Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 90 (2018) 402–411

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Microgrids: A review of technologies, key drivers, and outstanding issues T

a,⁎ a b
Adam Hirsch , Yael Parag , Josep Guerrero
a
School of Sustainability, Interdisciplinary Center (IDC) Herzliya, P.O. Box 167, Herzliya 46150, Israel
b
Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University, 9220 Aalborg East, Denmark

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Microgrids are now emerging from lab benches and pilot demonstration sites into commercial markets, driven by
Microgrids technological improvements, falling costs, a proven track record, and growing recognition of their benefits. They
Resilience are being used to improve reliability and resilience of electrical grids, to manage the addition of distributed clean
Renewable integration energy resources like wind and solar photovoltaic (PV) generation to reduce fossil fuel emissions, and to provide
Prosumers
electricity in areas not served by centralized electrical infrastructure. This review article (1) explains what a
Distributed energy
microgrid is, and (2) provides a multi-disciplinary portrait of today's microgrid drivers, real-world applications,
challenges, and future prospects.

1. Background connecting multiple generating units to diverse loads, decreased con-

struction costs per kilowatt (kW), and ability to draw power from dis-
It has been noted recently that the world's electricity systems are tant large generating resources like hydropower drove the development
starting to “decentralize, decarbonize, and democratize”, in many cases of the grid we see today [2,3]. However, those advantages seem to have
from the bottom up [1]. These trends, also known as the “three Ds”, are reached their limits and are increasingly undermined by environmental
driven by the need to rein in electricity costs, replace aging infra- and economic concerns. Driven by utility restructuring, improved DER
structure, improve resilience and reliability, reduce CO2 emissions to technologies, and the economic risks that accompany the construction
mitigate climate change, and provide reliable electricity to areas of massive generating facilities and transmission infrastructure, com-
lacking electrical infrastructure. While the balance of driving factors panies that generate electricity have been gradually shifting to smaller,
and the details of the particular solution may differ from place to place, decentralized units over time [3]. This transition is driven by a range of
microgrids have emerged as a flexible architecture for deploying dis- DER benefits that have been studied in detail; [4,5], such as deferral of
tributed energy resources (DERs) that can meet the wide ranging needs generation, transmission, and distribution capacity investments; vol-
of different communities from metropolitan New York to rural India. tage control or VAR (reactive power) supply, ancillary services, en-
In industrialized countries, microgrids must be discussed in the vironmental emissions benefits, reduction in system losses, energy
context of a mature “macrogrid” that features gigawatt-scale generating production savings, enhanced reliability, power quality improvement,
units, thousands or even hundreds of thousands of miles of high voltage combined heat and power, demand reduction, and standby generation.
transmission lines, minimal energy storage, and carbon-based fossil These benefits accrue not only to small, dispatchable fossil-fueled plants
fuels as a primary energy source. Today's grid is not a static entity, – many also accompany deployment of intermittent renewable gen-
though; we are traveling a historic arc that began with small-scale erating sources, as shown by a foundational study of a 500 kW dis-
distributed generation (recognized as the original DC microgrids) pio- tributed generation PV plant in California [6,7]. The challenge of ra-
neered by Thomas Edison in the late 19th century, that underwent dically decreasing greenhouse gas emissions to avoid catastrophic
consolidation and centralization driven by growing demand, and that is climate disruption has also led to governmental policies that incentivize
now experiencing the beginnings of a return to decentralization. From deployment of carbon-free generating sources, many of which lend
the 1920s through the 1970s, the increased reliability afforded by themselves to distributed applications. While this paper focuses on

Abbreviations: AC, alternating current; AEP, American Electric Power; CERTS, Consortium for Electric Reliability Technology Solutions; DBOOM, design-build-own-operate-maintain;
DC, direct current; DER, distributed energy resource; DSO, distribution system operator; ESS, energy storage system; EV, electric vehicle; IEEE, Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers; GW, gigawatt; IoT, Internet of Things; IPP, Independent Power Producer; JCTD, Joint Capability Technology Demonstration; kW, kilowatt; MGCC, microgrid central controller;
MW, megawatt; NYISO, New York Independent System Operator; PCC, point of common coupling; PPA, power purchase agreement; PQR, power quality and reliability; PV, photovoltaic;
REV, Reforming the Energy Vision; SDS, static disconnect switch; SPIDERS, Smart Power Infrastructure Demonstration for Energy Reliability and Security; VAR, volt-ampere reactive
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Hirsch).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.03.040
Received 9 September 2017; Received in revised form 6 March 2018; Accepted 17 March 2018
Available online 03 April 2018
1364-0321/ © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY-NC-ND/4.0/).
A. Hirsch et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 90 (2018) 402–411

Table 1
Overview of microgrid generation and storage options.
Category Options Advantages Disadvantages

