Module 1.1 B1B2 Rev 02

Module 1 – MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1/B2– MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.1 – ARITHMETIC
MODULE 1
SUB MODULE 1.1
ARITHMETIC
Rev. 02 1.1
May 2012
For Training Purposes Only
Table of contents Page Table of contents Page

Arithmetic terms & signs ................................................. 2 Converting decimals to common fractions ..................... 25
Addition ........................................................................... 4 Factors and multiples .................................................... 26
Subtraction ...................................................................... 6 Weight, measures and conversion factors .................... 29
Multiplication ................................................................... 7 Direct and indirect measurements ................................. 29
Division ......................................................................... 10 Names and symbols for the SI prefixes ......................... 31
Long division ................................................................. 11 Conversion factors ........................................................ 32
Fractions ....................................................................... 13 Ratio and proportion ...................................................... 33
Addition & subtraction of fractions................................. 15 Proportional division ...................................................... 34
Finding the LCD ............................................................ 16 Averages and percentages............................................ 35
Adding and subtracting mixed numbers ........................ 18 Area and volumes ......................................................... 37
Multiplication of fractions ............................................... 18 Measurement of area .................................................... 37
Dividing fractions........................................................... 20 Measure of area ............................................................ 37
Multiplication and division of mixed numbers ................ 20 Rectangle and square ................................................... 38
Decimals ....................................................................... 21 Parallelogram ................................................................ 40
Addition of decimals ...................................................... 22 Triangle ......................................................................... 40
Subtraction of decimals ................................................. 22 Trapezium ..................................................................... 41
Multiplication of decimals .............................................. 23 Rhombus ....................................................................... 41
Division of decimals ...................................................... 24 Quadrilateral .................................................................. 42
Circle ............................................................................. 43
Rev. 02 i 1.1
May 2012
Table of contents Page

Volume .......................................................................... 44
Cuboid .......................................................................... 45
Cube ........................................................................... 45
Cylinder ......................................................................... 46
Cone ........................................................................... 46
Pyramid ......................................................................... 47
Sphere .......................................................................... 47
Power and root.............................................................. 48
Square root of a decimal ............................................... 50
Powers and roots of fractions........................................ 51
Rev. 02 ii 1.1
May 2012
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Rev. 02 iii 1.1

May 2012
“The training notes and diagrams are

compiled by SriLankan Technical Training
and although comprehensive in detail, they
are intended for use only with a Course of
instruction. When compiled, they are as up
to date as possible, and amendments to the
training notes and diagrams will NOT be
issued”.
Rev. 02 1 1.1
May 2012
ARITHMETIC TERMS & SIGNS

Units digit
Tens digit
Arithmetic is the science that treats of numbers, and of the
methods of computing by means of them. Hundreds digit
Thousands digit
A unit in arithmetic denotes a single thing as one man, one Ten Thousands digit
rupee, one meter or one kilogram. A number expresses how Hundred Thousands digit
many times a unit is taken and the numbers can be expressed in
words or in digits. Millions digit
Numeration is the art of expressing numbers in words and 3 2 3 5 4 6 7

notation is the art of expressing numbers in digits.
We may analyze the total number by considering the values
expressed by each column, thus:
The ten single number characters or numerals l, 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,
and 0 are called digits. With these digits in various combinations
we can express any number we wish. The arrangement of the Units 7 7
digits and the number of digits used determine the value of the
Tens 6 60
number, which we are expressing.
Hundreds 4 400
Thousands 5 5000
The most widely used numbering system is decimal system,
the name being derived from the Latin word decem meaning ten. Ten thousands 3 30000
In the decimal system the digits are arranged in columns, which
Hundred thousands 2 200000
are powers of ten. The column in which a certain digit is placed
determines its expressed value. When we examine the number Millions 3 3000000
3,235,467 we indicate the column positions as follows:
Rev. 02 2 1.1
May 2012
We may now observe that the total number consists of 3 Addition + (Plus sign)
millions, 2 hundred thousands, 3 ten thousands, 5 thousands, 4 Subtraction − (Minus sign)
hundreds, 6 tens, and 7 units. The total, number is read "three Multiplication x
million, two hundred and thirty-five thousand, four hundred and
sixty seven. Division ÷
Equal to =
Plus or minus ±
There are several classes of numbers, which should be Therefore
understood. Whole numbers, also called integers, are those, Hence 
which contain no fractions. Less than <
More than >
Examples of such numbers are 3,10,250 and 435. A fraction is Less than or equal ≤
a part of unit. Examples of fractions are 2 , 1 . A mixed number More than or equal ≥
5 2
Not more than ≯
contains a whole number and, a fraction. 1 2 , 2 5 are examples
3 7 Not less than ≮
for mixed numbers. An even number is one, which is divisible Not equal ≠
by 2. The numbers 2,4,6,8,1048, and 62 are even numbers.
Parallel ∕∕ or ∥
Square root √
Odd numbers are those, which are not divisible by 2. The
numbers 3,511, 13, 53, and 61'are odd. Cubic root ∛
Approximately equal ≃
Addition and subtraction may be considered the, simplest of Percentage %
mathematical operations; however, it requires practice to do Degrees Xº
these operations quickly and accurately. Multiplication and
division are also simple mathematical operations.
The symbols are discussed with their application in the relevant
chapter.
There are innumerous functions, operations and symbols in
mathematics. Let us see some of the most commonly used
symbols and signs.
Rev. 02 3 1.1
May 2012
ADDITION example, the units column is added to produce 3 tens and 6

units. The 3 tens must be carried over to the tens column and
added with it. When the tens column is added, the sum of this
The sign for addition is the plus sign (+). This sign placed column becomes 1 hundred and 5 tens .The 5 tens are recorded
between numbers indicates that they are to be added. Numbers in the answer, and the 1 hundred is carried to the hundreds
to be added may be arranged horizontally or vertically in column. Then the hundreds column adds up to 7 hundreds.
columns as shown below.
324
324+25+78 = 427 25 To show what actually takes place in adding a column of numbers, we
+75 shall add the numbers in example III by a method, which demonstrates
427 the operation completely.
Thousands Hundreds Tens Units

In arithmetic, numbers to be added are usually arranged in 4382 4 3 8 2
columns for more speed and convenience in performing the 276 2 7 6
addition. 1820 1 8 2 0
2753 2 5 7 3
47 4 7
Units 4382 +238 2 3 8
7 32 Hundreds
276 9516 7 22 29 26
6 420
Ten 8 1820 2 3 2
3
s 19 2753 9 25 31
8 Thousands
29 47
+5
+248 + 238
29
756 9516
E.g:I
E.g:II E.g. III 9 5 1 6
When arranging columns of numbers for addition, it is necessary
to place units in the right-hand column, tens in the next,
hundreds in the third column from the right, etc. In E.g.: I above, 9516
all the numbers units, but the sum of the numbers contains 2
tens and 9 units. Note that the 2 is placed in tens position. In
Rev. 02 4 1.1
May 2012
From the first table we find that the units column adds up to give
26 units (6 units and 2 tens), the tens column totals 29 tens (9
tens and 2 hundreds), the hundreds column totals 22 hundreds
(2 hundreds and 2 thousands), and the thousands column totals
7 thousands.
In the units column there are 2 tens and 6 units. Therefore 6

units are taken as the number of units in the final answer. 2 tens
are transferred to the tens column so that it can be added with
29 tens. When 29 tens and 2 tens are added it will become
31tens or 3 hundreds and 1 ten. This 1 ten is taken as the tens
representation in the final answer and 3 is transferred to the
hundreds column. When 3 is added with 22 hundreds already in
the hundreds column it will become 25 hundreds or 2 thousands
and 5 hundreds. This 5 hundreds then will become the hundreds
representation of the final answer. The 2 thousands are
transferred to thousands column to be added with 7 in the
column. The resultant of the addition in the thousands column, 9
will then become the thousands representation of the final
answer. So the final answer will be 9516.
Rev. 02 5 1.1
May 2012
SUBTRACTION
Subtraction is the reverse of addition. The sign for subtraction is
the minus sign (-). In ordinary arithmetic a smaller number is
always subtracted from a larger number. In our review of
algebra we shall note how subtraction is performed when the Hundreds Tens Units
number to be subtracted is larger than the number from which it
is to be taken. 8 5 3
4+1 3
853 4 10+3=13
In subtraction the number from which another is to be subtracted -675 13
is called the minuend, the number being subtracted from the 178 7+1 4
other is called the subtrahend, and the result is called the 7 10+4=14
difference. 7 14
7 14 13
675 Minuend
342 Subtrahend 6 7 5
333 Difference 1 7 8
In subtraction it is well to remember the components of a

