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Communication Systems: Pulse Code Modulation

The document discusses pulse code modulation (PCM) and its types. It begins by stating the goals of discussing PCM, linear PCM, and non-linear PCM. It then provides details on PCM including how it converts analog signals to digital codes using sampling, quantization, and encoding. It describes linear PCM which uses equal quantization levels and flash analog-to-digital conversion. The document concludes by explaining issues with linear PCM and how non-linear PCM addresses them through compressed quantization levels at low amplitudes and expanded levels at high amplitudes.

Uploaded by

Mubashir Ghaffar
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
43 views

Communication Systems: Pulse Code Modulation

The document discusses pulse code modulation (PCM) and its types. It begins by stating the goals of discussing PCM, linear PCM, and non-linear PCM. It then provides details on PCM including how it converts analog signals to digital codes using sampling, quantization, and encoding. It describes linear PCM which uses equal quantization levels and flash analog-to-digital conversion. The document concludes by explaining issues with linear PCM and how non-linear PCM addresses them through compressed quantization levels at low amplitudes and expanded levels at high amplitudes.

Uploaded by

Mubashir Ghaffar
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
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Communication

Systems

Pulse Code
Modulation
By
Engr. Jawwad Ahmad (Ph.D.)

1
Today’s Goal
 PCM

 Linear PCM

 Non Linear PCM

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 2


Pulse Code Modulation
 PCM is a digital transmission system with an analog-to-digital
converter (ADC) at the input and a digital-to-analog converter
(DAC) at the output.
 PCM convert each sample of digital time samples (DTS) into
digital code word.
 A digital code word is generated corresponding to each
sample.
 The steps are Sampling, Quantization and Encoding
(converted to serial).

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 3


Pulse Code Modulation

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 4



Pulse Code
Sampling generates Discrete
Modulation
Time Continuous Value
(DTCV) or Discrete Time
Continuous Amplitude
(DTCA) signal.
 Continuous amplitude is
adjusted to fit into digital code
that is, to develop Discrete Time
Discrete Amplitude (DTDA)
signal.

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 5


Quantization
 Two methods are there to convert DTCA to DTDA.
 Approximation.

 Truncation

 The number of quantized level (L) are 2n, where n is an integer


and it is actually number of encoding bits.

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 6


Encoding
 This uses logic circuitry.

 A two bit PCM generator is to be considered.

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 7


V Sampling,
o Quantization and
l Coding
t
a
g
e
Time
7 111
L 6 110 B
e 101 i C
5
v 4 100 n o
e 3 011 a d
l 2 010 e
r
s 1 001 s
0 000 y
Time
V
o 010101110111110101010
l
t
a
g
e
Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 8
Time
x(t)

0
t

Consider the analog Signal x(t).

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 9


x[n]

0
n

The signal is first sampled

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 10


3

0
n

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 11


3

0
n

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 12


3

Sample n

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 13


3

And Hold n

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 14


3

0
n

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 15


Assign Closest
Level
3

0
n

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 16


3

0
n

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 17


3

0
n

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 18


3

0
n

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 19


3

0
n

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 20


Each quantization level corresponds to a unique combination of
bits. The analog signal is transmitted/ stored as a stream of bits
and reconstructed when required.
3

0
n

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 21


Each quantization level corresponds to a unique combination of
bits. The analog signal is transmitted/ stored as a stream of bits
and reconstructed when required.
3

0
n
00 01 10 11 10 01 00

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 22


x(t) Original Signal

0
t

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 23


x~(t)
Quantized Signal

0
t
It is quite apparent that the quantized signal is not exactly the same as the original
analog signal. There is a fair degree of quantization error here. However; as the
number of quantization levels is increased the quantization error is reduced and
the quantized signal gets closer and closer to the original signal
Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 24
x~(t)
Quantized Signal

0
t
It is quite apparent that the quantized signal is not exactly the same as the original
analog signal. There is a fair degree of quantization error here. However; as the
number of quantization levels is increased the quantization error is reduced and the
quantized signal gets closer and closer to the original signal
Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 25
Quantization and Encoding of a Sampled signal

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 26


Flash Type Linear PCM (ADC)
 Flash Type ADC is based on the principle of comparing analog
input voltage with a set of reference voltages.
 Since all the quantization level are equal linear PCM
generated, hence known as Linear PCM.
 To convert the analog input voltage into a digital signal of n-bit
output, (2n – 1) comparators are required.
 The three op-amps are used as comparators.