Generation Diesel and spark ignition reciprocating internal combustion engines • Dispatchable • Nitrogen oxide and particulate
[24] • Quick startup emissions
• Load-following • Greenhouse Gas Emissions
• Can be used for combined heat and power (CHP) • Noise generation
Microturbines [25] • Dispatchable • Greenhouse Gas Emissions
• Multiple fuel options
• Low emissions
• Mechanical simplicity
• CHP-capable
Fuel cells (including solid oxide, molten-carbonate, phosphoric acid, • Dispatchable • Relatively expensive
alkaline, and low-temperature Proton Exchange Membrane or PEM) • Zero on-site pollution • Limited lifetime
[117–119] • CHP-capable
• Higher efficiency available versus microturbines
Renewable Generation (solar photovoltaic cells, small wind • Zero fuel cost • Not dispatchable without
turbines, and mini-hydro) • Zero emissions storage
• Variable and not controllable
Storage Batteries (including lead acid, sodium-sulfur, lithium ion, and
nickel-cadmium) [28]
• Long history of research and development • Limited number of charge-
discharge cycles
• Waste disposal
“Flow batteries”, also know as “regenerative fuel cells” (including • Decouple power and energy storage [30] • Relatively early stage of
zinc-bromine, polysulphide bromide, vanadium redox) [28] • Able to support continuous operation at maximum
load and complete discharge without risk of damage
deployment

Hydrogen from hydrolysis [29] • Clean • Relatively

efficiency
low end-to-end

• Challenge to store hydrogen

Kinetic energy storage (flywheels) [29] • Fast response • Limited discharge time
• High charge-discharge cycles • High standing losses
• High efficiency
microgrids in areas with existing centralized electrical grids, it is im- 1.2. Foundational microgrid research
portant to remember that they also present many advantages to rural
and remote communities in developing countries; these are covered in Systematic research and development programs [10,11] began with
more detail below. the Consortium for Electric Reliability Technology Solutions (CERTS)
Starting in the late 1990s, as described below in Section 1.2, sci- effort in the United States [12] and the MICROGRIDS project in Europe
entists and engineers in the United States and Europe began to explore [13]. Formed in 1999 [14], CERTS has been recognized as the origin of
decentralized solutions that could manage the integration of thousands the modern grid-connected microgrid concept [15]. It envisioned a
or tens of thousands of distributed energy resources in a way that also microgrid that could incorporate multiple DERs yet present itself to the
maximizes reliability and resilience in the face of natural disasters, existing grid as a typical customer or small generator, in order to re-
physical and cyber attacks, and cascading power failures. The solution move perceived challenges to integrating DERs [12,16,17]. Emphasis
they settled on was a grid architecture that could manage electricity was placed on seamless and automatic islanding and reconnection to
generation and demand locally in sub-sections of the grid that could be the grid and on passive control strategies such as reactive power versus
automatically isolated from the larger grid to provide critical services voltage, active power versus frequency, and flow versus frequency [18].
even when the grid at large fails. This approach was given the name The goals of these strategies were: 1) to remove reliance on high-speed
“Microgrid”. communications and master controllers, yielding a “peer-to-peer” ar-
chitecture; and 2) to create a flexible “plug-and-play” system that
1.1. Microgrid definitions would not require extensive redesign with the addition or removal of
DERs, in order to lower system first costs and provide the freedom to
A number of microgrid definitions [8] and functional classification locate cogeneration facilities near thermal loads. The CERTS microgrid
schemes [9] can be found in the literature. A broadly cited definition, concept has been deployed in a test-bed setting [19,20] and in real-
developed for the U.S. Department of Energy by the Microgrid Ex- world microgrid projects [21,22]. While the initial motivation of CERTS
change Group, an ad hoc group of research and deployment experts, was to improve reliability rather than to reduce greenhouse gas emis-
reads as follows: sions, per se, CERTS microgrids can incorporate renewable micro-
generation sources. The European Union MICROGRIDS project explored
‘‘[A microgrid is] a group of interconnected loads and distributed energy similar technical challenges such as safe islanding and reconnection
resources within clearly defined electrical boundaries that acts as a single practices, energy management, control strategies under islanded and
controllable entity with respect to the grid. A microgrid can connect and connected scenarios, protection equipment, and communications pro-
disconnect from the grid to enable it to operate in both grid-connected or tocols [13]. Active research continues on all of the topics pioneered in
island mode [10].” these early studies [23].
This description includes three requirements: 1) that it is possible to
identify the part of the distribution system comprising a microgrid as 2. Microgrid characteristics
distinct from the rest of the system; 2) that the resources connected to a
microgrid are controlled in concert with each other rather than with 2.1. Generation and storage options
distant resources; and 3) that the microgrid can function regardless of
whether it is connected to the larger grid or not. The definition says Several multidisciplinary studies cover the wide variety of dis-
nothing about the size of the distributed energy resources or the types tributed energy resources that can be deployed in microgrids [24–27].
of technologies that can or should be used. Some examples of the options available for generation and storage

