STS Intellectual Revolution PDF

INTELLECTUAL
REVOLUTIONS
THE BIRTH
OF
MODERN
SCIENCE
The Birth of Modern Science
Western science was born in Ancient Greece.
Greeks were the first to explain the world in terms
of natural law instead of myths about gods and
goddesses. Everything they learned about the
natural world had to be done with the unaided
senses and whatever rational deductions they could
make based on them.
ARISTOTLE
Created a body of theory
Three basic observations laid the
foundations for Aristotle’s view of the
universe and laws of motion:
oTheory of elements – Democritus’
atomic theory; and the basic states of
matter: solid, liquid, gas, plus fire, which
Greeks saw as an element.
oObservation that the stars, sun, planets,
and moon seem to orbit the earth in
perfect circles.
ARISTOTLE
oAll dropped objects seem to fall toward
the center of the earth.
The theory of elements and the perfect
circular orbit of celestial bodies around the
earth gave rise to the idea that the
celestial bodies were made of a perfect
element called ether.
The motion of dropped objects toward the
center of the earth and the apparent orbits
of the heavenly bodies around the earth
led to the geocentric theory.
GEO
CEN
TRIC
 Born in 90 A.D
 Roman astronomer, geographer,
astrologer, mathematician
 One of his contributions was the
detailed geocentric model of the
solar system
 This description of the universe was
accepted by the astronomical
community for more than ten
thousand years until the Copernican
System gained acceptance.
 The Geocentric Model is often named as
Ptolemaic model
 Ptolemy's model of the universe assumes that the
Earth was the center of the universe, while the
other celestial bodies revolved around the Earth in
perfect circles with constant velocity. Ptolemy
assumed that the planets revolved on epicycles
(small spheres) which moved around the deferent
(larger sphere). He added that the stars belonged
to the celestial sphere which was located beyond
the planetary spheres.
The Downfall of Aristotle
There were several factors that worked both to overthrow
Aristotle’s system and to preserve it.
1. Aristotle’s theories relied very little on experiment.
2. The Church had grafted Aristotle’s theories onto its
theology.
3. There were the Renaissance scholars who were
uncovering other Greek authors who contradicted
Aristotle.
The Downfall of Aristotle
These factors encouraged the scholars to think for
themselves and find a new theory that worked. This
encouraged skepticism, freethinking, and
experimentation, all of which are essential parts of
modern science.
COPERNICAN
REVOLUTION
Born in 1473 in Torun, Prussia(Poland)
and raised by German parents
Raised by uncle who became a bishop
in the Catholic Church
Went to University of Cracow
Studied medicine, but discovered
ancient classics of math and
astronomy
Lived at his uncle’s castle as house
physician for six years
Published De Revolutionibus
Orbium Coelestium (The
Revolution of Celestial Spheres) :
Heliocentric Model
Copernicus’ model explained the
observed motions of the planets
More simply than Ptolemy’s model by
assuming that a central sun around which all
planets rotated, with the slower planets
having orbits farther than the sun
He was influenced by a strong Neo-Platonist
tradition which sought the meaning of life in
mysteries that may seem to defy common
sense.
Symbolic value of sun: “Giver of Life”
Earth, a planet like others, all circling
the sun
Moon circling Earth
Earth has 3 motions:
1. Daily rotation - replacing the
movement of the sphere of the fixed
start.
2. Annual revolution around the sun -
accounting for retrograde motion
3. 3rd Motion - an annual rotation
about an axis perpendicular to the
ecliptic change in earth’s axis
relative to the sun.
 Fixed stars truly fixed now. Sphere of
the fixed stars motionless.
 No equant
If earth is not the centre of the sphere of the fixed stars, but in
orbit around the centre, it should see the stars at varying angles
at different times of year. Therefore there should be stellar
parallax seen. But none is seen.
The heliocentric model was eventually
universally accepted by the scientific
community, but it spread quite slowly.
If the Earth moves in circles around

