, bears – earliest human ancestors 66 - 1.6
appeared at the end of the period
Dinosaurs dominated the earth (tyrannosaurus)
– first grasses and flowering plants appeared –
Cretaceous dinosaurs wiped out by an extinction event at
144 - 66
the end of the period
Atlantic ocean began to form – first birds
Mesozoic Jurassic appeared – dinosaurs and flying reptiles 208 - 144
(pterosaurs) common
Pangaea began to split apart – reptiles
Triassic dominated the earth – some early dinosaurs – 250 -208
earliest mammals appeared – first conifers
Much marine life was wiped out in a massive
Permian extinction at the end of the Permian
288 - 250
Appalachian Mountains formed when North
America collided with Africa – insects and early
Pennsylvanian reptiles on land – first evergreen trees
320 - 288
appeared
Shallow tropical oceans covered much of the
Mississippian interior of North America - marine fossils in 360 - 320
limestone common
Age of Fishes – first land animals (tetrapods:
Paleozoic Devonian amphibians and insects) – first seed plants, 408 - 360
trees, and forests
First life on land represented by primitive plants
(ferns, mosses) – first fish with jaws appeared -
Silurian much of North America was under a shallow
438 - 408
tropical sea with abundant reefs
North America was near the equator –
Ordovician abundant marine life
505 - 438
Explosion of organisms with hard skeletons
Cambrian (that can be preserved as fossils) occurred at 540 - 505
beginning of Cambrian
Fossils rare in Precambrian rocks – soft-bodied
540 –
Precambrian organisms present in the youngest
4,600
Precambrian rocks

15
Numerical Time
• Radioactive decay of unstable isotopes can be used to
determine the age of igneous and metamorphic rocks.
• Radioactive decay occurs when a parent isotope gains or
loses protons, neutrons, and/or electrons as it is converted
to a daughter atom.
• The half-life is the length of time taken for half of the
radioactive material to decay.

The geologic time scale was established before scientists

discovered a method for accurately determining the age of
rocks. Early attempts to determine the age of Earth were based
on an incomplete understanding of the rates of geologic
processes and yielded ages that were much younger than the
actual age of formation (4.6 billion years). Scientists estimated
Earth to be at least several million years old but it was not until
the discovery of the radioactive decay of uranium that science
was able to provide a potential method for accurately
determining the age of certain rocks.

Radioactive Decay
Each chemical element has a specific number of protons and
neutrons in its nucleus. The number of protons is the atomic
number, the number of protons and neutrons combined is the
mass number. Atoms with different numbers of neutrons in
their nucleus are isotopes. For example, the element potassium
has three isotopes. Potassium’s atomic number is always 19 but
its mass number may be 39, 40, or 41 depending on the number
of neutrons (20, 21, 22). These isotopes are identified as 39K,
40
K, and 41K.

Some isotopes are unstable and will spontaneously decay to a

more stable form. The unstable original isotope is termed the
parent isotope, the stable product of the decay is the daughter
atom. For example, 40K decays to 40Ar (argon) and 40Ca
(calcium). Decay begins when the element is originally formed
such as during the cooling of magma or when elements
recombine to form new minerals under changing physical
conditions as a result of metamorphism.

Radioactive decay occurs when the parent isotope gains or

loses particles. Protons in the nucleus may become neutral with

16
 the addition of an electron or neutrons may gain a positive
charge and become protons with the loss of an electron.

Change Change
Particles Changes in Atomic in Mass
Number Number
Alpha Two protons and two
-2 -4
decay neutrons lost from nucleus
Beta Neutron loses an electron,
+1 0
decay and is converted to a proton
Electron Proton captures an electron
-1 0
capture and is converted to a neutron

The mass number (40) stays the same when 40K decays to 40Ar
but the atomic number decreases by one. In contrast, when 40K
decays to 40Ca, the atomic number increases by 1. The first
process is an example of electron capture, the second is the
result of beta decay.