number, that is, units, tens, hundreds, etc. This will make it In the first column we find the 3 smaller than the 5, and so we
easier to perform the necessary operations with clear must borrow a ten from the next column .We then subtract 5
understanding. In the preceding example, the digits in the from 13 to obtain 8. We must then remember that there are only
subtrahend are smaller than the corresponding numbers in the 4 in tens column and have to borrow 1 from the hundreds
minuend, and the operation is simple. If a number in the column to make it 14 tens. Now from 14 we can subtract 7 to
minuend is smaller than the corresponding number in the obtain 7. Since we have borrowed 1 from hundreds column only
subtrahend, it is necessary to borrow from the next column .For 7 is left in that column. We subtract 6 from 7, thus leaving 1. We
example, therefore place a 1 in the hundreds column of the answer. So the
final answer or the difference is 178.
Rev. 02 6 1.1
May 2012
MULTIPLICATION higher column; tens column. This remainder is to be added to

the answer we get in multiplying 2 in the tens column by
multiplier 5. So the final product is 125.
Multiplication may be considered multiple additions and the
symbol is ×. It may be defined as the process of finding the total
number or quantity obtained by repeating a specified number of Lets study a problem in which multiplier consists of more than
times. If we add 2 + 2 to obtain 4, we have multiplied 2 by 2, one digit.
because we have taken 2 two times. Like wise, if we add 2 + 2 +
2 + 2 to obtain 8, We have multiplied 2 by 4, because we have
taken 2 four times. 425 425 425
x 62 x 2 x 60
850 850
In multiplication the number to be multiplied is called the 25500 25500 25500
multiplicand, and the number of times the multiplicand is to be 26350 26350 26350
taken is called the multiplier. The answer obtained from a
multiplication is the product. The following problem illustrates
these terms: In this example we have to multiply 425 by 62. 62 is 60 +2.
Tens Units Therefore this is similar to multiplying the multiplicand first by 2
25 Multiplicand 2 5 and then by 60 and finally adding the two answers. When 425 is
x 5 Multiplier multiplied by 2 the answer is 850. When 425 is multiplied by 60,
5
125 Product the answer is 2550. When the two answers are added, the final
10 25
product is 26350. In actual practice we do not write down each
2 separate operation of the multiplication as shown in the
12 5 foregoing problem, but we shorten the process by “ carrying”
125 figures to the next column. The method is whatever the number
of digits in the multiplier, after multiplication by each digit; the last
digit of each answer must be placed on the same column as the
If we look at the table, the multiplicand 25 consists of 2 tens and multiplied digit, one answer below the other as given in the
5 units and the multiplier is 5. In multiplying 25 by 5 first we have example. Then the answers must be added to get the final
to multiply 5 of the multiplicand by multiplier 5. The answer is 25. product.
But this 25 cannot be placed under units column. So we can
place 5 in the units column and transfer remainder 2 to the next
Rev. 02 7 1.1
May 2012
It will be observed that the terms multiplicand and multiplier may After these are memorized, it is well to memorize the
be interchanged For example, 2 x 4 is the same as 4 x 2; hence multiplication of larger numbers up to 20 x 20 or even 25 x 25.
the terms are actually reversed. Multiplication tables may be made up from the chart of given
below. This chart may be used to determine quickly the product
of any two numbers with a value of 20 or less. If it is desired to
When we employ multiplication to solve a specific problem, the find the value of 13 x 16, it is necessary, merely to find the row of
names of the terms have more significance. For example, if we figures starting with 13 in the extreme left column and then follow
wish to find the total weight of 12 bags of apples and each bag this row to the figure, which is directly under the figure 16 at the
weighs 25kgs, then the multiplicand is 25 and the multiplier is 12. top of the chart. At this intersection of column and row we find the
We then say 12 times 25kgs is 300kgs, or 12 x 25 = 300. figure 208. This is the product of 13 x 16.
To work multiplication problems with any degree of speed, one

The chart for multiplication may also be used to construct
must memorize the multiplication tables. The usual tables
multiplication tables.
include multiplications from 1 x 1 to 12 x 12.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 As previously stated, it is well to memorize multiplication tables
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 51 54 57 60 up to 12 x 12 and then continue learning additional tables. This
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
knowledge is particularly valuable when one's work involves a
6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90 96 102 108 114 120 substantial amount of computation.
7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 84 91 98 105 112 119 126 133 140
8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80 88 96 104 112 120 128 136 144 152 160
9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90 99 108 117 126 135 144 153 162 171 180
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 Accurate multiplication requires great care. First, it is important
11 22 33 44 55 66 77 88 99 110 121 132 143 154 165 176 187 198 209 220 to know the multiplication tables by heart. Second, care must be
12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132 144 156 168 180 192 204 216 228 240 taken in recording answers in the correct column. Third, the
13 26 39 52 65 78 91 104117 130 143 156 169 182 195 208 221 234 247 260
14 28 42 56 70 84 98 112126 140 154 168 182 196 210 224 238 252 266 280
additions required must be made carefully and accurately. In
15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120135 150 165 180 195 210 225 240 255 270 285 300 order to acquire proficiency in accurate multiplying, practice is
16 32 48 64 80 96 112 128144 160 176 192 208 224 240 256 272 288 304 320 essential.
17 34 51 68 85 102119 136153 170 187 204 221 238 255 272 289 306 323 340
18 36 54 72 90 108126 144162 180 198 216 234 252 270 288 306 324 342 360
19 38 57 76 95 114133 152171 190 209 228 247 266 285 304 323 342 361 380
20 40 60 80 100 120140 160180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400
Rev. 02 8 1.1
May 2012
In any mathematical problem it is desirable to check the answer

for accuracy. There are a number of methods for checking
multiplication and the most obvious is to divide the product by
either the multiplicand or the multiplier. If the product is divided
by the multiplicand, the quotient (answer) should be the
multiplier.
Another method for checking multiplication is to repeat the

problem, reversing the multiplicand and multiplier. If the product
is the same in each case, the answer is most likely to be correct.
Rev. 02 9 1.1
May 2012
DIVISION
Division may be considered the reverse of multiplication; that is SHORT DIVISION
division is the separating or dividing of a number into a certain
number of equal parts. The symbol for division is ÷ and it is read
3857 7 = 7 3857
“divided by”. For example, 98 ÷ 4 is read "98 divided by 4".
7 38
In arithmetic there are two commonly used methods in dividing 5 remainder 3
whole numbers. These are short division and long division. 5 0
The terms used to describe the elements of a division problem
are dividend, which is the number to be divided; divisor, the 7 35
number of times the dividend is to be divided; and quotient, the 5 remainder 0
number of times the divisor goes into the dividend. In the
problem
235 ÷ 5 = 47, the number 235 is the dividend, 5 is the divisor,
and 47 is the quotient. 7 07
1 remainder 0
551
The process of short division is used most often when it is
desired to divide a number by a divisor having only one digit. In Therefore
our example we have to divide 3857 by 7. Therefore
Therefore 7 3857
As it is shown below the first step here is to divide 38 by 7. 551

Since 7 x 5 =35, if we divide 38 by 7 there will be a remainder of
3. This remainder is held over in the hundred This number is The dividend 3857 may be expressed as 3500 + 350 + 7. These
then 35, and 7 goes into 35 five tines without leaving a numbers divided separately by 7 produce the quotients 500, 50,
remainder .The only number left to divide is the 7, into which the and 1. Adding these together gives 551, which is the quotient
divisor goes once. The quotient is then 551. The process of obtained from the first division.
division as explained above may be understood more thoroughly
if analyze the numbers involved.
Rev. 02 10 1.1
May 2012
LONG DIVISION
Long division is employed most often when the dividend and the
divisor both contain more than one digit. The process is 18116 28 28 18116
somewhat more complex than that of short division, but with a
little practice long division may be accomplished easily and x
accurately. 6
28 181
To solve the problem 18116 ÷ 28 we arrange the terms of the 168 –
problem as shown below. 13
4
The first step in solving the problem is to divide 181 by 28, 28 131
because 181 is the smallest part of the dividend into which 28
112-
can go. It is found that 28 will go into 181 six times with a
remainder of 13. The number 168 (6 x 28) is placed under the 19
digits 181 and is subtracted. The number 13, which is the
difference between 168 and 181, is placed directly below the 6 7
and 8 as shown, and then the figure 1 is brought down from the 28 196
dividend to make the number 131. The divisor 28 will go into 131
four times with a remainder of 19. The final digit 6 of the dividend 196-
is brought down to make the number 196. The divisor 28 will go 00
into 196 exactly seven times. The quotient of the entire division
is then 647. So the quotient is 647
Rev. 02 11 1.1
May 2012
Though for the understanding purposes we did the example as

shown above the usual method of solving the problem is as 223
follows. 16 3578
647 32
28 18116 37
168 32
131 58
112 48
196 10
196
00
So the quotient is 223 10 16 or 223 5 8
The quotient is 647

