SHORT DESCRIPTION

Information about the different meteorological

elements and their effects in the airworthiness.
Besides we will talking about different concepts
related to the interpretation of aeronautical maps.

EFA LA MALVESIA

METEOROLOGY
AND MAPS
 METEOROLOGY AND MAPS

Title Meteorology and maps

EQF Level 3

Time 1h

Short In the first part of this unit shows the main kind of
description/introduction meteorological elements and their effects in the
airworthiness, such as:
▪ Wind
▪ Clouds
▪ Fog/Mist
▪ Fronts
▪ Turbulence
▪ Daytime and nighttime visibility
▪ Windshear
▪ Solar storms
In the second part of this unit we develop different
concepts related to the interpretation of aeronautical maps,
navigation and its elements such as:
▪ Maps
▪ DR Navigation
▪ GPS
▪ Ram Capacity
Learning goals 1. Know about the importance of climatic factors in the
flight of aircraft / drons
2. Recognize the main meteorological elements that affect
aviation
3 Know how the wind affects the takeoff and landing of the
aircraft.
4.Know about the main types of clouds and their
characteristics
5 Analyze the different types of visibility.
6. Know how to interpret a simple aeronautical map
7. .Know the main types of navigation systems
Materials/equipment [ ]

Methodology 1. Instruction
The main aim of this unit is that the student is able to know
● Teacher activities the different meteorological elements that can affect the
● Student activities drone driving. On the other hand, they may be able to
interpret a simple aeronautical map and know the most
common navigation systems
2. Action

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The student must read and understand the contents of this

document, which will be on the online platform. Once done
it, the student must complete a questionnaire or test.

3. Results

The results of the questionnaire will reflect the level

obtained by the student in this unit.

4. Evaluation
The questionnaire will be self-correcting. The student may
take the test, as many times as necessary to exceed the
objectives proposed in this unit. There is not limit

Learning activities In the present unit, it is intended to work in a theoretical

(assignments) way the main elements of the weather that could affect a
drone during the flight and teach the most common
● Theoretical part
navigation systems.
● Practical part
On the other hand, the practical part of this unit will be
carry out in practical flight sessions.

Sources https:// www.realaeroclubvalencia.es

https://graphical.weather.gov/definitions/defineWindGust.html

https://www.aopa.org/news-and-media/all-
news/2016/august/flight-training/weather
https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/learning/clouds

https://edugeneral.org/blog/geography/different-types-of-
clouds/
https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/learning/clouds/fog

https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/learning/clouds/fog/difference-
mist-and-fog

https://www.weatherworksinc.com/warm-cold-fronts

https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/learning/atmosphere/weath
er-fronts
https://www.weather.gov/source/zhu/ZHU_Training_Page/
turbulence_stuff/turbulence/turbulence.htm

http://www.pasionporvolar.com/la-visibilidad-en-la-
aviacion/

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https://www.tutiempo.net/meteorologia/visibilidad-
nieblas.html

http://lagotafria.blogspot.com/2012/03/meteorologia-
cizalladuras-o-wind-shears.html

https://www.astromia.com/solar/tormentasolar.htm

http://avionypiloto.es/este-numero/utilizacion-practica-del-
gps/
Assessment
● Theoretical Test Wei Score Time
● Practical ght

Questionnaire 60% 5
minutes

Questionnaire (max. 10 closed questions to answer with

yes/no or a/b/c/d or …… )
1. What is the most active front and what clouds are
associated?
Select one:
a. The warm front, stratiform cloudiness
b. The warm front, cumuliform cloudiness
c. The cold front, cumuliform cloudiness
d. The cold front, stratiform cloudiness
2. About solar storms:
Select one:
a. It does not affect the operation of RPAS.
b. It has the disadvantage of the difficulty to predict them
and the scarce margin to react.
c. There are no drawbacks, there are improvements in the
performance of the RPA.
d. It presents the inconvenience of the turbulence that
occurs in flight.

3. It is considered fog when the horizontal visibility is less

than: Select one:
a. 5000 meters
b. 1000 meters
c. 1000 feet
d. 500 meters

4.Indicate the most dangerous type of cloud for air

navigation:

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Select one:
a The Cirrocumulus (Cc) provokes turbulence and strong
showers of water and / or hail, electric discharges and shear
b. The Cumulus (Cu) causes turbulence and strong showers
of water and / or hail, electric shock and shear
c. The Cumulonimbus (Cb) causes turbulence and strong
showers of water and / or hail, electric shock and shear
d. The Ninmbostratus (Ns) causes turbulence and strong
showers of water and / or hail, electric discharges and shear

5.Indicate what wind 230 / 15kt means:

Select one:
a. Wind direction 230 degrees and 15 knots of speed
b. Wind direction 15 degrees and 230 kilometers per hour
c. Wind direction 230 degrees and 15 kilometers per hour
speed
d. Wind direction 15 degrees and 230 knots of speed

6. Navigating to esteem:
Select one:
a. We will see the position of the RPA on the radar screen.
b. We will check that we fly on the desired route observing
the significant points overflown.
c. A esteem is not a reliable navigation method.
d. We will check that the GPS of the RPA indicates that we
are on the desired route

7. A RPAS flying with GPS assistance:

Select one:
a. According to Law 18/2014, you can fly independently,
without the pilot's intervention.
b. It will compensate for the effect of wind drift.
c. It will compensate the effect of magnetic declination.
d. It will not have limitations in closed flight spaces or with
possible electromagnetic interferences

remarks [ ]

PART 1: Meteorology

1. WIND
The wind is the air in movement, which it moves by the differences of temperature
and pressures that are created in the atmosphere. These differences cause situations
of imbalance , so the wind tries to keep balance displacing the mass of air.