403
A. Hirsch et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 90 (2018) 402–411

today, including their advantages and disadvantages, are provided in exceeding line ratings; regulate voltage and frequency within accep-
Table 1, below. In general, microgrids are somewhat “technology ag- table bounds during islanding; dispatch resources to maintain energy
nostic” and design choices will depend on project-specific requirements balance; island smoothly; and safely reconnect and resynchronize with
and economic considerations. While not strictly required, incorporating the main grid [42]. Microgrids can essentially be controlled in the same
some energy storage will help prevent microgrid faults [28]. Since most way as the main grid, i.e. by using a three level hierarchical control
microgrid generating sources lack the inertia used by large synchronous [37]. Control of frequency and voltage – so-called primary and sec-
generators, a buffer is needed to mitigate the impact of imbalances of ondary control – can be achieved either under the guidance of a mi-
electricity generation and demand. Microgrids also lack the load di- crogrid central controller (MGCC) that sends explicit commands to the
versity of larger geographical regions, so they must deal with much distributed energy resources [43] or in a decentralized manner, like
greater relative variability. The array of technologies for energy storage CERTS, in which each resource responds to local conditions. In addi-
currently under development that could potentially play a role in mi- tion, microgrids generally include a tertiary control layer to enable the
crogrids is extensive [29,30]. Much of the attention is focused on sto- economic and optimization operations for the microgrid, mainly fo-
rage of electricity; however, storage of thermal and mechanical energy cused on managing battery storage, distributed generation scheduling
should be kept in mind where appropriate. The ability of storage and dispatch, and managing import and export of electricity between
technologies to provide ancillary services like voltage control support, the microgrid and the utility grid [39,40,44,45]. Hierarchical control
spinning reserves, load following, and peak shaving among others, has architectures that manage power within a microgrid and mediate ex-
also been analyzed [29]. changes with the main grid have been deployed using a “multi-agent
system” approach in two European microgrids, one in the Greek island
2.1.1. Power electronics of Kythnos and another in the German ‘Am Steinweg’ project [46].
Microgrids often include technologies like solar PV (which outputs Increasingly, microgrid research and development is focusing on adding
DC power) or microturbines (high frequency AC power) that require “intelligence” to optimize operational controls and market participation
power electronic interfaces like DC/AC or DC/AC/DC converters to [18,37,38,46–54].
interface with the electrical system. Inverters can play an important
role in frequency and voltage control in islanded microgrids as well as
3. Microgrid motivation
facilitating participation in black start strategies [15]. The static dis-
connect switch (SDS) is a key microgrid component for islanding and
The factors driving microgrid development and deployment in lo-
synchronization; it can be programmed to trip very quickly on over-
cations with existing electrical grid infrastructure fall into three broad
voltage, undervoltage, overfrequency, underfrequency, or directional
categories: Energy Security, Economic Benefits, and Clean Energy
overcurrent [21].
Integration, as described in Table 2, below.
The interface with the main grid can be a synchronous AC con-
The main driver of microgrid development in the United States has
nection or an asynchronous connection using a direct current coupled
been their potential to improve the resiliency (the ability to bounce
electronic power converter [28]. The former approach has the ad-
back from a problem quickly) and reliability (the fraction of time an
vantage of simplicity, while the later isolates the microgrid from the
acceptable level of service is available) of “critical facilities” such as
utility regarding power quality (frequency, voltage, harmonics) and is a
transportation, communications, drinking water and waste treatment,
natural match with DC-only microgrid strategies.
health care, food, and emergency response infrastructure. One major
Since most distributed energy resources (including fuel cells, solar
area of activity is the Northeastern U.S., where aging infrastructure and
PV, and batteries) provide or accept DC electricity and many end loads,
frequent severe weather events have led to billions of dollars of losses in
including power electronics, lighting, and variable speed drives for
recent years. As a result, States have been exploring the feasibility of
heating, ventilation, and air conditioning, use direct current internally,
extending microgrids beyond critical facilities to serve whole commu-
all-DC microgrids have been proposed to avoid losses from converting
nities [55,56] and have begun funding demonstration projects [57,58].
between DC and AC (and often again back to DC) power [2,31–35].
The most notable example of state support for community microgrids is
These losses can waste from 5% to 15% of power generation depending
New York State's “New York Prize”, a $40 M competition to assist
on the number of back-and-forth conversions. Additionally, faults in DC
communities on the path from feasibility studies through implementa-
systems can be isolated with blocking diodes and issues of synchroni-
tion.1 States in the U.S. are also looking to microgrids to replace retiring
zation, harmonic distortion, and problematic circulating reactive cur-
generation capacity and to relieve congestion points in the transmission
rents are alleviated [34]. Lastly, a grid-tied DC-based, non-synchronous
and distribution system.
architecture simplifies interconnection with the AC grid and permits
In Europe, climate change and the need to integrate large amounts
straightforward plug-and-play capabilities in the microgrid, allowing
of clean renewable energy generation into the grid have been more
addition of components without substantial re-engineering [36].
significant drivers spurring microgrid activity. Climate scientists have
It is worth noting that while the success of promising initiatives like
concluded that to avoid a global average temperature rise exceeding
“DC homes”, i.e. low voltage DC grids for residential applications, has
2 °C over pre-industrial levels, currently accepted as the threshold be-
been limited by a lack of DC appliances and the need for large grid-
tween “safe” and “dangerous” climate change, human society needs to
connected AC-DC converters, DC or hybrid AC/DC microgrids have
reduce the proportion of electricity produced by burning fossil fuels
flourished in maritime applications, datacenters, and so-called mini-
from 70% (in 2010) to under 20% by 2050 [59]. Many of the energy
grids (another name used historically for remote microgrids) utilizing
resources scaling up to fill this gap are decentralized, intermittent, and
PV solar generation and batteries to charge electronic devices like
non-dispatchable, making them a challenge to integrate into a legacy
laptops or cellphones.
grid designed for a one-way flow of electricity from centralized gen-
erating plants to customer loads. Deploying intermittent renewables in
2.2. Controls and functionality
with co-located flexible loads and storage technologies in microgrids
allows for local balancing of supply and demand makes widespread
Microgrids feature special control requirements and strategies to
distributed renewable deployment more manageable. Rather than
perform local balancing and to maximize their economic benefits
having to track and coordinate thousands or millions of individual
[8,37–41]. There is general agreement that microgrid controls must
distributed energy resources, each microgrid appears to the distribution
deliver the following functional requirements: present the microgrid to
the utility grid as single self-controlled entity so that it can provide
frequency control like a synchronous generator [37]; avoid power flow 1
https://www.nyserda.ny.gov/All-Programs/Programs/NY-Prize.