PROBLEMS
If we study the division shown in the foregoing example, we will
find that the dividend is composed of 28 x 600 = 16800, 28 x 40 1. 25648+56898+56+878
= 1120, and 28 x 7 = 196. Then by adding 16800 + 1120 + 196, 2. 2366-59
we find the sum, which is 18116, the original dividend. We could 3. 398 * 78
divide each part of the dividend by 28 separately to obtain 600, 4. 2088/56
40, and 7 and then add these quotients together; it is quicker 5. 487*58
and simpler to combine the divisions as shown. 6. 2785/3
If a divisor does not go into a dividend an even number of times,

there will be a reminder. This remainder may be expressed as a
fraction, or a decimal. Fractions and decimals will be discussed
later.
Rev. 02 12 1.1
May 2012
FRACTIONS we see that 3 divided by 4 is equal to ¾. The principal fact to

remember concerning fractions is that a fraction indicates a
division. The fraction ½ means that 1 is to be divided by 2 or
A fraction may be defined as a part of a quantity, unit, or object.
that the whole is to be cut in half.
For example, if a number is divided into four equal parts, each
part is one-fourth (1/4) of the whole number. The parts of a A fraction whose numerator is less than its denominator is called
fraction are the numerator and the denominator, separated by a a proper fraction. Its value is less than 1. If the numerator is
line indicating division. greater than the denominator, the fraction is called an improper
fraction.
In the illustration below, a rectangular block is cut into four equal
parts. Each single part is ¼ of the total. Two of the parts make A mixed number is a combination of a whole number and a
½ the total, and three of the parts make the fraction ¾ of the fraction, such as 32 2 5 and 325 23 25 , which mean 32 + 2 5 and
total.
325 + 23 25 .
Fractions may be changed in form without changing their
values. If the numerator and the denominator of a fraction are
both multiplied by the same number, the value of the fraction
remains unchanged. For example
3x3 9
4x3 12
The value of' 9/12 is the same as 3/4.

A fraction may be considered an indication of a division. For
example, the fraction ¾ indicates that the numerator 3 is to be
divided by the denominator 4. One may wonder how a larger
number such as 4 can divide a smaller such as 3. It is actually a
relatively simple matter to accomplish such a division when we
apply it to a practical problem. Suppose we wish to divide 3
bags containing 8 apples in each into four equal parts. Since
there are 24 apples in all 3 bags we can divide it into four equal
parts of 6 apples each. 6 apples are ¾ of the total apples; thus
Rev. 02 13 1.1
May 2012
In a similar manner, the value of a fraction is not changed if the

same number divides both the numerator and the denominator.
24 12 2
36 12 3
Thus we see that a large fraction may be simplified in some

cases. This process is called reducing the fraction. To reduce
the fraction to its lowest terms, we divide both the numerator and
the denominator by the largest number that will go into each
without leaving a remainder. This is accomplished as follows:
36 4 9 525 25 21
40 4 10 And 625 25 25
Rev. 02 14 1.1
May 2012
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF FRACTIONS We can see that the above addition makes sense because 5 + 6
= 11. Since both the 5 and the 6 denote a specific number of
fifteenths, we add them to obtain the total number of fifteenths.
In order to add or subtract fractions, it is necessary that the
denominators of the fractions have equal values. For example, it
is not possible to add 1 to 2 until the denominators of the The foregoing principle may be understood more easily if we
3 5 apply it to a practical problem. Suppose we wish to add ½ a
fractions have been changed to equal values. Since 3 and 5 will meter and 2 of a meter the most logical method is to cover all
both go evenly into 15, we can change 1 to 5 and 2 to 6 . 5
3 15 5 15 quantities to centimeters (cm). In a meter there are 100cm. ½ of
In this case, 15 is called the lowest common denominator 100cm is 50cm and 2 of 100cm is 40cm.
(LCD) of the fractions being considered. It is now a simple 5
matter to add the fractions.
1 2
+ =
3 5
?
1 5 5
and
3 5 15
2 3 6
5 3 15
(The value of the basic has not changed because both the
numerator and the denominator are multiplied by the same
number)
1 2 5 6
+ =
3 5 15 15
11
=
15
Rev. 02 15 1.1
May 2012
FINDING THE LCD

Obviously the answer is 50cm +40cm; that is 90cm. If we wish to
convert this quantity to meters, we must divide 90cm by 100cm. The least common multiple or LCD, may be determined by
We then find that we have 90 or 9 meters. dividing the numbers concerned by common factors until there
100 10
nothing to divide and then multiplying the factors.
The same method is used to subtract a small fraction from a larger

An easy method to find the LCD is given below. Lets solve this
fraction. See the example given below.
problem.
2 1
5 3
- = ? 2 3 7 2
= ?
3 5 12 15
2 3 6 1 5 5
and
5 3 15 3 5 15 The denominators here are 3,5,12,15. You can write these
2 1 6 5 denominators at a side of a paper as shown below.
- =
5 3 15 15 Start dividing all denominators simultaneously by the smallest
1 number, which can divide at least one denominator without
=
15 remainders. Leave the others undivided as shown in the
example. Continue dividing with different smallest numbers until
The lowest common denominator of two or more fractions is the all the denominators are divided to the end.
smallest number, which contains each of the denominators an
even number of times. When speaking of whole numbers, we use 2 3,5,12,15
the term least common multiple (LCM) to indicate the smallest 2 3,5, 6,15
number into which each of the numbers will divide evenly.
3 3,5, 3,15
If the denominators of four fractions are 2,3,4 and 6, the LCD is 12. 5 1, 5, 1,5
This is because 12 is also the least common multiple of 2,3,4, and 1, 1, 1,1
6. If wish to find the LCM of 2,3,4, and 5, we must multiply 3 x 4 x 2x2x3x5x1x1x1x1
5 to obtain the answer, 60. This is because 60 is the smallest
number, which is evenly divisible by all three numbers. Multiplying the divider as shown will give the LCD and in this
case it is 60.
Rev. 02 16 1.1
May 2012
The same method can be used to determine the LCM for whole And this will be 40. Now we have found a fraction equal to the
numbers 2 40
value of , that is
To prepare fractions for adding or subtracting we proceed as 3 60
follows: Similarly
3x12 3 36 And
a. Find the LCD 60 5 12 5 60
b. Divide the LCD by each denominator.
c. Multiply the numerator and denominator of each fraction 7x5 7 35 And
by the quotient obtained when the denominator divided 60 12 5 12 60
the LCD.
2x 4 2 8
For a better understanding we continue the same problem. 60 15 4 15 60
Now we can write
2 3 7 2
2 3 7 2 40 36 35 8
3 5 12 15 =
3 5 12 15 60 60 60 60
40 36 35 8
Now we know that the LCD is 60 =
60
83
=
The second step is to divide the LCD by each denominator and 60
multiply the numerator by the quotient. 83
So the answer is
2x 20 60
60 3 20 It may appear as it is a long operation. But with practice it will be
a very easy task.
Rev. 02 17 1.1
May 2012
ADDING AND SUBTRACTING MIXED NUMBERS MULTIPLICATION OF FRACTIONS
When adding and subtracting mixed numbers, we must consider Multiplication of fractions is accomplished by obtaining the
3 2 product of the numerators and placing this product over the
both the whole numbers and the fractions. To add 5 7 , we product of the, denominators. This result is then reduced to
8 3
lowest terms .For example,
may first convert the mixed numbers into improper numbers. To
do this we have to multiply the whole number by the x x = =
denominator and add product to the numerator.
+ +
2 1 3 6 3
3 43 2 23 x x
5 and similarly 7 5 2 4 40 20
8 8 3 3
x x
x x = =
3 2 43 23
Then instead of writing 5 7 we can write Where possible in the multiplication of fractions, cancellation is
8 3 8 3 employed to simplify the fractions before final multiplication takes
and solve the problem using our previous knowledge of addition place. Lets look at the example given below
and subtraction of fraction. This method can be used also for
subtraction of fractions. 5 2 9 4
NOTE: Instead you can add the whole numbers and the 8 3 10 5
fractions separately The same can be written as
3 2 3 2
e.g. 5 7 = (5+7)+( ) 5 2 4 9 5 8 3 3 3
8 3 8 3 x x x x x x
5 8 3 10 5 8 3 10 10
Rev. 02 18 1.1
May 2012
In the foregoing problem we have cancelled all values except the A problem involving a few more operations than that given
3 in the numerator and the 10 in the denominator. First we previously is:
cancelled the 5s, next we divided the 8 in the denominator by the
2 in the numerator. The 4 that was left in the denominator was
then cancelled by the 4 in the numerator. The 9 in the numerator 5 6
was divided by the 3 in the denominator to leave a 3 in the 25 36 11 9 135 23
x x x 2
numerator. The product, 3 , contains the product of the 8 7 20 44 56 56
10
4 4
numerators and the product of the denominators reduced to their 2
lowest terms. This may be proved as follows.
Multiplying numerators: 5 x 2 x 9 x 4 = 360