In this attempt the wind is affected by:

a) Terrestrial gravity.
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b) Earth rotation.
c) Curvature of the isobars (lines of equal atmospheric pressure).
d) Friction with the earth's surface.

The data that should be provided to the pilot about the wind are : DIRECTION
(indicates where the wind comes, and usually is expressed in degrees ) and
INTENSITY. Moreover the intensity is provided in knots.

However in the operation of piloting with drones the metric unit is also used
(km/h)

In the aviation´s world, the wind direction is provided by to the geographic north, the
reason is that the runways of the airports are oriented according to the magnetic
North. During the takeoff and landing maneuvers the surface wind is provided by to
the magnetic direction, in order that the pilot can know exactly the angle of incidence
of the wind with the direction of the takeoff or landing.

Example of wind information: 260/17. What it means: The wind comes from 260
degrees with a force of 17 knots.

The local orography, land accidents, buildings,…. can be decisive factors that
determine the direction and intensity of the wind.

1.1 SOME CONSIDERATIONS ABOUT THE WIND

▪ Takeoffs and landings should always be made against the wind.

▪ The gusts: Is a sudden, brief increase in speed of the wind. Another definition could
be: Is the maximum value in intensity that the wind reaches. In these cases, the
APPROXIMATION SPEED MUST BE INCREASED AT A VALUE AT LEAST EQUAL TO THE
HALF OF THE RAT.

VIDEO Nº1 DRONE FLYING IN WIND GUSTS

▪ Flight in mountainous areas or with varied relief. The opposite area to which the
wind comes is dangerous. Turbulent currents, called turbulence, will be produced
in this area.

2. CLOUDS

Clouds are a collection of tiny droplets of water or ice crystals that settle on dust
particles in the atmosphere. The droplets are so small - a diameter of about a
hundredth of a millimetre - that each cubic metre of air will contain 100 million
droplets.

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Clouds will either be composed of ice or water droplets depending on the height of the
cloud and the temperature of the atmosphere. Because the droplets are so small, they
can remain in liquid form in temperatures as low as -30 °C. Extremely high clouds at
temperatures below -30 °C are composed of ice crystals.

2.1 HOW DO CLOUDS FORM?

Clouds form when the invisible water vapour in the air condenses into visible water
droplets or ice crystals. There is water around us all the time in the form of tiny gas
particles, also known as water vapour. There are also tiny particles floating around in
the air - such as salt and dust - these are called aerosols.

The water vapour and the aerosols are constantly bumping into each other. When the
air is cooled, some of the water vapour sticks to the aerosols when they collide - this is
condensation. Eventually, bigger water droplets form around the aerosol particles, and
these water droplets start sticking together with other droplets, forming clouds.

Clouds form when the air is saturated and cannot hold any more water vapour, this
can happen in two ways:

1. The amount of water in the air has increased - for example through evaporation -
to the point that the air cannot hold any more water.

2. The air is cooled to its dew point - the point where condensation occurs - and the
air is unable to hold any more water.

The warmer the air is, the more water vapour it can hold. Clouds are usually produced
through condensation - as the air rises it will cool, and reducing the temperature of the
air decreases its ability to hold water vapour so that condensation occurs. The height
at which the dew point is reached and clouds form is called the condensation level.

2.2.FORMATION OF CLOUDS.

▪ Surface heating - This happens when the ground is heated by the sun which heats
the air in contact with it causing it to rise. The rising columns are often called
thermals. Surface heating tends to produce cumulus clouds.
▪ Topography or orographic forcing - The topography - or shape and features of the
area - can cause clouds to be formed. When air is forced to rise over a barrier of
mountains or hills it cools as it rises. Layered clouds are often produced this way.
▪ Frontal - Clouds are formed when a mass of warm air rises up over a mass of cold,
dense air over large areas along fronts. A 'front' is the boundary between warm,
moist air and cooler, drier air.
▪ Convergence - Streams of air flowing from different directions are forced to rise
where they flow together, or converge. This can cause cumulus cloud and showery
conditions.

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▪ Turbulence - A sudden change in wind speed with height creating turbulent eddies
in the air.

2.3. CLOUDS CLASSIFLATION

There are many systems used to classify clouds. It is common to do it because of the
height at which it is possible to find them.