404
A. Hirsch et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 90 (2018) 402–411

Table 2
Drivers of microgrid development and deployment.
Category Driver Overview Recent Examples

Energy Security Severe Weather There is a growing concern that weather-related disruptions
will become more frequent and more severe over time across
• Grid outage costs from severe weather in the United
States alone from 2003 to 2012 averaged $18B-$33B per
the United States due to climate change, lending a sense of year due to lost output and wages, spoiled inventory,
urgency to addressing grid resilience. Microgrids can provide delayed production, and damage to the electric grid [120]
power to important facilities and communities using their
distributed generation assets when the main grid goes down.
Cascading Outages Because electrical grids are run near critical capacity, a
seemingly innocuous problem in a small part of the system
• The United States Northeast Blackout of August 2003
impacted 50 million people and 61,800 MW of load [122]
can lead to a domino effect that takes down an entire
electrical grid [121]. Microgrids alleviate this risk by
segmenting the grid into smaller functional units that can be
isolated and operated autonomously if needed.
Cyber- and Physical
Attacks
The grid today increasingly relies on advanced information
and communications technologies, making it vulnerable to
• Cyberattacks on Ukraine [130] in 2015 and Israel in 2016
(successfully thwarted) [131].
cyberattack [123]. The centralized grid also contains large,
complex components that are expensive and slow to replace
• Large transformers were physically attacked at a major
California substation in 2013 [132,133].
if damaged. Microgrids, through their decentralized
architecture, are less vulnerable to attacks on individual
pieces of key generation or transmission infrastructure.
Natural [124,125] or man-made [126–129] electromagnetic
pulse (EMP) events could also have potentially catastrophic
results.
Economic Benefits Infrastructure Cost Savings Investment in the U.S. electricity grid has not kept pace with
generation. As a result, capacity is constrained in many areas
• Defered construction of a $1B substation in the Brooklyn
and Queens area of New York [135]
and components are quite old, with 70% of transmission lines
and transformers now over 25 years old. The average power
• Itterrain,
costs $40,000 to $100,000 per mile (depending on design,
and labor costs) to build new primary distribution
plant age is over 30 years [120,134]. Microgrids could avoid systems [2]
or defer investments for replacement and/or expansion.
Fuel Savings Microgrids offer several types of efficiency improvements
including reduced line losses; combined heat, cooling, and
• Transmission and distribution losses waste between 5%
and 10% of gross electricity generation [2,3]
power; and transition to direct current distribution systems
to avoid wasteful DC-AC conversions. Use of absorption
• Ifthermal
the supply of reused waste heat is well matched to the
loads, efficiencies of combined heat and power
cooling technology in a combined heat and power systems can reach 80–90% [2], much higher the average
application could help address summer critical peak efficiency of the existing U.S. grid (only ~30–40% [2136]).
electrical demand [11].
Ancillary Services Traditional ancillary services include congestion relief;
frequency regulation and load following; black start; reactive
• Recent rulings 755 and 784 from the U.S. Federal Energy
Regulatory Commission (FERC) mandate that fast
power and voltage control; and supply of spinning (due to responding reserves like those used in microgrids be
their ability to mimic the inertia of traditional generation), compensated based on their speed and accuracy, opening
non-spinning, replacement reserves [137,138]. Power new revenue possibilities [139,140].
quality (reactive power and voltage harmonics
compensation). When discussing microgrids, intentionally
islanded operation should be added to this list [15].
Clean Energy
Integration
Need to firm variable and
uncontrollable resources
Important clean energy sources to address climate change
like solar PV and wind are variable and non-controllable,
• InCalifornia,
locations with high renewable penetration like
Texas, and Germany, electricity prices have
which can cause challenges like overgeneration [141], steep occasionally gone negative, reflecting an imbalance
ramping [141,142], and voltage control [143,144] problems between supply and demand [145,146]
for the existing grid if deployed in large quantities.
Microgrids are designed to handle variable generation, using
storage technologies to locally balance generation and loads.