Alpha decay occurs when there are large changes in the mass
number between the parent and daughter isotopes. For
example, eight alpha particles and six beta particles are
released when 238U (uranium) decays to 206Pb (lead). The mass
number decreases by 32 and the atomic number decreases from
92 to 82 (-16 from alpha decay and +6 from beta decay).

Think about it . . .
1. What type of decay converts radium 226Ra (radium) to
222
Rn (radon)?
14
2. C has six protons and eight neutrons and converts to
14N which has seven protons and seven neutrons.
What type of decay converts 14C and 14N?

Half-lives
Radioactive decay is measured in half-lives. The half-life of an
isotope is the time taken for half of the parent isotopes to
decrease to daughter atoms. The relative proportions of parent
and daughter are used to determine the number of half-lives
(Fig. 11).

Prior to decay, 100% of the parent exists and no daughter

products have been formed. After one half-life 50% of the
parent remains and the other 50% of the atoms are converted to
daughter atoms. After two half-lives the number of parent

17
 Figure 11. Plot of
the variation of
parent and daughter
isotopes for an
idealized example of
radioactive decay.

isotopes is again halved (25%) and the number of daughter

atoms increases by an equivalent amount (to 75%).

Number of Parent Isotopes Daughter Isotopes

Half-lives (% total isotopes) (% total isotopes)
0 100 0
1 50 50
2 25 75
3 12.5 87.5

The relative proportion of parent and daughter atoms can be

used to determine how many half-lives have passed since the
formation of the mineral that contained the radioactive
isotopes. With the exception of 14C (carbon-14), the half-life
lengths for the most common radioactive isotopes are measured
in millions or billions of years. 14C can be used to date items up
to approximately 50,000 years of age. It has been used to date
cloth fragments from Egyptian pyramids and charcoal found in
a rock shelter at one of the oldest sites of habitation in North
America. Isotopes with half-lives measured in billions of years
can be used to measure the ages of the oldest rocks in the
world. The oldest recorded date is approximately 4 billion
years for some rocks in northern Canada.

Parent Isotope Daughter Product Length of Half-life

238 206
Uranium 238 ( U) Lead 206 ( Pb) 4.5 billion years
235 207
Uranium 235 ( U) Lead 207 ( Pb) 704 million years
87 87
Rubidium 87 ( Rb) Strontium 87 ( Sr) 48.8 billion years
40 40
Potassium 40 ( K) Argon 40 ( Ar) 1.25 billion years
14 14
Carbon 14 ( C) Nitrogen ( N) 5,730 years

18
 Radioactive decay begins when an igneous or metamorphic
rock cools below a specific setting temperature. Sedimentary
rocks may be formed from minerals weathered from other
rocks. Minerals found in sedimentary rocks cannot be used to
date the formation of the rock itself but instead give the age of
the igneous or metamorphic rock in which the mineral was first
formed.

Think about it . . .
1. Isotope X has a half-life of 10 days. If you began an
experiment with a 400-gram sample of the isotope, how
much would be left after 40 days?
a) 100 b) 50 c) 40 d) 25 e) 20
2. The world's oldest known rock is approximately 4 billion
(4,000 million) years old (actually 3.96 Byrs). What are
the approximate relative percentages of parent and
daughter isotopes for uranium-238 and lead-206?
a) 75% parent and 25% daughter
b) 55% parent and 45% daughter
c) 45% parent and 55% daughter
d) 25% parent and 75% daughter

Using Relative and Absolute Time

Sedimentary rocks are arranged in relative chronological order
using relative dating methods discussed above. The absolute
age of these rocks can be determined using the cross-cutting
relationships for igneous intrusions and the principle of
superposition for layers of volcanic ash or lava flows (Fig. 12).
Dates can be obtained for the igneous rocks that will act to
bracket the formation of the adjoining sedimentary layers.
Although highly effective, such techniques are limited to

Figure 12. Relative

time and absolute
time elements can
be used together to
determine the ages
of sedimentary
rocks. For example,
bed 9 must be older
than the 55 Myr old
pluton (intrusion) but
younger than the 70
Myr intrusion.