In this problem it will be noted that the 25 in the numerator and
the 20 in the denominator were both divided by 5 to obtain a 5 in
Multiplying denominators: 8 x 3 x10x5 = 1200 the numerator and a 4 in the denominator.
360 3
Then:
1200 10
The reduction of the fraction was accomplished by dividing both

the numerator and denominator by 120.
Rev. 02 19 1.1
May 2012
DIVIDING FRACTIONS MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OF MIXED NUMBERS
The division of fractions is simply accomplished by inverting the Mixed numbers may be multiplied or divided by changing the
divisor and multiplying. Inverting a fraction means to turn it over, mixed numbers to improper fractions and then proceeding as
for example, if we invert ¾, it becomes 4/3. It is also of interest to with fractions. It is done as follows.
note that 4/3 is the reciprocal of ¾. If we invert a whole number,
7 2
we merely place a 1 above it. Hence, 3 becomes 1/3 when it is Multiplying: 5 3
inverted. See the example below. 8 3
47 11 517
= =
8 3 24
5 7
13
8 15 = 21
24
5 15
=
8 7
3 2
Dividing: 9 4
75 19 4 3
= =1
56 56 39 14
=
4 3
39 3 117
= =
4 14 56
5
= 2
56
It must be pointed out that the procedures explained in the

preceding sections do not represent the only possible methods
for obtaining the same results, but those given are commonly
used and will aid students in refreshing their ability to perform
computations with fractions.
Rev. 02 20 1.1
May 2012
DECIMALS
If it is desired to convert a fraction to a decimal when the
denominator will not go evenly into the numerator, the decimal
Decimals, or decimal fractions, provide a means of performing
will be carried to the nearest tenth, hundredth, thousandth, or
mathematical operations without the necessity of using the time-
ten-thousandth according to the degree of accuracy required for
consuming and complex methods of common fractions. A
the problem. For example, we may wish to convert the fraction
decimal fraction is a common fraction converted to tenths,
25 to a decimal carried to the nearest ten- thousandth. We
hundredths, thousandths, etc .For example, if we convert the 33
common fraction ¾ to a decimal, we find that it becomes 0.75. proceed as follows:
This is accomplished by dividing the numerator by the
denominator in the following manner.
0.7576
.75 33 25.000
4 3.00 23 1
28 190
20 165
20 250
00 231
190
198
Any fraction may be converted to a decimal by this same
process. Let us assume that we wish to convert the fraction
28 to a decimal. In the problem above, the answer would be alternately 7 and 5
35
indefinitely if we continued to carry the division onward. Since we
0.80 wish to attain accuracy only to the nearest ten-thousandth, we
35 28.00 "round off" the answer when we reach the fourth digit. Since this
28.00
number is nearer 6 than 5, we make it a 6.
The decimal 0.80 is the same as 0.8 and may be read "eighty
hundredths” or “eight tenths”. It is also read as „zero point eight‟.
The zeros at the end of the decimal are not considered.
Therefore it will not be read as „ zero point eight zero‟
Rev. 02 21 1.1
May 2012
ADDITION OF DECIMALS SUBTRACTION OF DECIMALS
The addition of decimals is a simple matter provided the Subtraction of decimals is almost as easy as subtracting whole
decimals are properly placed. In adding a column of numbers numbers. It is necessary, however, that we use care to avoid
with decimals, the decimal points should be kept in line in a mistakes in placing the decimal points. This is illustrated in the
column as shown below. following problems:
652.25 2568.2350 320.000
Decimal Points
- 28.64 - 376.4582 -215.375
623.61 2191.7768 104.635
23.065 23.065
2.5 2.500 Observe in the foregoing problems that where there are fewer
+ 354.2 + 354.200 decimal places in the minuend than in the subtrahend, we add
0.637 0.637 zeros to fill the spaces. This aids in avoiding mistakes that could
380.402 380.402 otherwise occur. The addition of the zeros does not affect the
value of the decimals.
In the foregoing problem observe that there is no difference with

decimal addition and the normal addition. But the decimal point
of the answer is placed inline with the decimal points of the other
components of the sum.
Rev. 02 22 1.1
May 2012
MULTIPLICATION OF DECIMALS It is often necessary to multiply decimals in which there are no

whole numbers. For example,
The multiplication of decimals is performed in the same manner
as the multiplication of whole numbers except that we must use
care in placing the decimal point in the product. Let us assume
0.056
that we wish to multiply 37.5 by 24.2
x 0.325
0280
0112
37.5
0168
x 24.2 0000
7 50 0.018200
150 0 The answer is 0.0182
750
907.50
Since there is a total of six decimal places in the multiplicand and
multiplier, we must point off six places in the product. This
Having completed the multiplication of numbers containing makes the answer 0.018200. In order to simplify the answer, we
decimals, we count the number of decimals places in the drop the two zeros at the right and write 0.0182 which is read as
multiplicand and multiplier and point off this many places in the “zero point zero one eight two)”.
product. In the foregoing example there is one decimal place in
the multiplicand and one in the multiplier. We therefore point off
two places in the answer. The answer of the foregoing problem Note: It is customary with some writers to omit the zero ahead of
would then be 907.5 and be read “nine hundred seven and five a decimal point not preceded by a whole number. Thus 0.04
tenths.” If the zero were left in the answer, the decimal portion would be written .04. In either case the value is the same and
would be read “fifty hundredths”. the decimal is read “point zero four ”. It is not necessary to use
the zero before the decimal point but it may aid in preventing
mistakes.
Rev. 02 23 1.1
May 2012
DIVISION OF DECIMALS
Divide 34.026 by 4.538
The division of decimals requires much more care than the
addition, subtraction, or multiplication. This is because it is 4.538 34.026
easier to misplace the decimal point in the quotient. The principal
rule to remember in dividing decimals is to place the decimal
point of the quotient directly above the decimal point of the
dividend. This is illustrated in the following problems: 7.49+
4538 34026.00
3.32 0.476 0.0002268 31766
28 92 .96 34 16.184 435 0.0986500 2260 0
84 136 870 1815 2
89 258 1165 4448 0
84 238 870 4034 2
56 204 2950 353 8
56 204 2610
3400
3480
The small + and. signs placed after the quotients in the above
examples indicate that a small amount is to be added or
In the third problem illustrated above the division does not care subtracted if the number is to be made exact, that is, the exact
out evenly, and so the answer is "rounded off" with an 8 to answer is a little less than the answer shown.
provide an accuracy to the nearest ten-millionth.
When the divisor contains decimals, we move the decimal point
to the right until the divisor is a whole number. We then move the
decimal in the dividend the same number of points to the right.
This is equivalent to multiplying both the dividend and the divisor
by the same number, and so the quotient remains the same.
Rev. 02 24 1.1
May 2012
CONVERTING DECIMALS TO COMMON FRACTIONS
It has been stated that a decimal is a fraction, and of course this

is true. A decimal fraction is a fraction that has 10, 100, 1000
etc., for the denominator. The decimal 0 .34 may be shown as
100 . Also, the decimal fraction 0.005 may be written as 1000 .
34 5
To convert a decimal fraction to a common fraction, we merely

write it in the fraction form and then reduce it to its lowest terms
by dividing the numerator and denominator by the same number.
To convert 0.325 to a common fraction, we write it 325

1000 and
then divide the numerator and denominator by 25.
325 25 13
1000 25 40
It is obvious that many decimals cannot be converted to small

common fractions because the numerator and denominator may
not have common factors. However it may be possible to arrive
at an approximate fraction which is within the accuracy limits
required. For example, 0.3342 may be converted to
approximately 13 .
Rev. 02 25 1.1
May 2012
FACTORS AND MULTIPLES

In the process of factorization we are normally concerned with
finding the prime factors (that is the factors which are prime
The factors of a number are those smaller numbers, which divide
numbers). Let us see how by means of the following examples.
exactly into the number with no remainder. The number 1, which
must always divide exactly into a whole number, is by
convention is not considered as a factor. Factorization is the
Find the prime factors of 144
process of finding the factors of a number; it is the process of
finding the smaller whole numbers, which divide into the number
exactly or, equivalently, finding the smaller whole numbers, We can start dividing 144 using the short division method.
which we multiplied together, give the number
The factors, for example, of 2 144

6 are 2 and 3. i.e. 2 x 3 = 6 2 72
2 36
10 are 5 and 2. i.e. 2 x 5 = 10 2 18
12 are 2,3,4 and 6 3 9
3 3
1
since 2 x 6 = 12
2 x 2 x 3 = 12 144 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 x 3
3 x 4 = 12
Therefore
Now let us introduce the term prime number. A prime number So the prime factors of 144 are 2 and 3.
is any positive integer, which has no factors. Examples of the
first few prime numbers are The highest common factor (HCF) of a set of numbers is the
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61… largest integer (number) that will divide into every one of the
numbers of the set without leaving a remainder.
(All prime numbers are odd numbers except for 2)
Rev. 02 26 1.1
May 2012
Lets see from the following example what is the Highest Now let s see how we determine the LCM by means of the
Common Factor (HCF) of the group of numbers given. following examples.
Find the LCM of 12, 18, 27, 33, 48.