utility as a small source or consumer of electricity with the ability to the United States has been the historical leader in deployed capacity;
modify the net load profile in ways that benefit the main grid [12]. today, though, the U.S. and Asia have roughly the same capacity of
Despite differences in the priority given to resilience and emissions operating, under development, and proposed microgrids, each with
in the U.S. and Europe, microgrid fuel savings and ancillary grid ser- 42% of the market. Europe trails with 11%, Latin America with 4%, and
vices are important components of the business case in both areas. the Middle East and Africa currently have just a 1% share. Total ca-
Extensive research is now underway to design microgrids using ad- pacity was approximately 1.4 GW in 2015 and is expected to grow to
vanced analytical approaches in order to maximize these benefits across roughly 5.7 GW (considered a conservative estimate) or 8.7 GW (under
a broad range of criteria, including land use, water use, employment, an “aggressive” scenario) by 2024 [63]. Navigant breaks the microgrid
CO2 emissions, investment costs and cost of electricity, among others market into the following segments (with % of total deployed power
[60–62]. capacity as of Q1 2016): Remote (54%), Commercial/Industrial (5%),
Community (13%), Utility Distribution (13%), Institutional/Campus
4. Deployment (9%), and Military (6%) [36]. It should be noted that Navigant Re-
search does not track purely diesel-generator based remote microgrid
While much has been written about the concept and promise of systems; to be considered, they must include at least one renewable
microgrids, much can also be learned from examples of real, operating generating source. While it is not possible here to present an exhaustive
microgrids. For an exhaustive list of existing, experimental, and simu- description of different microgrid applications, we highlight a few
lated microgrid systems, the reader is recommended to consult a recent below.
review by Mariam et al. (2016) in this journal [27]. According to Na-
vigant Research, which has tracked microgrid deployment since 2011,

405
A. Hirsch et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 90 (2018) 402–411

4.1. Campus/Institutional microsource (i.e. serving an individual home or small building) project
so it may be better to site multiple microsources behind a single utility
Deploying onsite generation, especially in a combined cooling, heat, interface [69]. Some authors envision a nested system where energy
and power (CCHP, also known as “trigeneration”) application with management systems at the building level communicate with each
multiple loads collocated on a campus owned by a single entity has other and neighborhood-level master controllers to coordinate dis-
been a successful model so far and typically includes the largest mi- tributed energy resources, including shared community energy re-
crogrids to date, with capacities ranging from 4 to over 40 MW [63]. sources and loads like street lighting [47]. The building-integrated
Santa Rita Jail, located in Alameda County, California, is a real in- microgrid deployment model would likely benefit from innovative fi-
stitutional microgrid proof-of-concept employing the CERTS concept nancing (akin to solar leasing models) due to the expense of generating
[21]. The microgrid includes a 1-MW fuel cell, 1.2 MW of solar PV, two resources, controllers, power electronics, and integration with existing
1.2-MW diesel generators, a 2-MW/4-MWh Lithium Iron Phosphate building systems. Literature exploring so-called “customer microgrids”
electrical storage system (chosen because this chemistry features high examines the technical feasibility and economic viability of this mode
AC-AC round trip efficiency and offers improved thermal and chemical of broad decentralized residential deployment [70,71]. Many of these
stability compared to other battery technologies, despite some sacrifice studies are motivated by the question of whether it is feasible and or/
in energy density), a fast static disconnect switch, and a power factor desirable to cost-effectively gain full autonomy from the electrical grid
correcting capacitor bank. The CERTS protocol allowed all of these using PV and battery storage [70,72].
distributed energy resources to work together during grid-connected One appealing residential microgrid application combines market-
and island modes without requiring a customized central controller. available grid-connected rooftop PV systems, electrical vehicle (EV)
The ability of an institutional microgrid to deliver peak load reduction, slow/medium chargers, and home or neighborhood energy storage
and the tradeoffs between optimizing net load shape for the facility system (ESS). During the day, the local ESS will be charged by the PV
versus for grid needs, has been demonstrated using Santa Rita Jail as an and during the night it will be discharged to the EV. The effect is
example, using DER-CAM software to determine optimal equipment twofold: (1) feed-in tariff schemes are not necessary since little power