19
regions where there are enough igneous rocks to provide a
sufficient range of ages to constrain the associated sedimentary
rocks.

The igneous rocks in Figure 12 have been dated by radioactive

decay techniques and have yielded the dates shown on the
diagram. Based on this information we can bracket the age
ranges of the sedimentary units labeled 1 to 5 and 9 and 10.
• Beds 1 to 5 are greater than 70 million years old because
they are cut by all the intrusions and must be older than the
oldest intrusion.
• Bed 9 truncates the oldest intrusion but is cut by the
younger intrusion, therefore it must be between 55-70
million years old.
• Bed 10 is younger than bed 9 (superposition) but the
relationship between the 55 Myr intrusion and bed 10 is
unresolved because we can't tell from the information
available if the bed truncates the intrusion or the intrusion
cuts the bed. However, the bed is overlain by a lava flow
dated as 30 Myrs old so we can estimate the age range for
bed 10 as between 30-70 million years old.

Think about it . . .
Examine the block diagram found at the end of the chapter
and identify the age range for bed G given the following
data: pluton I is 180 million years old; pluton A is 145
million years old; and lava flow C is 60 million years old.

Rates of Change
• Uniformitarianism is the theory that the geologic processes
operating today operated in the geologic past in much the
same manner.
• Catastrophism assumes that features on Earth's surface
formed by geologic processes that are no longer active

Prior to the acceptance of the scientific method people

recognized the grandeur of the landscape but could not identify
how it developed. Features such as mountains and oceans were

20
Figure 13. The mud
cracks in the image on
the left formed on the
floor of a quarry in
West Virginia. The
features on the right
are ancient mud cracks
preserved in rocks of
the quarry wall that are
over 400 million years
old.
assumed to have formed by catastrophic events beyond
comprehension. This perspective is known as catastrophism.

Today we know that most of the features on Earth’s surface are

formed by steady, gradual processes operating over very long
time periods of thousands or millions of years.
Uniformitarianism is the theory that the geologic processes that
operate today also operated in the geological past in much the
same manner, that Earth processes are uniform over time (Fig.
13).

The principle of uniformitarianism was proposed by Scottish

scientist James Hutton over 200 years ago and represented an
early geologic example of the use of the scientific method. One
discovery that followed from Hutton’s observations was that
Earth was much older than had previously been thought. It was
realized that the slow pace of most geologic processes required
millions of years to erode mountains and form oceans. What
was not realized was just how many million years were
required. Not all processes work so slowly. High-energy
processes such as wave action or flood events may erode less
resistant earth materials over short time intervals measured in
days or decades (Fig. 14).

Figure 14. Erosion of

Although uniformitarianism is widely accepted it does not
Jump-Off Joe sea account for every feature on Earth. Some processes, such as an
stack along the Oregon asteroid or comet impact, have occurred infrequently during
coast from 1890 (top), the geologic past. Consequently, it is necessary that we
1920 (middle), and recognize that some events are catastrophic in nature and
1970 (bottom). Erosion although they are not unique in the history of Earth, they are
of the relatively weak relatively rare.
rocks of the sea stack
is an example of a Events that take millions of years:
geologic process that • Opening/closure of ocean basins;
has occurred on
• Uplift of mountain ranges;
human time scales.
Image from USGS. • Evolutionary changes in plants, animals;

21
• An ice age;
• Mass extinctions;
• Carving the Grand Canyon.

Events that take thousands of years:

• Formation of fertile soils;
• Lifetime of giant redwoods;
• Circulation of deep ocean waters;
• Migration of peoples through North America.

Events that take hundreds of years:

• Growth of major U.S. cities;
• Erosion of sea stacks;
• Build up to earthquakes or volcanic eruptions;
• Doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide.