The numbers are 2856, 1020 and 2244.
Our first step is to find the prime factors of the numbers in the
set.
By using the short division as studied before, we can find the
prime factors of the numbers in the group. 12 = 2 x 2 x 3
18 = 2 x 3 x 3
2856 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 x 7 x 17 27 = 3 x 3 x 3
33 = 3 x 11
1020 = 2 x 2 x 3 x 5 x 17 48 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 3
2244 = 2 x 2 x 3 x 11 x 17
The LCM may be determined as follows.
Common factors 2 12,18,27,33,48

HCF = 2 x 2 x 3 17 = 204 2 6, 9,27,33,24
2 3, 9,27,33,12
2 3, 9,27,33, 6
The encircled loops indicate the common factors. The product of
3 3, 9,27,33, 3
common factors is the HCF. That means that 204 is the highest
factor by which all the numbers in the group can be divide. 3 1, 3, 9 ,11,
3 1, 1, 3, 11
11 1, 1, 1, 11
The Lowest Common Multiple(LCM) of a set of numbers is the 1, 1, 1, 1
smallest integer in to which all numbers of the set divide exactly.
For example the LCM of
2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 3 x 11x 1x 1x 1x 1 = 4752
2, 3, 4 is 12. So the LCM in this case is 4752
Rev. 02 27 1.1
May 2012
What we have done in the example above is not new. We have

done the same to find the Lowest Common Denominator (LCD)
under addition and subtraction of factions. The difference
between the terms Lowest Common Denominator (LCD) and the
Least Common Multiple (LCM) is that the Lowest Common
Denominator of two or more fractions is the smallest number,
which contains each of the denominators an even number of
times. When speaking of whole numbers, we use the term
Least Common Multiple (LCM) to indicate the smallest number
into which each of the numbers will divide evenly.
The method of finding LCD and LCM is the same. Therefore in

some text LCM is used in place LCD.
Rev. 02 28 1.1
May 2012
WEIGHT, MEASURES AND CONVERSION FACTORS

DIRECT AND INDIRECT MEASUREMENTS
WEIGHT
Initially each country had its own system of units of
The matter is defined as anything, which occupies the space;
measurement. In United Kingdom the English Engineering
hence everything, which we can see and feel, constitutes matter.
System of Units were in use and most countries used this
The matter therefore will be solids, liquids and gases. Whether it
system as their primary measuring system. In this system the
is gas or liquid or solid, they all have two basic features in
length is measured in feet, yard or miles. The weight is
common. That is, all three kinds of matter have a specific volume
measured in pounds and tonnes. But then in the eighteenth
and a mass. The amount of space taken by the any matter is
century on recommendation of French scientists the metric
called volume and the mass is a quantitative measure of inertia.
system of units was devised. This system is now universally
Inertia is that property of matter which causes a resistance to used throughout the world.
any change in the motion of a body(solids, liquids or gases).
When the metric system was being created, the following units of
In the SI system of units, which will be discussed later in the measurement were established: the unit of length, the meter; the
chapter, the unit of mass is kilogram (Kg) and in English unit of mass, the kilogram; and the unit of time, the second. At
Engineering system of units it is measure in pounds, tonnes etc. the same time the meter and kilogram standards were produced
Weight is the resultant force of attraction on the mass of a body from platinum-iridium alloy. A sample of a unit of measurement
due to the gravitational effect of the Earth. In SI system, the that in accordance with an international convention is regarded
weight is measured in Newtons and in English Engineering as the only genuine sample is termed the standard of this unit.
system of units it is measured in poundals. The International Bureau of Standards in Sevres, France keeps
the meter and kilogram standards. Individual countries have
obtained copies of the international standards, which serve as
standards of the appropriate units of measurement in the
respective countries.
Rev. 02 29 1.1
May 2012
When the standard meter was being produced it was the AN INTRODUCTION TO SI UNITS AND THE USE OF PREFIXES
intention that it should be 1/10,000,000th of a quarter of the
In practical applications of mathematics we are concerned not only
meridian passing through Paris. When the standard kilogram
with numerical values but also with what the value describes, that is
was being produced its mass was supposed to be equal to 1 dm3
their units. In this section we will consider some of the more
of pure water at 4°C. However, more accurate measurements
important basic units, their abbreviations, and the use of prefixes to
have shown the original meter and kilogram standards to deviate
denote multiples and sub-multiples of units.
somewhat from the intended values. Because of constantly
improving methods of measurement the old definitions of the In engineering and science and indeed in most other practical
meter and kilogram had to be dropped to avoid changing the areas, we employ SI units. SI is the abbreviation for the
standards after each new measurement. International System of units. This system has now been adopted
for general use in most countries throughout the world. The
International System of units comprises SI units and SI prefixes
and their associated symbols which have been internationally
agreed. SI units are of three kinds: base, supplementary, and
derived. There is an SI base unit for each of the seven physical
quantities: length, mass, electric current, temperature, luminous
intensity, amount of substance
There are two SI supplementary units: the radian and steradian, to
quantify angular measure. All other units for the measurement of
other physical quantities are derived from the base units and many
of the derived units have their own special name.
SI prefixes are used to form decimal multiples and submultiples of
the SI units. This enables us, together with the unit symbol, to write
down the values of physical quantities in a concise and clear way.
Rev. 02 30 1.1
May 2012
SI BASE, SUPPLEMENTARY AND DERIVED UNITS USEFUL SI Derived Units

FOR MATHEMATICS
The following SI units are have their own names but are not
independently defined. They can be reduced in terms of the SI base
units, and are thus known as derived units.
Base unit
Quantity Name Symbol

Derived quantity Name Symbol
length meter m
mass kilogram kg
electric resistance ohm Ω
time second s energy joule J
electric current ampere A frequency hertz Hz
thermodynamic kelvin K force newton N
temperature power watt W
pressure pascal Pa
amount of substance mole mol
luminous intensity candela cd
Supplementary unit
Quantity Name Symbol

plane angle radian rad
solid angle steradian sr
Rev. 02 31 1.1
May 2012
NAMES AND SYMBOLS FOR THE SI PREFIXES
Note that the preferred prefixes are in multiples of 3; 10±3, 10±6,

10±9,10±12. Those prefixes marked with an asterix are not
preferred but are nevertheless commonly used.
NAME SYMBOL MEANING

tera T 1012 (a million million times)
giga G 109 (a thousand million times)
mega M 106 (a million times)
kilo k 103 (a thousand times)
hecto h 102 (a hundred times)
deca* da 10 (a ten times)
deci* d 10-1 (a tenth)
centi c 10-2 (a hundredth)
milli m 10-3 (a thousandth)
micro μ 10-6 (a millionth)
nano n 10-9 ( a thousand millionth)
pico p 10-12 (a million millionth)
Rev. 02 32 1.1
May 2012
COVERSION FACTORS WHEN YOU CAN IF YOU

YOU KNOW FIND MULTIPLY BY
square
square inches 6.5
We now have a general knowledge of units such as mass, centimeters
length, area, volume. We studied these units in two different unit square
square feet 0.09
measuring systems; SI system units and English (conventional meters
system units. And now we study the relationships between these square
square yards 0.8
two systems. meters
square
There are numerous amounts of such units. But in this chapter square miles 2.6
kilometers
we have discussed only the relevant and applicable units for our
scope of study. hectometers
acres square 0.4
( hectares)
AREA
In mathematics we may encounter units of both the systems. square square
Therefore it is necessary to remember the factors used to covert 0.16
centimeters inches
one unit to another.
square meters square yard s 1.2
Given below are some useful factors used to for conversion of
such units. square
square miles 0.4
kilometers
square
hectometers acres 2.5
WHEN YOU CAN IF YOU (hectares)
YOU KNOW FIND MULTIPLY BY Pounds kilograms 0.45
inches millimeters 25
Feet centimeters 30 MASS grams ounces 0.035
Yards meters 0.9 kilograms pounds 2.2
Miles kilometers 1.6
LENGTH LIQUID gallons liters 4.5
Millimeters inches 0.04
Centimeters inches 0.4 VOLUME liters gallons 0.22
Meters yards 1.1
knot mph 1.15
Kilometer miles 0.6 Velocity
knot kmph 1.852
Rev. 02 33 1.1
May 2012
RATIO AND PROPORTION