HIGH CLOUDS (Above 6 kms): They have the appearance of frayed cotton. They
are of an intense white color. When the sun sets, they appear reddish due to the
reflection of the sun's rays on the ice crystals they contain. They are translucent
and it is possible to see sunlight through them.
▪ CIRRUS: Cirrus clouds are feathery, wispy formations made up of very minute ice
crystals. Cirrus clouds reveal the presence of moisture at great heights and may
indicate an onset of bad weather.
▪ CIRROCUMULUS: Cirrocumulus clouds are high altitude clouds but these are
formed when two layers of clouds move in directions opposite to each other. They
also indicate unsettled weather and they are formed by ice crystals. It is possible to
see the moon alone through it. They are very elongated and with well-defined
edges.
▪ CIRROSTRATUS:. Cirrostratus clouds are also high altitude clouds made up of tiny
ice crystals. Cirrostratus clouds have a thin-layered formation through which the
sun’s rays pass, creating a halo like an effect. They indicate a rainy spell.

MIDDLE-LEVEL CLOUDS . (Between 3-6 kms) They appear forming banks of white
or gray clouds, which have their own shadows. They do not let pass the rays nor
the silhouette of the sun. Other times they are presented in layers, composed of
narrow globular masses. They usually contain water.
▪ ALTOCUMULUS: are thick, middle altitude clouds that are a patchy white and grey
in colour. Though they look like cirrocumulus clouds. Altocumulus clouds indicate
sunny spells.
▪ ALTOSTRATUS: are clusters of bluish-grey clouds indicate that there may be rain
head.

LOW-LEVEL CLOUDS ( Below 3kms). Clouds arranged in layers, gray. Its base is very
uniform, they contain drops of water. In case that the temperatures are very low
they may contain ice. They usually produce drizzles
▪ STRATUS: These low altitude clouds are responsible for dull, gloomy, overcast days
and they indicate rainy weather.
▪ CUMULUS: Cumulus is thick low altitude clouds are usually puffy and have very
distinct edges and a noticeable vertical development and are formed by drops of

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water, although if the temperature is very low ice crystals may appear. They do not
present any problem for the pilot, since they usually appear isolated and perfectly
visible, being easy to surround it. In his interior turbulence usually exists., they
indicate sunny weather.
MULTI-LAYERED CLOUDS (Rainy Clouds)

▪ NIMBOSTRATUS. Nimbostratus clouds are actually multilayered clouds, as their

vertical extent goes well into the middle cloud region and they often have taller
cumulonimbus clouds embedded with them, found at a height up to 2000m. These
dark grey rain or snow bearing clouds cover the sky so completely that one cannot
see the sun. They indicate a long spell of heavy rain or snow.

▪ CUMULONIMBUS. It's the storm cloud. If the updrafts of air are very strong, and
sufficient humidity, the cumulonimbus will form. They are large Cumulus, of great
vertical development can reach very high heights. They produce lightning, thunder,
heavy rain, hail, strong winds and tornadoes. Their presence indicates great
atmospheric instability. The base of the cloud is usually very dark. The tallest
among all clouds, cumulonimbus clouds span all cloud layers and extend above
2000m. These clouds usually have large anvil-shaped tops, which form because of
the stronger winds at the higher levels of the atmosphere. The very strong vertical
air currents, as well as the formation of ice and hail, make the flight dangerous
inside and even in the vicinity, especially underneath.

3. FOG
Fog is a type of stratiform cloud that forms at ground level. The immediate effect is the
reduction in visibility to less than 1000 m.
A Pilot can think that is possible the formation of fog when appear the following
conditions :
a) High relative humidity.
b) Little difference between the ambient temperature and the dew point (2 grads or
less difference).
c) Calm or very light wind

VIDEO Nº 2 : WHAT IS FOG?

4. MIST

It is a process identical to that of fog formation, but it manifests itself with less
intensity the condensation of water vapor. To be considered mist, visibility must be
greater of 1 kilometer.

5.FRONTS

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Definition: Basically, a weather front represents a boundary between two different air
masses, such as warm and cold air

5.1.AIR MASSES

It is called air mass to a certain volume of air, of great horizontal dimension, at least
1,500 kilometers, which has physical characteristics (pressure, temperature, humidity
...) homogeneous. In all the area covered by the air mass, the weather is practically the
same, with the exception of possible local variations. Due to the laws of the general
atmospheric circulation these masses move. It will slowly lose his characteristics, due
to friction, encounter with other air masses or terrestrial surface of different
characteristics.

5.2. AIR MASSES AND SOURCE REGIONS

They are those areas of the Earth where air masses are normally formed. They have
uniform characteristics: polar zones, large oceans and deserts.

5.2.1.CLASSIFICATION

According to their origin they are classified:

1) Arctic Air (A) .- Origin: Arctic or Antarctic polar circles.

2) Polar Air (P) .- Origin: Cold regions included between parallels 350 and 650.
3) Tropical Air (T) .- Origin : Regions between the 150 and 350 parallels.
4) Equatorial Air (E) .- Origin: The Equatorial Circle.