scheduling and dispatch [64]. needs to be exchanged with the main grid; and (2) voltage quality at the
PCC is improved [48]. The inclusion of the ESS alleviates overvoltages
4.2. Military microgrids during the day due to excess PV power generation and undervoltages
during the night caused by the huge current drained to charge the ve-
Cost-effective energy security, “the ability of an installation to ac- hicle.
cess reliable supplies of electricity and fuel and the means to use them
to protect and deliver sufficient energy to meet critical operations
during an extended outage of the local electrical grid [65],” is the main 4.4. Remote and rural microgrids
driver for grid-connected military microgrids (off-grid solutions for
operational deployment are also being developed). A good example of More than 1 billion people in developing and underdeveloped
military microgrid research and demonstration efforts is the Smart countries currently lack access to reliable electricity – or to any elec-
Power Infrastructure Demonstration for Energy Reliability and Security tricity at all. Often, the limited electricity that is available is generated
(SPIDERS) Joint Capability Technology Demonstration (JCTD) [66], a using expensive diesel fuel. In particular, for rural areas in these
three-phase program, with the scope and complexity growing with each countries, electricity is a key resource for meeting basic human needs,
phase. Phase 1 took place at Joint Base Pearl Harbor-Hickam, Hawaii in and microgrids may be the best way to deliver that electricity [73,74].
2012 and 2013 featuring a single distribution feeder, two electrically Remote microgrids combining clean generation and storage, in some
isolated loads, two diesel generators, and a PV array. Phase 2 took place cases facilitated by innovative mobile payment platforms, can provide a
in 2013 and 2014 at Fort Carson, Colorado and included three dis- lifeline to those people, allowing children to study at night, medical
tribution feeders, seven building loads, three diesel generators, a 1-MW systems to provide reliable service, and entrepreneurs to improve their
PV array, and 5 bidirectional electric vehicle chargers. The final phase livelihoods. These remote microgrids are leveraging the same advances
3, at Camp Smith, Hawaii, finished in late 2015; it used new and ex- in power electronics, information and communications technologies,
isting generation sources to support the loads of the entire base. A more and distributed energy resources that are driving changes in the grid in
detailed description of SPIDERS, including the project's cyber-security industrialized countries, allowing developing nations to potentially
components, and comparisons to other military microgrids are avail- leapfrog to a world of smart microgrids, in the same way that mobile
able in the literature [65,67]. communications allowed them to connect to each other and the outside
world without building up extensive landline networks.
4.3. Residential So-called “hybrid” microgrids [75] that incorporate renewable en-
ergy sources, often as an add-on to diesel generator-based systems,
The question of optimal aggregation scale is an open one in the show great potential to diversify generation and lower microgrid op-
microgrid literature and an active area of investigation. For example, is erating costs in island communities that rely on expensive imported oil
it better to integrate detached home residential customers into large for generating electricity and in remote areas far from existing elec-
community microgrids or to deploy microgrid technology at the level of tricity infrastructure [76–81]. Remote microgrids need not use a one-
individual homes? The advantages of a fully decentralized building- size fits all approach to system design; with careful resource evaluation
integrated microgrid approach [68] include control over energy re- and understanding of demand profiles, projects can be optimized to fit
sources by customers and the fact that individual homes are already local conditions [82,83]. However, careful attention needs to be paid to
connected to the electrical distribution network, so that any changes the impact of resource variability on level of service as well as the level
performed behind the utility meter to add microgrid capabilities will of maintenance required to keep the system running or to restore ser-
likely not introduce significant legal or regulatory complications be- vice in the case of generator failure. Examples of research featuring
yond what is already encountered for interconnection of rooftop solar remote microgrids include Huatacondo Island in Chile [84], Xing-
installations today. At the same time, this fully decentralized approach, xingxia in Xinjiang, China [85], and Lencois island in Brazil [86].
especially if it includes islanding capability, forfeits cost-saving
economies of scale and the generation and load diversity that comes
with networking multiple generators and loads. For example, the cost of
interconnection protection can add as much as 50% to the cost of a