the Sun, nearby stars will appear in
different positions at different times of
the year. Since the stars are fixed they
must be very far away but then they should
be enormous and this is ``unreasonable'‘.
DARWINIAN
REVOLUTION
 English naturalist, geologist, and
biologist
 Born on February 12, 1809 in
Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England
 Died on April 18, 1882 in Downe, Kent
 From 1831 to 1836, he was part of a
survey expedition carried out by the
ship HMS Beagle, which included stops
in South America, Australia, and the
southern tip of Africa.
 He observed and studied birds, fossils,
and plants that led him to believe that
the specie we know today had
gradually evolved from common
ancestors.
 Upon his return to England in 1836, he
began to develop a revolutionary
theory about the origin of living beings
that was contrary to the popular view
of other naturalists at the time.
 On November 24, 1859, he published a
detailed explanation of his theory in
his best-known work, On the Origin of
Species by Means of Natural Selection.
 The mechanism that Darwin proposed
for evolution is natural
selection. Natural selection, process
that results in the adaptation of an
organism to its environment.
 Darwin defined evolution as "descent
with modification," the idea that
species change over time, give rise to
new species, and share a common
ancestor.
 Descent with modification is simply
passing traits from parent to offspring
 Darwin’s theory of evolution and the
process of natural selection later
became known simply as “Darwinism.”
 Charles Darwin's theory was
controversial because of the idea
that life on earth is the product of
purely natural causes, not the hand
of God. It sparked a massive debate
between science and religion.
DARWINIAN
AND
CREATIONISM
 CREATIONISM – the belief that
the universe and the various
forms of life were created by God
out of nothing
 DARWINISM – the theory of the
evolution of species by natural
selection advanced by Charles
Darwin
“It is just as noble as conception of the Deity to believe that He created a few
original forms capable of self-development into other and needful forms, as to
believe that He required a fresh act of creation to supply the voids caused by
the action of His laws.”
- Rev. Charles Kingsley, Anglican priest of the Church of England
He was the very first person who wrote a

response about Charles Darwin’s famous
book On the Origin of Species By Means
of Natural Selection.
“Darwinism appeared, and, under the guise of a foe, did the
work of a friend.”
- Rev. Aubrey Moore, English Anglo-Catholic priest
He accepted the theory of natural

selection, incorporating it into his
Christian beliefs as merely the way God
worked. For the Christian theologian the
facts of nature are the acts of God.
“Pope Pius XII said that Catholic teachings on creation could
coexist with evolutionary theory.”
“The theory’s premise is that the theory of evolution is true

and God used it as the mechanism with which he created
everything.” - John Lennox, Cambridge Professor
FREUDIAN
REVOLUTION
 born on May 6, 1856
 an Austrian neurologist who developed
psychoanalysis
 he is one of the scientists to make
serious research of the mind
 he died in England on September 23,
1939 at the age of 83 because of suicide.
He requested a lethal dose of morphine
from his doctor, following a long and
painful battle with oral cancer
PSYCHOANALYSIS
 It is a type of therapy that aims to release repressed
emotions and memories to lead the client to catharsis,
or healing (McLeod, 2014). In other words, the goal of
psychoanalysis is to bring that which is at the
unconscious or subconscious level up to consciousness.
 Is based on the concept that individuals are unaware of
the many factors that cause their behavior and
emotions. These unconscious factors have the potential
to produce unhappiness.
 It seeks to explain the complex relationship between
the body and the mind and furthers the understanding
of the role of emotions in medical illness and health.
 It is a method of understanding mental functioning and
the stages of growth and development.
 Psychoanalytic treatment have formed the basis for
other treatment programs in child psychiatry, family
therapy, and general psychiatric practice.
Psychoanalysis is a treatment for:
Anxiety disorders such as:
 phobias
 panic attacks
 obsessive-compulsive disorders and
 post-traumatic stress disorder
 depression
 sexual problems
 self-destructive behaviour
Psychoanalyst will listen to your story and take note
of the events and patterns from your early life that
could be significant to your behaviour in the present.
Other techniques may include:
Free association
Therapeutic transference
Dream interpretation
 Patient of Dr. Freud’s colleague, Dr. Josef Breuer
 A young woman who was diagnosed with Hysteria with a series
of symptoms that included visual disturbances, hallucinations,
partial paralysis, headaches, and speech problems.
 Dr. Breuer had conducted a treatment which includes talking
about her past experiences. This treatment gave relief to the
young woman which she called the “talking cure”.
 Her hysteria was rooted in childhood sexual abuse according to
Freud.
1. Conscious - this is where our
current thoughts, feelings, and focus
live
2. Preconscious (sometimes called
the subconscious): this is the home of
everything we can recall or retrieve
from our memory.
3. Unconscious: at the deepest level
resides a repository of the processes
that drive our behavior, including
primitive and instinctual desires.
1. ID - the id operates entirely at an unconscious level
and focuses solely on basic, instinctual drives and desires.
According to Freud, two biological instincts make up the
id:
a. Eros, or the instinct to survive that drives us to
engage in life-sustaining activities.
b. Thanatos, or the death instinct that drives
destructive, aggressive, and violent behavior.
2. EGO - The ego provides the immediate reaction to the
events of reality. The ego is the first line of defense
between the self and the outside world. It tries to balance
the two extremes of the id and the superego.
3. SUPEREGO - the superego is the portion of the mind

in which morality and higher principles reside, encouraging
us to act in socially and morally acceptable ways (McLeod,
2013).

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INTELLECTUAL

If the Earth moves in circles around

He was the very first person who wrote a

He accepted the theory of natural

“The theory’s premise is that the theory of evolution is true

3. SUPEREGO - the superego is the portion of the mind

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