On the other hand these masses can be formed on the continents or on the oceans,
so they in turn are divided:

1) Continental (C) .- Origin: land areas.

2) Maritime (M) .- Origin: oceans.

In their movements, air masses are sometimes found, producing characteristic

weather conditions, known as fronts. A frontal zone is the zone of separation between
these two air masses, which them have very different characteristics, which "collide",
but do not mix. Its width can vary from a few meters to a few kilometers. The plane of
separation between the two masses of air is called the frontal surface and the line of
intersection of the frontal surface with the surface of the earth is called the front.

5.3.TYPES OF FRONT

They are classified according to the movements of the air masses that form them. The
confrontation becomes like a "wedge" that was introduced. The cold mass, because it
is more dense, will always be below.

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✓ COLD FRONT :The cold air mass is more active than the hot , forces it to retreat.
For this reason, cold air displaces the hot air forcing him to gain height.

Characteristics:

▪ Cloudiness: The cold air mass pushes the hot air and then, vertical development
clouds are formed.

▪ Precipitation: Very intense but short duration, since this front moves quickly. If the
mass of hot air is relatively stable, the updrafts are less intense and the clouds of
vertical development are less violent. They form nimbostratus that give rise to
precipitations that last for a long time.

▪ Visibility: It is reduced during the passage of the front due to the squalls, but as it
passes the front improves, being able to get to be excellent.

▪ Temperature and pressure: The temperature drops rapidly and the pressure
increases. It is logical since the cold air mass is occupying the place that is leaving
the hot.

▪ Wind: They suffer a great inflexion of the isobars. The winds change direction
abruptly

✓ HEATED FRONT

When it is the mass of hot air that displaces cold air, in this case, hot air rises above
the mass of cold air.

▪ Characteristics:

▪ Cloudiness: mainly, clouds of the stratiform type cirrus, cirrostratus, stratus and
nimbostratus
▪ Visibility: It is usually bad, causing the formation of mists due to advection.

▪ Winds: They change, as well as on the cold front, of intensity and direction,
however they usually are less strength.

VIDEO 3: WEATHER FRONTS

6. TURBULENCE

When the air particles move, they can do it in parallel lines (in ordered floors) this
movement, however it can have a vertical component, forming numerous vortices in
the vicinity of the earth's surface. It is difficult to determine the exact structure of

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these vortices, which are very irregular. In particular, its rotation axes can have all
directions.

Turbulence is one of the most unpredictable of all the weather phenomena that are of
significance to pilots. Turbulence is an irregular motion of the air resulting from eddies
and vertical currents. It may be as insignificant as a few annoying bumps or severe
enough to momentarily throw an airplane out of control or to cause structural
damage. Turbulence is associated with fronts, wind shear, thunderstorms, etc.
The degree of turbulence has been shown to depend on numerous factors such as
wind speed, surface roughness, vertical temperature gradient, etc.

Types of turbulence:

▪ Thermal ( convective) turbulence.: Result from convection due to surface heating

due to insolation of the soil. It can also originate from the passage of a relatively
cold air mass over a hotter land or ocean surface

The increase of the temperature in the very low layers has as consequence the
increase of the vertical temperature gradient, finally making the atmosphere unstable.
The convection currents that develop are a form of turbulence.

In convective clouds and storms in particular, the release of latent heat supplies an
energy that causes up and down movements that correspond to large scale whirlpools.
These whirlpools, in turn, give rise to smaller whirlpools of varying sizes.

Turbulence can also be expected on warm summer days when the sun heats the
earth's surface unevenly. Certain surfaces, such as barren ground, rocky and sandy
areas, are heated more rapidly than are grass covered fields and much more rapidly
than is water. Isolated convective currents are therefore set in motion with warm air
rising and cooler air descending, which are responsible for bumpy conditions as an
airplane flies in and out of them. Turbulence extends from the base to the top of the
convection layer, with smooth conditions found above. if cumulus, towering cumulus
or cumulonimbus clouds are present, the turbulent layer extends from the surface to
cloud tops. Turbulence intensity increases as convective updraft intensity increases. In
weather conditions when thermal activity can be expected, many pilots prefer to fly in
the early morning or in the evening when the thermal activity is not as severe.

Convective currents may not be made visible by cumuliform clouds, resulting in "dry
thermals". Favorable conditions for dry convection include warm surface
temperatures, uneven surface hearing, and steep surface-based lapse rates.

Convective currents are often strong enough to produce air mass thunderstorms with
which severe turbulence is associated. Turbulence can also be expected in the lower
levels of a cold air mass that is moving over a warm surface. Heating from below
creates unstable conditions, gusty winds and bumpy flying conditions.

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Thermal turbulence will have a pronounced-effect on the flight path of an airplane

approaching a landing area. The airplane is subject to convective currents of varying
intensity set in motion over the ground along the approach path. These thermals may
displace the airplane from its normal glide path with the result that it will either
overshoot or undershoot the runway.