Proportion expresses equality between two ratios .For example,
if the ratio 4:5 is equal to the ratio 12:15 we sat the two ratios are
A ratio is the numerical relation between two quantities and they
in proportion. This may also be expressed 4:5 = 12:15
are a very convenient means of expressing a comparison of the
magnitudes of two quantities, i.e. how many times one quantity 4 12
or .
is larger or smaller than another. Ratios are also used 5 15
extensively in science and engineering to define important !n a proportion problem the outer numbers, such as 4 and 15
parameters. above , are called the extremes and the two inside numbers ( 5
and 12) are called the means. In a proportion, the product of
the means is equal to the product of the extremes. We may
If one man has two airplanes and the other has 3 airplanes, the demonstrate this rule by using the preceding problem. Lets use
ratio of their airplane ownership is 2 to 3. This may also be 4 12
expressed as 2 3 or 32 . Thus we see that ratio is actually a the same proportion for this demonstration
5 15
fraction, and it may also be used mathematically as a fraction.
Another method for expressing ratio is 2:3. This is read as 2 to 3.
4 12
5 15
A ratio may be reduced to lowest terms in the same manner as a
fraction. For example, the ratio 24:36 may be reduced to 2:3 by 5 x 12 = 4 x 15 = 60
dividing each term of the ratio by 12. If a certain store has 60
customers on Friday and 80 on Saturday, the ratio is 60:80 or
3:4.
means extremes
The ratio of $ 300 to $ 500 is
300 3 This can also be achieved by cross multiplying numerator of one

ratio with the denominator of the other ratio in the proportion.
500 5
4 12
=
5 15
Rev. 02 34 1.1
May 2012
We may use the above rule to find an unknown term in a PROPORTIONAL DIVISION
proportion.
Proportion may be applied to divide a given quantity in to parts,

6 : 16 = 9 :? which are proportional to the given numbers.
Suppose one has to divide 1530 books among three groups of

Using x to denote the unknown quantity, we can say
children proportional to the numbers 2, 3 and 4.
6xx = 16 x 9 or 6x = 144
In this example, if it is only 9 books one group gets 2 books the
second group gets 3 books and the third group gets 4 books.
Now if we divide both the sides of the equation by 6
24 So that 2 + 3 + 4 = 9
6 144
x = First group gets 2 by 9 books = 2
6 6 9
3
Second group gets 3 by 9 books = 9
Then x = 24 And the third group gets 4 by 9 books = 4

9
But if we are to find how many books the individual groups get
Therefore from 1530 books we have to multiply 1530 by these proportions.
2
So the first group gets x1530 340 books
9
6 : 16 = 9 : 24
3
Second group gets x1530 510 books
9
Note that dividing or multiply the two sides of an equation by the
same number or fraction or decimal has no effect on the value of 4
And the third group get x1530 680 books.
the equation. 9
Rev. 02 35 1.1
May 2012
AVERAGES AND PERCENTAGES

Percentage is the term used to indicate a certain number of
The average value (or mean value) of a set of quantities is hundredths of a whole. The expression 5% means 5 or 0.05.
100
obtained by adding the quantities and dividing the sum by To find a certain percentage of a number by the number of
number of quantities. Lets understand the average from the percent and write the number then move the decimal point two
following example. places to the left.
A taxing aircraft has a speed of 150 nautical miles. When it is

climbing its speed is 300 nautical miles. It cruises at 500 nautical For example, to find 6% of 325 we multiply 325 by 6 to
100
miles and descends at 350. When it lands it has a speed of 150
nautical miles. Find the average speed of the aircraft. obtain 950 , and then move the decimal two places to the left
100
and find the answer 19.50 or 19.5. We could just as easily
To fid the average we first have to add the speeds together. multiply by 0.06 to obtain the same answer.
150+300+500+350+150 = 1450 Certain percentages are equal to commonly used fractions, and
it is well to be familiar with these: 25% = 1 4 , 50% = 12 , 75% = 3 4 ,
And the divide the total by 5 because it ad 5 different speeds 12 12 %= 18 and 33 and 33 13 % = 13 . Familiarity with these
fractions and their equivalent percentages is helpful in many
1450 computations.
290
5
If we wish to find what percent one number is of another, we
So the average speed of the aircraft is 290 nautical miles divide the first number by the second.
Therefore For example, 26 is what percent of 65?

Sum of quantities
Average or mean value =
Number of quantities 0.40
65 26.00
26.00
Rev. 02 36 1.1
May 2012
Since we change a decimal to a percentage by moving the These equations correspond to the formulas given before. By
decimal point two places to the right, 0.40 becomes 40%. Thus using the formulas we can find any percentage one number is of
26 is 40% of 65. another, and what the base when the percentage and rate are
known.
There are three common terms used in percentage calculations.

They are base, rate, and percentage.
If we consider the same example we used
Rate
Percentage
26
0.40 100
65
Base
And also
Rate = Base x Percentage
Rate
Base =
Percentage
Rev. 02 37 1.1
May 2012
AREA AND VOLUMES

MEASURE OF AREA
The area of any figure is the amount of surface enclosed within
its bounding lines. This is measured by the square centimeters,
square meters or other units of square measure it contains. Area being the product of two linear measurements, is
expressed in square units. The following table gives the measure
of area in the metric system.
MEASUREMENT OF AREA
100 square millimeters (mm2) = 1 square centimeter (cm2)

Science of measurement lengths of lines, areas and volumes of 100 centimeters (cm2) = 1 square decimeter (dm2)
solids or generally of any matter is called mensuration. Its 100 decimeters (dm2) = 1 square meter (m2)
knowledge is of immense use to the surveyor, architect and 100 square meters (m2) = 1 square decameter (Dm2)
engineer. Under measurement of areas we will deal with the 100 square decameters (Dm2) = 1 square hectometer (Hm2)
areas of plane figures. Therefore it is required to know the 100 square hectometers (Hm2 = 1 square kilometer (Km2)
definitions of these planes.
It should be understood here that two straight lines when

intersected make angles and are measured in degrees and a
right angle is an angle of 90 degrees.
Right angle
(90 degrees)
Angle
Rev. 02 38 1.1
May 2012
RECTANGLE AND SQUARE The product of the length and the breadth of them determine the
area of a rectangle or a square.
Area of a rectangle = Length x Breadth
A rectangle is a four-sided figure having all its angles right
angles and opposite sides equal in dimensions. Area of a square = Length x length
= Length 2
RECTANGLE
Lets study the following example to find the area of a rectangle
whose length 5cm and 3cm. In the accompanying figure, each
Breadth side is divided into centimeters and dotted straight lines join
points of division. The rectangle has thus been divided into a
number of squares each 1 square centimeter in area. It will be
seen from the figure that there are three rows each containing 5
squares.
Length 1cm
1cm
The sides of a rectangle are usually called its length and
breadth. In a rectangle the length and the breadth are not equal. 3cm
If the length and the breadth of a rectangle are equal, we call
that figure a square .
5cm
Square
Therefore, the rectangle contains 5x3 square centimeters (which

is also written as cm2).
Length =Breadth The area of the given rectangle is = 15 cm2
Rev. 02 39 1.1
May 2012
Since
Area of a rectangle = Length x Breadth
or A=LxB
where A stands for the number of squares units in the area of

the rectangle and L and B stand for the number of units in
length and breadth respectively.
From the formula A = L x B