Events that take years:

• Circulation of surface currents in oceans;
• Advance/retreat of glaciers;
• Cooling resulting from large volcanic eruptions or asteroid
impact events.

Events that take weeks or months:

• Floods;
• Hurricanes;
• Large volcanic eruptions;
• Seasonal climate changes.

Events that take hours or days:

• Earthquakes and their aftershocks;
• Small volcanic eruptions;
• Most landslides.

Summary
1. What are the dimensions of geologic time?
The Earth is 4.6 billion years old. Many geologic processes
operate on time scales measured in millions of years whereas
human time scales are obviously much shorter. We must rely
on a combination of the use of fossils and the radioactive decay
of certain isotopes to assign ages to rocks.

22
2. What are the oldest life forms on Earth?
The oldest evidence for life is represented by fossilized
bacteria that are about 3.5 billion years old. The early Earth
was a much more hostile and changeable environment than our
planet today, making it difficult for life to establish a foothold.
It is likely that the first bacteria where heat-loving, living in hot
springs. Primitive life may actually have evolved earlier and
been wiped out several times as the oldest known rocks are
nearly four billion years old and contain the basic elements
necessary for metabolic processes in organisms.

3. What is the difference between relative and numerical

time?
Relative time places events in order; numerical time determines
the ages of rocks (in millions of years).

4. How do we determine the order of geologic events?

Geologists apply three simple rules to determine the order in
which rocks formed. These principles are: superposition -
younger rocks on top of older rocks; cross-cutting relations -
younger rocks cut across older rocks; and original horizontality
- sedimentary rocks are initially formed as horizontal layers.
We can couple these rules with a knowledge of how rocks form
to unravel the geologic history of a rock sequence.

5. How do geologists compare the ages of rocks from

different regions?
The rules described above work well in relatively small areas
where rocks are well exposed but how do we know if two
limestone layers from different parts of the country are the
same age? In this case we must use other methods because the
layers are not in contact with each other. The sequence of rocks
above and below the limestone bed may be consistent,
indicating the rocks were formed under similar conditions. The
better the match of units, the greater the likelihood that the
layers can be correlated. The fossil content of the beds can
provide evidence on their relative ages. More diverse, complex
fossils are present in younger rocks (more time for evolution).
If the fossils are the same the ages of the rocks are probably
similar.

6. How is geologic time divided?

Just as we divide a year up into four parts termed the seasons,
we can divide the history of Earth into four long time intervals
known as eons. Unlike the seasons, eons are of different
lengths. From oldest to youngest they are the Hadean, Archean,

23
Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic. Only the latter eon is further
subdivided because it is the only one to contain abundant
fossils that can be used to arrange rocks in their relative order
of formation. The Phanerozoic represents 540 million years,
but just 12% of all Earth history. It is subdivided into three eras
(Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic), each characterized by
changing fossil assemblages. Each era can be further divided
into shorter time intervals tens of millions of years in length
called periods.

7. Why did the biosphere change during the Phanerozoic eon?

Life evolved from simple to more complex forms throughout
the Phanerozoic. Both the number of species and the
complexity of life show an gradual increase but there were
several occasions when conditions changed causing many
species to become extinct at the same time. These events are
known as mass extinctions. Two of the greatest mass
extinctions mark the boundaries between the eras. These
changes were typically global in scale and geologically sudden
occurring in less than a million years. When some species were
wiped out, others took their places. For example, the extinction
of the dinosaurs made possible the expansion of the mammals.