▪ Mechanical turbulence

Friction between the air and the ground, especially irregular terrain and man-made
obstacles, causes eddies and therefore turbulence in the lower levels. The intensity of
this eddy motion depends on the strength of the surface wind, the nature of the
surface and the stability of the air. The stronger the wind speed (generally, a surface
wind of 20 knots or higher is required for significant turbulence), the rougher the
terrain and the more unstable the air, the greater will be the turbulence. Of these
factors that affect the formation of turbulence, stability is the most important. If the
air is being heated from below, the vertical motion will be more vigorous and
extensive and the choppiness more pronounced. In unstable air, eddies tend to grow
in size; in stable air, they tend not to grow in size but do dissipate more slowly.
Sudden increases in speed that last several minutes are known as squalls and they are
responsible for quite severe turbulence

The turbulence is accentuated by the passage of air over buildings, trees, hills, etc. It
can also be caused by wind shear. The mechanical turbulence is less on the sea or a
smooth terrain and it is reduced when the atmosphere is stable or the wind is weak.

The temperature of the atmosphere decreases in general when we rise in altitude.

However, the temperature grows with altitude in certain layers of the atmosphere. In
this case, there is a temperature inversion. It can be produced from the ground ( an
investment in surface or low layers.) On the other hand, when the inversion occurs in a
layer located at a certain altitude, it is called investment in altitude.

7. DAYTIME AND NIGHTTIME VISIBILITY

The crewmember of an aircraft flying in VFR needs to have contact with the terrain
and surrounding aircraft, so that it can avoid collisions with them.

For example, a light aircraft flies on a 100-kt cruise, in the opposite direction a jet
aircraft is approaching in a descent flight that flies at 300 kt. When the pilots see each
other at about 4 nautical miles (7.5 km), they will have 36 seconds left to maneuver
and avoid the collision. If the visibility were reduced to 1 mile (1.8 km) they would only
have 9 seconds to avoid the accident.

7.1 Meteorological visibility

The meteorological visibility is the maximum distance at which a black object of a

speciefied size can be seen and recognized against the horizon by a normal observer.

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It is, therefore, a measure of the atmospheric transparency in a horizontal direction on

the earth's surface relative to human vision.
It is almost customary for visibility in a direction different from the other. There are
two different procedures to register, varying according to the country that applies:
• Minimum visibility: It is the lowest measurement in any direction;
• Prevailing visibility: The prevailing over half or more of the horizon. It is sometimes
known as visibility index.

7.2.Horizontal visibility

It can be defined as the greatest horizontal distance far are recognizable objects or
details of the landscape by an observer with normal eyesight that has seen in the light
of day.

Visibility varies from zero, which corresponds to dense fog at maximum, which are
visible all objects at any distance. Horizontal visibility can be measured according to
the following criteria and definitions:

Visual reach on the runway (RVR): Is the maximum distance in the direction of takeoff
or landing, to which the runway, or lights or beacons specified that delimit, they can be
seen from a position above a particular point on the axis of the track to a
corresponding to the average level remains in pilot eye height making contact.

It is considered that a height of 5 meters (15 feet) satisfactorily corresponds to the

average level remains the view of the pilot in making contact

RVR value does not determined by the same air operations, operating minimum also
depend on the technical assistance that is equipped with the airport, the plane own
equipment and preparation of the pilot.

7.2.1.Factors that affect horizontal visibility

▪ Color, brightness and size of objects: Visibility is greater the brighter and larger the
object. Color also has some influence, since the reflectivity of the object depends
on its color. The black color, which is becoming purple with distance, it looks worse
than white color,that is yellowish away. A red object looks further away if is blue.

▪ Air transparency, solid particles: It depends primarily of airborne dust, industrial

fumes, air agitation, origin of the air mass . Fumes and dust are deposited in the
lower layers only very occasionally produce significant reductions in visibility, and it
rarely drops four kilometers. It is the Calima.
▪ Air transparency, water particles: Due to the formation of fog. The fog varies in
composition according to the air temperature. When the temperature is above 0 °
C, the fog will be formed by tiny drops of water in suspension, while the

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temperature is lower than 0 ° C the fog will be a suspension of tiny ice crystals and
small drops of super cold water, or just ice crystals. The visibility reduction is less
than 1 Km.

Types of fog:

✓ Fog by cooling: They are generated by the decrease experienced by the ability of
the air to retain water vapor when the temperature decreases. There is a
relationship between the amount of water vapor that contains a volume of air and
the amount that would contain if saturated, this has been defined as relative
humidity. The relative humidity will be 100% when the air is saturated, when for a
given temperature it can not admit more water vapor without condensing. The
mists produced by this mechanism are classified in turn by their origin in:

✓ Radiation fog: Radiation fog usually occurs in the winter, aided by clear skies and
calm conditions. The cooling of land overnight by thermal radiation cools the air
close to the surface. This reduces the ability of the air to hold moisture, allowing
condensation and fog to occur. Radiation fogs usually dissipate soon after sunrise
as the ground warms.