406
A. Hirsch et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 90 (2018) 402–411

5. Challenges microgrid developers and owners. In the event that the microgrid is
deemed to be a distribution utility, it may assume an obligation to
5.1. Legal and regulatory uncertainty serve, meaning that it would be required to provide service upon the
written or oral request of a potential retail customer.
There are two key legal issues that impact microgrids: first, whether All microgrids that intend to use public ways to distribute electricity
they are deemed to be electrical distribution utilities and are therefore to customers (for example sending thermal energy or electricity across a
subject to oversight by state regulatory agencies; and second, even if public street) require permission from the local municipal authority
they are exempt from state regulation as utilities, do they fit into ex- [55]. This permission can be in the form of a “franchise” or other “lesser
isting legal frameworks governing the sale and purchase of electricity consent”. A microgrid's ability to obtain this permission depends in
and rights to generate and distribute electricity? A clear legal identity large degree on whether a pre-existing electric utility has been given an
for microgrids is needed to achieve the regulatory certainty required to exclusive franchise, effectively blocking out competitors. In New York,
make microgrid projects “bankable” – otherwise the potential costs are for example, if the existing franchise is non-exclusive, state law still
too high and benefits too uncertain to justify investing time and money mandates that a competitive process be used to determine the franchise
[55]. Several states in the United States have evaluated microgrids in grantee, allowing incumbents and other service providers to compete
the context of the current legal and regulatory framework pertaining to against the microgrid developer for the franchise.
electricity generation, transmission, and distribution. The resulting re- Due to their small scale and limited scope of services, it is unlikely
ports are a good starting point for understanding the issues states are in most cases that a microgrid would require a franchise and therefore,
wrestling with regarding the future of their electrical distribution sys- that most microgrids would not be under the jurisdictional authority of
tems [55,56,87,88]. the utility regulatory agency; however, these cases are being decided on
a project-by-project basis in the courts. In addition, microgrids selling
5.2. Interconnection policy to retail customers may have to comply with various consumer pro-
tection laws. Finally, regardless of their status as a distribution utility,
One fundamental source of legal uncertainty centers on the laws microgrids that produce power through combustion (such as micro-
regulating connection of distributed energy resources to the grid. turbines or diesel generators) are subject to federal and state laws
Following deregulation in the United States in the late 1990s, there governing emissions and will require a permit under certain conditions.
were no nation-wide standardized requirements for small independent The choice of business or ownership model will also impact the degree
power producers to connect their equipment to the grid. Manufacturers to which utility franchise or lesser consent come into play; these con-
and project developers had to deal with a patchwork of requirements siderations are discussed in more detail below.
that varied from utility to utility [89], adding substantial cost and time Today's regulations governing electric utilities in the United reflect a
to the microgrid development process. The development of IEEE 1547 process referred to as “restructuring”, and colloquially as “deregula-
(released in 2003) was an important step toward a consistent set of tion”, that occurred in the mid- to late-1990s in many states in the U.S.,
rules for integrating distributed energy resources (< 10 MVA) to the following the example of deregulation in other major industries like
grid in a safe manner [90]. Until recently, though, the main focus of airlines, railroads, telecommunications, and others [91]. In general,
interconnection policy for distributed energy resources, including IEEE restructuring introduced a separation between the generation, trans-
1547, was on ensuring that those resources would disconnect in the mission, and distribution functions of what were previously vertically
case of grid failure (a so-called “unintentional islanding” situation) to integrated monopolies. In the case of New York, generators can sell
protect the safety of line workers. It wasn’t until the IEEE approved electricity into a competitive wholesale markets or directly to local
standard 1547.4 in 2011, that standardized protocols became available distribution utilities or retailers for resale to customers. A system op-
for safe intentional islanding and reconnection of microgrid systems. erator (in the case of New York, the NYISO) is responsible for main-
IEEE 1547.4 includes guidance for planning, design, operation, and taining a balance between supply and demand at all times. The eco-
integration of distributed resource island systems with the larger utility system of players in the restructured New York electricity market
grid. It covers functionality of microgrids including operation in grid- includes smaller generating companies called Independent Power Pro-
connected mode, the transition to intentionally islanded mode, opera- ducers (IPPs). Microgrids, as such, do not fit neatly into the classes of
tion in islanded mode, and reconnection to the grid, specifying correct market participant defined by restructuring, perhaps because they
voltage, frequency, and phase angle. Finally, IEEE 1547.4 also covers transcend the categories of generation, transmission, and distribution.
safety considerations, protection, monitoring, communications, control, As a result, further work is needed to incorporate them into the reg-
and power quality. California's Rule 21 also addresses interconnection ulatory legal structure.
requirements, to help remove barriers put in place by legacy utility
providers, by establishing standardized technology- and size-neutral 5.4. Utility opposition
requirements, a clear review process, testing and certification proce-
dures, set fees, and a streamlined application process. Interconnection Although grid-tied microgrid customers will likely stay connected to
is of paramount importance: if microgrids are not able to connect to the the grid for the foreseeable future, only islanding in the case of utility
utility grid, they must operate permanently in an islanded mode, for- grid failure, self-consumption of microgrid generated energy could
feiting the opportunity to derive revenue from grid services they could erode the revenue base that has traditionally paid for utility infra-
otherwise provide and crippling their business case. structure investments. There is also still reluctance to add large
amounts of distributed energy resources to the grid because of per-
5.3. Utility regulation ceived management, safety, and protection challenges. As a result,
many utilities are seeking to impose additional fees on DER owners and
A microgrid is likely to be considered an electric corporation if it threatening to halt net metering programs. Market restructuring, like
intends to serve multiple, otherwise unrelated, retail customers, cross a that proposed in New York's “Reforming the Energy Vision (REV)” ef-
public way with power lines, and/or obtain a franchise from a local fort, will be required to move from a situation where microgrids are
authority. The reasons for this conclusion are discussed below in more viewed as a threat to one in which distributed energy resource services
detail. If a state utility regulatory agency decides that services provided are valued by the utility grid and fairly compensated [92]. As part of
by microgrids qualify them as utilities, that body can regulate the rates this restructuring, utility regulators will fully unbundle generation,
charged for electricity and decide whether to approve facility con- transmission, and distribution services and allow independent power
struction, among other powers, all of which have major implications for producers to compete in wholesale (and potentially retail) markets.