8. What were the major changes in the biosphere in the

Phanerozoic?
The Paleozoic era was characterized by organisms with the
first hard skeletons. Early life was exclusively marine and the
first land plants and animals did not appear until about half-
way through the era. The most diverse life forms were in
oceans with the Devonian period christened the "Age of
Fishes." Early reptiles and insects only appeared toward the
close of the Paleozoic era that ended with the most extensive
extinction event in geologic history, wiping out the majority of
life on Earth. Life was considerably different in the following
Mesozoic era. Dinosaurs dominated the land and we see the
first birds, grasses, and flowering plants. This era also ended
with the infamous extinction of the dinosaurs resulting in the
Cenozoic era being subtitled the "Age of Mammals." The
diversity of life forms increased through the Cenozoic to give
us the organisms we see today.

9. What is uniformitarianism?
Uniformitarianism is the theory that the geological processes
that operate today also operated in the geological past in much
the same manner (i.e., that earth processes are uniform over
time).

24
10. Do all geologic processes take millions of years?
No. Some earth processes such as earthquakes may take just
seconds to occur whereas others such as the formation of a
mountain range typically take millions of years. Short-term
events often leave little evidence of their passing in the
geologic record or may be overprinted by later larger-scale
phenomena. Geologists can recognize where ancient mountains
were located and when they formed but could not identify
when and where a single earthquake or flood occurred millions
of years ago. Consequently, when we pick apart the history of
Earth we tend to emphasize large-scale and/or long-term
events.

25
Relative Order of Geologic Events
Use the laws of superposition, cross-cutting relationships, and
original horizontality to unravel the sequence of formation of
the diagrams illustrated below.

Determine the order of events for the idealized location shown

in the figure below.

Identify which rock units best match the descriptions below

_____ Interbedded layers of rocks that indicate alternating

shallow marine environments and freshwater swamps in
tropical conditions.
_____ An erosional surface (unconformity surface) overlain
by coarse (large) grained clastic sedimentary rocks.
_____ An example of a plutonic igneous rock.
_____ Rock containing a foliation.
_____ Most recently deposited sedimentary rock.
_____ Sedimentary bed that has undergone contact
metamorphism on its uppermost surface.
_____ Basalt.

26
Geologic Time Metaphor
If all of geologic time were proportional to the length of a
football field (100 yards), the Earth would have formed at the
opposing team's goal line (100 yards) and present day would
represent the home team's goal line (0 yards).

The general equation that can be used to calculate the

dimensions of any geologic time metaphor is:
(Y/A) x MM = UV
where Y =years before present; A = age of Earth; MM =
metaphor maximum; and UV = metaphor unknown value.

Example using a metaphor of a 100-yard football field:

Oldest fossil bacteria = 3500 million years old
Age of Earth = 4,600 million years
Metaphor maximum = 100 yards
Metaphor value = (3,500,000,000/4,600,000,000) x 100
= 76 yds

In other words, we would have traveled about a quarter of the

length of the football field from the opposing team's goal line
before the most primitive life forms first appeared in the
geologic record

Key football field metaphor dimensions:

• 100 yards = 4,600 million years
• 1 foot = 15.3 million years
• 10 yards = 460 million years
• 1 inch = 1.3 million years
• 1 yard = 46 million years
• inches = 130,000 years
• 0.0000008 inches = 1 year

Distance from Time Event

Home Team's Goal (million years)
Line
100 yards 4,600 Earth formed
76 yards 3,500 Oldest fossil bacteria
43 yards 2,000 First oxygen in the
atmosphere
12 yards 540 Hard skeletons become
common (fossils)
5.4 yards 250 Widespread extinction ends
Paleozoic Era
1.4 yards 65 Dinosaurs become extinct
2.3 inches 3 Early human ancestors
0.00036 inches 0.00051 Columbus landed, 1492

27
Develop your own metaphor for geologic time and describe it
in the space below. Choose some of the most significant
geologic events from the geologic time scale and convert them
into your own metaphor using the equation above.

Don’t try to be too detailed in your analysis. The intention here

is to recognize the length of the geologic time scale and the
relative position of key events. Approximate lengths, distances,
heights, widths, depths, sizes, time periods, etc. are OK as long
as you recognize the relative proportions of the time intervals.

28