 The non-inverting inputs of all the three comparators are


connected to the analog input voltage.

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 27


Flash Type Linear PCM (ADC)
 The inverting terminals are connected to a set of reference
voltages (V/4), (2V/4) and (3V/4) respectively which are obtained
using a resistive divider network and power supply +V.

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 28


Flash Type Linear PCM (ADC)
 The output of the comparator is at logic 1, when voltage at
non-inverting terminal is greater than voltage at inverting
terminal and is in negative saturation otherwise, as shown.

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 29


Flash Type Linear PCM (ADC)
Consider first condition, where analog input voltage V is less
 in

than (V/4).
 In this case, the voltage at the non-inverting terminals of all the
three comparators is less than the respective voltages at
inverting terminals and hence the comparator outputs are
C1C2C3 = 000.
 This comparator outputs are applied to the further coding
circuit to get the digital outputs as B1B0 = 00.
 Similarly the digital outputs are calculated for other three
conditions also.
Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 30
Flash Type Linear PCM (ADC)
 To obtain serial PCM, use parallel to serial convertor.

 It is the fastest type of ADC because the conversion is


performed simultaneously through a set of comparators, hence
referred as flash type ADC.
 The construction is simple and easier to design.

 It is not suitable for higher number of bits.

 To convert the analog input voltage into a digital signal of n-bit


output, (2n – 1) comparators are required.

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 31



Non-Linear PCM
The magnitude change between two quantize levels is not
uniform rather the step size increases with the amplitude of the
input signal.
 Non-Linear PCM is very complicated but it is widely in use.

 PCM was first used in Telephony by AT&T (American


Telephone & Telegraph, USA) under the supervision of board
named as CCITT (Consultative Committee for International
Telegraphy and Telephony).
 The committee concluded that PCM did not work properly.

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 32



Non-Linear PCM
Problems were observed regarding SNR (Signal to Noise
Ratio) variation.
 SNR varied over 40dB for
 Close and Far Users

 Faint and Loud Talkers

 Problem was investigated and it was found that the problem


was due to uniform quantization levels for each case, i.e.,
linear PCM.
 Solution was suggested to be Nonlinear or Companded PCM.

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 33


Non-Linear PCM

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 34



Non-Linear PCM
In actual the solution was to use compress quantized level at
the start of the scale and then expanded quantized levels for
higher values.
 It was proposed to employ logarithmic scale for Nonlinear
PCM thus Companded PCM generation uses logarithmic
amplifiers.
 Two standards were described

by CCITT
 μ-Law PCM

 A-Law PCM

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 35


Non-Linear PCM

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 36



μ-Law PCM
The input and output of μ-Law was standardized by CCITT as

Vi μ-Law Vo
Companded

 where μ is called Companded parameter (the range varies


from 100 to 500, but CCITT recommended to use μ = 255) and
the ratio of Vi to Vp gives the normalized value.

 μ should always be greater than 100.

 Adopted in United States, Japan, India and Pakistan.

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 37


SNR and Transmission Bandwidth width of μ-Law
PCM
 For μ-Law, the SNR is given by the following equation

 where L is number of quantized level (L = 2n).

 While the transmission bandwidth is described as

 where n is the encoding bits and B is the signal bandwidth.

 For example, voice band is 32KHz at 8 bits.

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 38


Effect of One Bit on SNR
 Substitute L = 2n in SNR Equation of μ-Law as

 Now let then

 Convert it into dB

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 39


Effect of One Bit on SNR

 With an increment of a bit, the equation becomes

 Subtract above two results

 An increment of

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 40



A-Law PCM
In this also algorithmic amplifiers are used but with different
topologies. Vi A-Law Vo
Companded

 The input and output of A-Law was standardized piece wise


by CCITT as

 where A is called Companded parameter (for optimal


operation CCITT recommended to use A = 87.6).
 Adopted in Europe.

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 41



PCM Decoder
To recover an analog signal from a digitized signal the
following steps should be taken:
 Use a hold circuit that holds the amplitude value of a pulse till the next
pulse arrives.
 Pass this signal through a low pass filter with a cutoff frequency that is
equal to the highest frequency in the pre-sampled signal.

 The higher the value of L, the less distorted a signal is


recovered.

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 42


PCM Decoder

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 43


Thank you

Engr. Dr. Jawwad Ahmad 44

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