✓ Advection fog: Advection fog occurs when moist air passes over a cool surface and
is cooled. It´s formed when a mass of moist air moves on a cooler surface

✓ Orografics fog: They are generated within the air currents that ascend on the
mountainous slopes or elevations of the land. This is because when the air rises, it
expands and cools. This cooling brings with it an increase in relative humidity and
saturation can be achieved. It is a condition that the initial relative humidity is high
and that the wind is persistent and not very intense.
✓ Fog : just as fog is formed by condensation of water vapor. But it affects the
visibility in a moderate way reducing it to values between 1 and 5 km, the drops of
water in the haze are smaller and more dispersed.

✓ Haze: Is a suspension of extremely small, dry particles in the air (not water
droplets) which are invisible to the naked eye, but sufficient to give the air an
opalescent appearance. It can reach density comparable to that of the mist. Its
thickness can reach 4 or 5 km

✓ Blizzard: constituted by dry snow particles, raised from the surface by the action of
the wind. It can be high or low according to the height that these particles reach.

✓ Dust Storms: in times of drought it is usually the case that the dust is lifted by the
action of the wind and transported long distances. It can seriously affect visibility
reaching values below 1km and extending to considerable heights. Color,
brightness and size of objects: Visibility is greater the brighter and larger the
object. Color also exerts some influence, since the reflectivity of the object
depends on its color. The black color, which when turning away becomes purple,

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looks worse than the white color, which, when it recedes, becomes yellowish. A
red object is seen at a greater distance if it is blue.

▪ Sensitivity of the observer's eye: Except in extreme cases, the variations in the
estimate are not important.

7.2.2. Variations of horizontal visibility

The variation of visibility with the direction depends on the position of the sun, wind
and humidity.

▪ Position of the sun

▪ Wind: The wind carries dust or smoke particles, preventing its parking. Wind,
visibility improvement, and precisely against the wind is better than in favor.

▪ Humidity: Increasing relative humidity can cause poor visibility. If the airport is in
close proximity to a river, is often fog banks forming along it, which may be
extended or be carried by the wind towards the airport. The planted areas, also
influence low visibility.

7.3. Air-ground visibility

✓ Oblique visibility

It is the distance measured from the aircraft to the point M which is the furthest visible
object that can be seen from the aircraft

The following cases may arise:

✓ Clear sky

Generally the oblique visibility is greater than the horizontal due to the presence of
dust and smoke, the highest concentration near the ground

✓ Air-ground visibility

Layer of high fog or fog, whose thickness decreases from top to bottom.
The oblique visibility depends on the height of the plane.

✓ Low fog layer

✓ Sun near the horizon and fog

✓ Optical illusions

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From the air, the most important are due to the following reasons:

o Slope of the land in the vicinity of the head.

o If the slope is up, the pilot believes that it is higher than it actually is

o The result is a short landing. If the inclination is down, the pilot bellievd he is
lower and the landing is long.

✓ Haze, smoke, fog, mist, dust and darkness.

In the absence of shadows and reduce or down to zero contrasts, the pilot believes fly
higher than it actually takes. This effect can be canceled if the runway lights are seen.

✓ Water on the windshield.

Light rays undergo a refraction in passing through water droplets, and as appropriate
altitude and heading errors occur. In extreme situations these errors are so important
that lead to landing is 1,000 to 1,600 shorter or longer than normal meters.

✓ Beaconing of the track.

The visibility increases with the brightness of objects. If the night is dark and the track
is brightly lit, the optical illusion is to be closer to her real and the result can be a long
landing. If the approximation is illuminated on inhabited areas, decreases the contrast
of the high intensity lights track and the optical illusion is reverse of the above. Good is
to avoid direct landings, especially on dark nights.

✓ Track Characteristics.

The width and irregularities of the tracks can cause optical illusions. The pilot has a
mental idea of the track according to the models that are more accustomed. If the
track is wide, believed to be lower than real, and conversely if closer.

✓ Contrast track.

In the absence of contrast, the interpretation of visibility may be erroneous in one way
or another. This is the case of tracks covered with snow or water, during the night;
cement tracks surrounded by sand or asphalt tracks between dark areas of vegetation,
during the day.

Under these conditions the contrast decreases, and still more reduced when there is
haze or haze.

In all cases it is best to perform rigorous approach in instrument flight.

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In flight, two key factors for the safety of the aircraft and its occupants are flight
altitude and visibility. Therefore, the low vertical and horizontal visibility may cause
difficulties for the drivers/ pilots:

o Keeping control of aircraft attitude, due to the difficulty of observing the natural
horizon.
o Maintain visual navigation, the problems that can exist for identifying checkpoints.
o Estimate distances.
o To avoid collision with terrain or obstacles.
To avoid collisions with other aircraft.

It should also be borne in mind that on flights with low vertical and horizontal visibility
there is more likely:

o Become disoriented or lost.

o Suffer from vertigo.
o Losing situational awareness.
o Suffer illusions, especially if the pilot is stressed because of disorientation or the
feeling of being lost.