A A
Therefore L= and B =
B L
In case of a square, L = B
Therefore A = L2
Rev. 02 40 1.1
May 2012
PARRALLELOGRAM TRIANGLE
A parallelogram is a four-sided figure whose opposite sides are A figure bounded by three sides is called a triangle.
parallel. Thus ABCD is a parallelogram in which AB is parallel to
CD and AD is parallel to BC. Any side can be taken as the base
of the parallelogram and the shortest distance from the base to A D E X H Height
the opposite side is termed as the height.
A F
E B
B C K F Y G
Rectangle Base
Height Parallelogram
D C
It can be understood from the above two diagrams that the area
Base of a triangle is equal to half of that of a rectangle or
parallelogram.
To find the area of a parallelogram ABCD, let CDEF be a Therefore we can say that
rectangle on the same base DC and of the same height FC.
1
As you can see from the figure The area of a triangle = x Height x Base
2
Parallelogram ABCD = Rectangle CDEF
= CD x FC ( Base x Height)
Hence the area of a parallelogram is equal to the product of its

base and height
Rev. 02 41 1.1
May 2012
RHOMBUS TRAPEZIUM
A rhombus is a parallelogram whose sides are not only parallel A trapezium is a four-sided figure having a pair of opposite sides
but also equal. parallel.
A X B A B
= AE (Height)
Height
D Y C
D E F C
Base
In this trapezium, AB // DC
Since rhombus also a parallelogram To find the area of a trapezium we have to divide the figure of
the trapezium into two triangles and a rectangle as shown.
The area of a rhombus = Base x Height.
= DC x XY ∴ Area of the trapezium= area of triangles ADE and BFC + area
of rectangle
ABFE
1 1
= xAExDE + xCFxBF + AExEF
2 2
1 1
∴Area of the trapezium = AExDE + CFxAE + AExEF
2 2
1 1 1
= AE xDE + CFxAE+ (2AExEF)
2 2 2
Rev. 02 42 1.1
May 2012
As we can see from the above equation AE is common for the QUADRILATERAL
three parts of the equation.
1
∴Area of the trapezium = AE (DE+CF+2EF) A quadrilateral is a plane figure bounded by four sides.
2
1 A
= AE (DE+CF+EF+EF)
2 B
E D
F
Since EF = AB
1
∴Area of the trapezium = AE (DE+CF+EF+AB)
2 C
DC
The area of the quadrilateral = the sum areas of two triangles
1
= AE(DC+AB) 1 1
2 = BDxAE + BDxCF
Therefore 2 2
1
1 = BD(AE+CF)
Area of a trapezium = height x sum of the of parallel sides 2
2
1
= diagonal x shortest distance to opposite angles from the
2
diagonal
Rev. 02 43 1.1
May 2012
CIRCLE
The ratio of the circumference to its diameter is always a
constant for any circle.
The path of a point, which always maintains a distance fixed Circumference (C)
from a fixed point, is called a circle. In the circle this fixed Therefore Diameter (2r) = constant
distance is called radius (plural radii), the fixed point is called
center and the line of the circle is known as the circumference.
Any straight line drawn through the center and terminated at the This constant is denoted by the Greek letter π (pie) and its value
circumference from both the sides is known as diameter and any 22
part of the circumference is called arc. Also a part of the circle, is taken as .
7
which is enclosed by two radii and the arc is called sector and
any straight line joining any two points on the circumference is Therefore C =2 πr
known as chord. Similarly it is proven that
the area of a circle = πr x r = πr2
chord
radius
Circumferenc
e
Cente
Diameter r
Arc
Sector
Rev. 02 44 1.1
May 2012
VOLUME
Under the subject area we discussed the methods of finding the Given below is a table of various units of volumes depending
areas of plane figures such as rectangles, triangles, upon the unit measure.
parallelograms, circles etc.
A plane figure lies entirely in a plane and are two-dimensional. 1000 cubic millimeters (mm3) = 1 cubic centimeter (cm3)
They have length and breadth only. 1000 cubic centimeters (cm3) = 1 cubic decimeter (dm3)
1000 cubic decimeters (dm3) = 1 cubic meter (m3)
The matter is defined as anything, which occupies the space; 1000 cubic meters (m3) = 1 cubic decameter (Dm3)
hence everything, which we can see and feel, constitutes matter. 1000 cubic decameters (Dm ) = 1 cubic hectometer (Hm3)
3
The matter therefore will be solids, liquids and gases. The 1000 cubic hectometers (Hm3) = 1 cubic kilometer (Km3)
amount of space taken by the any matter is called volume.
If we look at solids, they are three-dimensional. Similarly liquids
and gasses also are three-dimensional. Therefore they have
length, breadth and height or thickness. Under this chapter we will study the methods used to find the
volumes of cuboids, cubes, cylinders, cones and spheres.
height
width
length
The unit of measurement of volume is unit cube. It is a cube with

1cm sides. Its volume is 1 cubic centimeter or 1cm2.
Rev. 02 45 1.1
May 2012
CUBOID CUBE
A solid bounded by six rectangular surfaces is called a cuboid. When the dimensions of a cuboid are equal to one another, it is
Shoe boxes, chalk boxes, matchboxes are examples of cuboids. called cube.
The dimensions of cuboid are length, breadth and height.
Surface
b b (=l=h)
h
h Edge
(b=l=) h
l Vertex
l (=b=h)
A cuboid has six rectangular surfaces or faces (three pairs of

Because the sides are equal to one another,
opposite and parallel faces), twelve edges (six pairs of parallel
edges) and eight vertices (the points at which three mutually The volume of a cube is = length3 = breadth3 = height3
perpendicular edges meet). = l3 = b3= h3
The volume of a cuboid is = height x breadth x length
Rev. 02 46 1.1
May 2012
CYLINDER CONE
A cylinder is an object which has a curved surface, two circular A cone is a solid pointed object with a circular base. It has one
ends and two equal edges. vertex, one edge, one plane surface and a one curved surface.
Examples of cone are ice cream cone, joker‟
Circular ends
radius
r
Curved surface
Slant height (l)
Height
Height (h) (h)
edges
Radius (r)
It isproven that
It can be proven that
2
The volume of a cylinder = π x radius x height
= πr2h 1
The volume of a cone = πr2h
3
Rev. 02 47 1.1
May 2012
PYRAMID SPHERE
Pyramid is a solid whose sides are triangles, having a common A sphere is a set of points in space whose distance from a a
vertex and a plane rectilinear (drawn by straight lines) base. The fixed point is equal to a given distance.
perpendicular drawn from the vertex to the base of the pyramid
is the height. Sphere
vertex
height
The fixed point is called center and a line passing the center and
having its end points at the sphere is called the diameter. All
base diameters of the sphere are equal and constant. The radius of
the sphere is half the length of the diameter.
Center point
A plane containing the diameter of a sphere divides the sphere

into two equal parts. Each part is called hemi-sphere.
The pyramid is called a regular when its base is any regular
figure and also it is called a right pyramid when the
perpendicular drawn from the vertex to the base falls on the The volume of the sphere is given by the formula below.
center point of the base.
If the radius of the sphere is r,
It can be proven that the
4 3
1 Volume of a sphere = r
Volume of the pyramid = area of the base x height 3
3
Rev. 02 48 1.1
May 2012
POWER AND ROOT It will be remembered that a factor of a number is another

number that will divide evenly into the first number. For example,
3 is a factors of 12 are 2, 4, and 6, because each of these
A power of a number represents the number multiplied by itself numbers will divide evenly, into 12. A root of a number is a
a certain number of times. For example, 5 x 5 = 25; hence the factor which when multiplied by itself a certain number of times
second power of 5 is 25. If we multiply 5 x 5 x 5 to obtain 125, will produce the number. For example, 2 is a root of 4 because it
we have found the third power of 5. The third power of 5 is will give a product of 4 when multiplied by itself. It is also a root
indicated thus: 53. It is read "5 cubed" or " 5 to the third power.” of 8 because 2 x 2 x 2 = 8. A square root is the root of a number
"The second power of a number is called the square of a that multiplied by itself once will produce the number. For
number as the third power is called cube. This terminology is example, 3 is the square root of 9 because 3 x 3 = 9 .It is the
derived from the fact that the area of a square is equal to the cube root of 27 because 3 x 3 x 3 = 27. A root which must be
length of one side multiplied by itself .The term cube is derived in multiplied by itself three times to produce a certain number is the
a similar manner because the volume of a cube is equal to fourth root of that number Hence 3 is the fourth root of 81
length of one edge raised to the third power. Any power of any because 3 x 3 x 3 x 3 = 81.
number may be found merely by continuing to multiply it by itself
the indicated numbers of times. For example, The symbol, √ or √ , called the radical sign, is used to denote
the square root of a number. Thus
26 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 64. √81 = 9 √144 = 12 √289 = 17
The small index number placed above and to the right of a If a larger root is to be extracted, we place the index of the root
number to indicate the power of the number is called an in the radical sign. Thus
exponent. The number to be raised to a power is called the
3 4 5
base. In the expression 254, the small number 4 is the exponent 27 = 3 256 = 4 16807 = 7
and the number 25 is the base. If we multiply 25 by itself, the
number of times indicated by the exponent 4, we find that This indicates that the cube root of 27 is 3, and the fourth root of
256 is 4 and fifth root of 16807 is 7.
254 = 390625. If the root of a number cannot be exactly obtained, the root is
called a surd or an irrational number.
Rev. 02 49 1.1
May 2012
The method for extracting the square root of a number is not In this case 60 will go into 149 two times. Place 2 to the right of
difficult, but it requires careful attention to procedure. The the trial divisor to make 62 that is the complete divisor. Place 2
following example illustrates the steps required. In our example above the second period and then multiply the complete divisor
we are going to extract the square root of 104976. by 2.
First step is to place the number under the radical sign and Place the product 124 under the dividend 149 and subtract.
separate it into periods of two digits each starting from the right Bring down the next period to make the new dividend.
of the number.
The second step is to determine the nearest perfect square 3 2