8. WINDSHEAR

Is the difference in wind speed or its direction between two points in the Earth's
atmosphere.
Depending on whether the two points are at different altitudes or in different
geographic locations, the shear can be vertical or horizontal.

Windshear can affect the flight speed of an aircraft during takeoff and landing
disastrously.
It is also a dominant factor that determines the severity of storms. An additional threat
is the turbulence frequently associated with shear.

The atmospheric situations in which shear can be observed are:

▪ Fronts and frontal systems. Significant shear is observed when the temperature
difference across the front is 5 ° C or more, and it moves at 15 knots or faster.
Since the fronts are a three-dimensional phenomenon, the frontal shear can be
observed at any height between the surface and the tropopause.

▪ Obstacles to the air flow. When the wind blows from the direction of the
mountains, vertical shear is observed on the leeward slope.

▪ Investments. When on a clear and quiet night, an inversion is formed in the

radiation near the surface, the friction does not affect the wind above it. The
change in wind can be 90 degrees in direction and 40 knots in speed. Even a low

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night-level current can be observed. Differences in density can cause additional

problems for aviation.

9. SOLAR STORMS

Solar storms happens when the solar cycle reaches its maximum activity and just after.
That is to say, when the magnetic activity of the Sun is stronger and begins to descend.
There is a solar maximum every 11 years. Solar storms consist in violent explosions of
plasma and charged particles, called flares and, above all, coronal mass ejections.
Normally, coronal mass ejections occur after a fulguration, but this is not always the
case.
The magnetic activity of the Sun causes plasma loops to form on its surface. When the
magnetic activity is stronger, there are so many loops that they collide with each other
and cause huge explosions of plasma. They reach a temperature of tens of millions of
degrees.

During a solar storm, millions of tons of plasma and charged particles are expelled and
spread throughout the Solar System, along with a large number of X-rays and gamma
rays, the most powerful radiation that exists. The radiation reaches the Earth in 8
minutes, since it travels at the speed of light.

Fortunately, our atmosphere protects us. They collide with the magnetic field of the
Earth, compress it and pass to the upper layers of the atmosphere.

They charge the atmosphere with the power of billions of watts. They cause overload
in electricity networks, blackouts, satellite and telecommunications faults,….

PART 2: MAPS: Aeronautical charts: interpretation and use

1. MAPS

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For the location of any place or characteristic of the surface of the earth, small or
partial representations of this surface, total or partial, called maps or letters, are used.

The characteristics of each map are chosen according to their particular purpose. From
the point of view of navigation, the term letter is usually used in preference to the
map, since the latter usually includes details not necessary for the pilot. However, both
denominations are usually interchangeable.

1.2 Maps and aeronautical charts (topographic)

OACI defines the aeronautical chart as the representation of a portion of the Earth , its
relief and constructions, specially designed to meet the requirements of air navigation.
The aeronautical charts correspond, therefore, to an illustrated representation of a
portion of the earth's surface in which symbols are included in different colors that
represent characteristics or details of the terrain.

In addition, they include any other type of symbols and information that are
considered necessary for the type of air navigation.
For example, aerodromes, isogonic lines, vertical obstacles, roads, railways, power
lines, visual aids, air traffic services, airspace restrictions, temporarily segregated
spaces, sensitive wildlife zones, maximum terrain elevation data, radioaudities for
navigation, etc.

In these charts, the type of projection of the meridians and parallels of the sphere on a
flat surface represents the basic construction structure, which establishes the
characteristics of the letter resulting from this process.

Since the sphere is not a developable figure, in the representation of a portion of the
earth's surface on a plane deformations appear, which are more pronounced
depending on the terrestrial portion that the letter intends to cover.

As the deformations can not be avoided, depending on the use to be made of the
chart, specific projections are used that allow the transfer of meridians and parallels to
the chart maintaining the best approximation to the desired characteristics
For example, among the desirable characteristics for navigation could be the following:

▪ The facility to fix the position and trace directions on the letter (plotted).
▪ That the horizontal direction that is intended to follow on the land surface (course)
is a straight line.
▪ The facility to measure the directions and distances on the chart.
▪ To be able to adequately represent directions and distances in the chart.

2. DR Navigation

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Recognition of position (navigation by estimate), fixed. The recognition of position is

equivalent to the calculation of the position by deduction, position to estimate or, as is
usually known, navigation to the estimate or deciding reckoning (DR).

The basic problems of navigation are to determine the:

▪ Position of the aircraft.

▪ Address to the destination point.
▪ Time of arrival at the destination point.

To solve these problems, the navigation transporter, the navigation computer and the
corresponding letters are used.

The navigation by estimate (DR) is a navigation technique, based on calculations of

time, distance, speed and direction, to estimate the position of the aircraft with
respect to earth using the most recent data available.

As it has been seen previously, the necessary variables for the calculation of the route
and speed on the ground are those corresponding to the velocity vector of the aircraft
and the wind vector.

The knowledge of these parameters allows predicting the behavior of the aircraft
along the planned route.

Some definitions related to navigation to esteem are the following:

▪ Route (DR). Estimated route of the aircraft above the ground, calculated from the
heading, speed of the aircraft, and estimated wind speed.