smaller than the first period on the left, and subtract this x20 3 10'49'76
square from the first period. Place the root of the square above 9
the first period. Bring down the next period to form the new 62 149
dividend 149. 124
x
3 64 25 76
3 10'49'76
X 20 The fourth step is to multiply the partial answer 32 by 20 to
9
6 149 obtain the new trial divisor 640. Determine how many times 640
will go into 2576. Inspection indicates that it will go into 640 four
The third step is to multiply the root 3 by 20 and place the times. Add the 4 to 640 to obtain 644, which is the complete
product 60 to the left of the new dividend. The product 60 is a divisor. Place the 4 above the third period. Then multiply the
trial divisor. Determine how many times this trial divisor will go complete divisor 644 by 4 to obtain 2576.
into the dividend 149.
x
3 2 4
3 2 3 10'49'76
3 10'49'76 9
9 62 149
62 149 124
124
644 25 76
25 76 25 76
0 104976 = 324
Rev. 02 50 1.1
May 2012
SQUARE ROOT OF A DECIMAL If the number contains whole numbers and decimals the period
markings are marked from the left and right to the decimal point.
And also note that the number of decimal places should always
The square root of decimals is calculated the same way the be made even. For more details see the example below. In this
square root of whole numbers are calculated. example we are going to find the square root of 13523.56802.
1 1 6. 2 9 0 8
(0.1)2 = 0.01 ∴ 0.01 = 0.1 1 1'35'23.56'80'20‟00
1
(0.8)2 = 0.64 ∴ 0.64 = 0.8 21 035
21
(0.05)2=0.0025 ∴ 0.0025 =0.05 226 1423
1356
2322 67 56
It is clear from the above examples that the square of any
46 44
decimal contain an even number of decimal places and the
23249 2112 80
number of decimal places in the square will be double the
number of such places in the square root. 2092 41
2325808 20 39 2000
18 60 6464
Note that any number that contains one or two digits lies 1 78 5536
between 1 and 100, and hence its square root lies between 1
and 10. Similarly when a number contains three or four digits the The answer to the closest two decimals is 116.29
square root lies between 10 and 100 and so on.
We see from the above examples that two additional digits in a

number lead to one additional digit in the square root. Thus we
separate the digits of a given number (whose square root is
required) into periods of two beginning from the right, the
number of digits in the square root will be equal to the number of
such periods. If the number consists of an odd number of digits,
the last period contains only one digit.
Rev. 02 51 1.1
May 2012
POWERS AND ROOTS OF FRACTIONS The table below shows squares, cubes, square roots and cube
roots of numbers up to 50.
When a fraction is to be raised to a certain power, the numerator No Sq. Cube Sqrt. Cu.rt No Sq. Cube Sqrt. Cu.rt
2 3 2 3
multiplies the numerator and the denominator multiplies the n n n n 3
n n n n n 3
n
denominator. For example if we wish to find the third power 1 1 1 1.000 1.000 26 676 17576 5.099 2.962
3 2 4 8 1.414 1.260 27 729 19683 5.196 3.000
(cube) of , we multiply 3 x 3 x 3 for the new numerator and 4 x 3 9 27 1.732 1.442 28 784 21952 5.292 3.037
4
4 x 4 for the new denominator. Since 3 x 3 x 3 = 27 and 4 x 4 x 4 4 16 64 2.000 1.587 29 841 24389 5.385 3.072
2 5 25 125 2.236 1.710 30 900 27000 5.477 3.107
= 64, the cube or[ ] is 27
3
4 64
. 6
7
36
49
216
343
2.449
2.646
1.817
1.913
31
32
961
1024
29791
32768
5.568
5.657
3.141
3.175
8 64 512 2.828 2.000 33 1089 35937 5.745 3.208
9 81 729 3.000 2.080 34 1156 39304 5.831 3.240
To extract a particular root of a fraction, we must extract the 10 100 1000 3.162 2.154 35 1225 42875 5.916 3.271
roots of both numerator and the denominator .For example, the 11 121 1331 3.317 2.224 36 1296 46656 6.000 3.302
12 144 1728 3.464 2.289 37 1369 50653 6.083 3.332
4 2
square root of = . This is because the square root of 4 is 2 13 169 2197 3.606 2.351 38 1444 54872 6.164 3.362
9 3 14 196 2744 3.742 2.410 39 1521 59319 6.245 3.391
and the square root of 9 is 3. 15 225 3375 3.873 2.466 40 1600 64000 6.325 3.420
16 256 4096 4.000 2.520 41 1681 68921 6.403 3.448
17 289 4913 4.123 2.571 42 1764 74088 6.481 3.476
This can also achieved by converting the fraction first to 18 324 5832 4.243 2.621 43 1849 79507 6.557 3.503
decimals and then finding the root of the decimals. 19 361 6859 4.359 2.668 44 1936 85184 6.633 3.530
20 400 8000 4.472 2.714 45 2025 91125 6.708 3.557
21 441 9261 4.583 2.759 46 2116 97336 6.782 3.583
22 484 10648 4.690 2.802 47 2209 103823 6.856 3.609
23 529 12167 4.796 2.844 48 2304 110592 6.928 3.634
24 576 13824 4.899 2.884 49 2401 117649 7.000 3.659
25 625 15625 5.000 2.924 50 2500 125000 7.071 3.684
Rev. 02 52 1.1
May 2012

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Module 1 – MATHEMATICS

CATEGORY B1/B2– MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.1 – ARITHMETIC

SUB MODULE 1.1

Table of contents Page Table of contents Page

Table of contents Page

PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

Rev. 02 iii 1.1

“The training notes and diagrams are

ARITHMETIC TERMS & SIGNS

Numeration is the art of expressing numbers in words and 3 2 3 5 4 6 7

ADDITION example, the units column is added to produce 3 tens and 6

Thousands Hundreds Tens Units

In the units column there are 2 tens and 6 units. Therefore 6

In subtraction it is well to remember the components of a

MULTIPLICATION higher column; tens column. This remainder is to be added to

To work multiplication problems with any degree of speed, one

In any mathematical problem it is desirable to check the answer

Another method for checking multiplication is to repeat the

As it is shown below the first step here is to divide 38 by 7. 551

Though for the understanding purposes we did the example as

The quotient is 647

If a divisor does not go into a dividend an even number of times,

FRACTIONS we see that 3 divided by 4 is equal to ¾. The principal fact to

The value of' 9/12 is the same as 3/4.

In a similar manner, the value of a fraction is not changed if the

Thus we see that a large fraction may be simplified in some

FINDING THE LCD

The same method is used to subtract a small fraction from a larger

ADDING AND SUBTRACTING MIXED NUMBERS MULTIPLICATION OF FRACTIONS

Multiplying numerators: 5 x 2 x 9 x 4 = 360

The reduction of the fraction was accomplished by dividing both

DIVIDING FRACTIONS MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OF MIXED NUMBERS

It must be pointed out that the procedures explained in the

ADDITION OF DECIMALS SUBTRACTION OF DECIMALS

In the foregoing problem observe that there is no difference with

MULTIPLICATION OF DECIMALS It is often necessary to multiply decimals in which there are no

CONVERTING DECIMALS TO COMMON FRACTIONS

It has been stated that a decimal is a fraction, and of course this

To convert a decimal fraction to a common fraction, we merely

To convert 0.325 to a common fraction, we write it 325

It is obvious that many decimals cannot be converted to small

FACTORS AND MULTIPLES

The factors, for example, of 2 144

Find the LCM of 12, 18, 27, 33, 48.

Common factors 2 12,18,27,33,48

What we have done in the example above is not new. We have

The method of finding LCD and LCM is the same. Therefore in

WEIGHT, MEASURES AND CONVERSION FACTORS

SI BASE, SUPPLEMENTARY AND DERIVED UNITS USEFUL SI Derived Units

Quantity Name Symbol

Quantity Name Symbol

NAMES AND SYMBOLS FOR THE SI PREFIXES

Note that the preferred prefixes are in multiples of 3; 10±3, 10±6,

NAME SYMBOL MEANING

COVERSION FACTORS WHEN YOU CAN IF YOU

RATIO AND PROPORTION

300 3 This can also be achieved by cross multiplying numerator of one

Proportion may be applied to divide a given quantity in to parts,

Suppose one has to divide 1530 books among three groups of