▪ Speed above ground GS (DR). Estimated speed of the aircraft above the ground.

▪ Drift (DR). Estimated drift because of the wind.

▪ Position (DR). Estimated position of the aircraft in relation to the terrain,

calculated at a specific moment. It is associated with the GS (DR) and the route
(DR).

Basically, to make a flight to the estimate it is necessary to have in the aircraft

anemometer, compass and clock and additionally navigation charts and navigation
transporter or navigation computer for the calculation of the route and speed on the
ground.

The navigation by estimate allows the addressing and the determination of the
position of the aircraft by applying the speed and direction data to a previous position.
The position of navigation to the estimate corresponds to a set point according to an
exact calculation of time (clock), speed on the ground and route, from the last known
position.

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That is, the position by estimate obtained by applying the effect of the wind to the
parameters of the velocity vector (course and speed).
A fixed corresponds to a fully identified position point. For example: a geographical
feature, a town, the crossing of two rail lines, two roads, two lines of situation, etc.

That is, a fixed corresponds to an exact position of the aircraft at a given time,
established by means of any type of navigation aid to the estimate.

Among the types of navigational aids to esteem are:

▪ The visual observation of the terrain and a topographic map in which these
observations can be identified.
▪ The use of visual position lines (to or from the position in question), radioelectric,
goniometric, etc., or a combination between them.

The identification of a fix allows to cancel the errors existing up to that moment and
establish a new starting point for the calculations.
In order for a position point to constitute a fixed one, in principle, situation lines that
are not obtained simultaneously are not valid, unless the corresponding adjustment is
made taking into account the speed of the aircraft.
Finally, it should be borne in mind that there is a set of navigation aids: VOR, ADF, etc.,
which have been developed to help resolve the inaccuracies of basic navigation or
esteem

3. GPS: use and limitations

The types of receivers used for satellite navigation are increasingly varied. Before
undertaking the flight, the limitations of each type of installation must be fully
understood by the pilot, or the use that can be given to each receiver to avoid misuse
of the navigation information.

3.1 GPS in visual flight

Navigation using global positioning systems has become very common during visual
flight, as it provides great accuracy in navigation and greater awareness of the
situation. At the same time, the use of such systems reduces operating costs as a result
of greater ease to fly direct routes.

You just have to think about the lost time sometimes trying to identify certain
characteristic points. While GPS has many advantages for the pilot in visual flight, care
must be taken to ensure that the capabilities of the system are not exceeded.

In any case, a pilot flying according to the rules of visual flight (VFR) should not rely
solely on a navigation system. Navigation using GPS receivers must be integrated with
other forms of navigation, including the rational identification of characteristic
elements on an aeronautical chart. Only through the integration of various techniques

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can the pilot ensure accuracy in navigation. Always keep in mind that at any time of
the flight our GPS may stop working.

Some of the fundamental issues that affect the use of VFR GPS receivers include the
RAIM capability, database update and antenna location.

4.RAIM capacity

RAIM (Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring) is a technology developed to

evaluate the integrity of global positioning systems in a GPS receiver. This technology
is of special importance in the safety of critical GPS uses such as aviation. GPS receivers
equipped with RAIM technology are capable of detecting signals transmitted
incorrectly. The RAIM function can, therefore, identify a communication failure of a
satellite and inform the pilot.

Many of the GPS receivers used for visual flight and virtually all portable units do not
usually have the RAIM alert capability, something that is changing in recent years. The
loss of the necessary number of satellites in sight, or the detection of a position error
can not be shown to the pilot by such receivers.

Therefore, in the receivers without RAIM capability, the pilot will not be shown any
warning that the GPS signal has deteriorated, which could lead to a navigation error
without being detected. Therefore, systematically checking the position provided by
the GPS receiver with other navigation techniques is a good practice to identify this
potential failure and avoid a significant deviation of the planned route.

To allow any pilot to determine quickly and conveniently if RAIM will be available en
route and during the approach. EUROCONTROL (European Organization for the Safety
of Air Navigation) has created two websites that can be used to predict the RAIM
status, thus fulfilling the pre-flight verification requirements.

EUROCONTROL provides international coverage for most benchmarks in the global

aviation database. Its system is called AUGUR and can be accessed through
http://augur.ecacnav.com/augur/app/home

The GPS receiver will give the RPA the ability to fly practically autonomously, since it
will be possible to program flight modes that avoid wind drift, as well as to plan routes
in which the aircraft will be guided by the indications of the system.
In the RTH mode, the GPS location is used to return the aeoranave to the landing area

In Alt hold mode, the RPA flight height is blocked according to the GPS reading (it can
also be a barometric reading)

LIMITATIONS:

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▪ In enclosed spaces or with roofs, flying under very compact layers of clouds or
between buildings, signals from satellites can be lost
▪ Flying under layers of very compact clouds
▪ Loss of signal in areas with intense electromagnetic fields.
▪ Bad situation of the receiving antenna

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