407
A. Hirsch et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 90 (2018) 402–411

Real time or time of use (ToU) electricity prices will become the norm capabilities to alleviate congestion, route power around faults, and
so that microgrids receive the economic signals they need to manage shorten recovery time from outages. Virtual power plants rely on soft-
their DERs to provide grid services like frequency regulation, black ware and analytics to manage widely dispersed distributed energy re-
start, and congestion relief, and to maximize their own revenues. sources, although grid-connected microgrids can also function as virtual
However, utility restructuring has not been a universal phenomenon power plants, as mentioned above. New information and communica-
and progress slowed dramatically following the challenges experienced tions developments, broadly known as the “Internet of Things (IoT)” are
in California in the early 2000s [91]. also facilitating the emergence of a decentralized, so-called “transac-
Even for deregulated utilities, the structure of electricity markets tive” energy market platform where individual distributed energy re-
and the manner in which investor-owned utilities are paid for providing sources and loads can bid to buy and sell electricity from each other
service (using so-called “cost of service” accounting) still represent [108]. Whether microgrids become the dominant strategy to deploy
impediments to distributed energy resource adoption in general, in- large amounts of intermittent renewables and improve resilience de-
cluding microgrids. Decoupling electric company revenues from elec- pends on whether the benefits are perceived to be great enough in re-
tricity sales, which is already done in 14 states in the USA, is a major lation to the costs, when compared to the alternative smart grid para-
step toward removing utility resistance to microgrids based on concerns digms. It is possible that – even in situations where there is low value
about a so-called “utility death spiral” where widespread self-genera- placed on islanding for resilience and reliability – it will be deemed
tion leads to demand reduction for the grid's electricity, which in turn advantageous to collocate virtual power plant assets in microgrid-like
leads to higher electricity costs for traditional customers, fueling ad- architectures.
ditional uptake of self-generation to the point that utilities cannot cover
their costs. 6.2. Market structure and degree of market decentralization
A potential path forward is to move from the traditional cost-of-
service paradigm to a performance-based approach [93] that recognizes The EU “More Microgrids” project [109] presented four different
that the utility grid is being asked to provide functions that are much scenarios of microgrid resource ownership including: ownership by the
different from those they have historically been responsible for, such as distribution system operator (DSO), where the DSO owns the distribu-
resilience, security, and clean generation. In this new paradigm, uti- tion system and is responsible for retail sales of electricity to the end
lities would be incentivized to invest in upgrading infrastructure and customer; ownership by the end consumer or even consortium of pro-
improving efficiency as opposed to selling the maximum number of sumers (entities that both import and export electricity); ownership by
kilowatt hours. Several States in the USA have taken it upon themselves an independent power producer; or, ownership by an energy supplier in
to commission or formulate their own plans for how to modernize their a free market arrangement. According to Navigant Research [36], the
grids and electricity markets to provide more reliable, efficient, and majority of grid-tied microgrids today are owned and financed by fa-
clean, electricity to their customers [94–96]. Countries like Great cility owners, especially in the campus/institutional category. It is im-
Britain are also formulating plans for evolution of the grid to a more portant to recognize that microgrids, especially community microgrids,
clean, secure, and distributed energy future and examining the social, can utilize the existing distribution system infrastructure, radically re-
legal, and regulatory factors that help or hinder that transition [97]. ducing their costs.
Utilities are also coming around to the view that they may be well Three models have been proposed for integrating energy prosumers
positioned, if allowed by regulators, to provide microgrid services to into the grid – peer-to-peer, prosumer-to-grid, and prosumer commu-
their existing customers since they have extensive knowledge, dis- nity groups – and identified barriers to their adoption [110,111]. In the
tribution infrastructure already in place, and franchise rights from local peer-to-peer model, perhaps the farthest from today's centralized grid
authorities. Electrical utilities have begun testing microgrid concepts in model, the underlying platform would support the ability of electricity
laboratory-type settings. One example is Duke Energy, which maintains producers and consumers to directly buy and sell electricity and other
two test microgrid facilities: one in Gaston County, North Carolina [98], services from each other, with a fee going to the manager of the dis-
and one in Charlotte, North Carolina [99]. The first installation focuses tribution grid for providing distribution services [112]. Pilot projects of
on interoperability and building partnerships with manufacturers; the this type are starting to appear in places like Brooklyn, New York, the
second, originally built to test virtual power plant capabilities, is a solar Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. Researchers, practitioners, and
PV and storage microgrid serving a fire station. The partnership be- even large European energy companies, for applications like electric
tween the CERTS team and American Electric Power (AEP) to develop a vehicle charging, are starting to apply secure peer-to-peer platforms
CERTS test bed represents a productive partnering model between in- like blockchain-based distributed ledgers to peer-to-peer energy mar-
dustry and the government [19]. Other utility companies [100], like kets [113,114].
Arizona Public Service, Consolidated Edison, Commonwealth Edison, One focus area is the market for voltage control in distribution
Green Mountain Power, NRG Energy, San Diego Gas and Electric and networks with microgrids. Some researchers propose that each micro-
Southern California Edison [101] are also exploring microgrids as a way grid in a future multi-microgrid network act as a virtual power plant –
to provide additional services to customers, defer capital investments, i.e. as a single aggregated distributed energy resource – with each mi-
improve overall reliability, and to manage potential disruption to their crogrid's central controller (assuming a centralized control archi-
business model. tecture) bidding energy and ancillary services to the external power
system, based on the aggregation of bids from the distributed energy
6. Future prospects and open questions resources in the microgrid (responsive loads, microgenerators, and
storage devices) [115]. They conceive of the distribution system op-
6.1. Competing smart grid paradigms erator running a day-ahead market for reactive power, which is re-
quired for the flow of power from large generators to customers across a
While it has been argued that microgrids are a better approach to radial transmission and distribution network, and propose a mechanism
contain and manage local problems [102] and could even serve as a for optimal market settlement. This vision is similar to that presented in
possible pathway to a “self-healing” smart grid of the future [103], it is New York's Distributed Energy Resource Roadmap [116] which pro-
possible that society will find grid architecture paradigms like “smart poses to open the state's wholesale electricity market to DER ag-
supergrids” [104,105] or “virtual power plants” [44,106,107] – which gregators.
do not feature local balancing of generation and loads or isolating Innovative business models such as power purchase or energy ser-
segments of the grid – to be more compelling architectures. Smart su- vices agreements and design-build-own-operate-maintain (DBOOM)
pergrids rely on improved fault detection, isolation, and restoration will likely play a big role in the ability of microgrids to scale [36]. Once

408
A. Hirsch et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 90 (2018) 402–411

microgrid design and procurement becomes more streamlined, power 2012;25:84–94.

purchase agreements (PPAs) are poised to play a larger role in the [11] Marnay C, Chatzivasileiadis S, Abbey C, Iravani R, Joos G, Lombardi P. et al.
Microgrid evolution roadmap. In: Proceedings of international symposium on
microgrid market [36]. The PPA is currently a very successful business smart electr distrib syst technol EDST. IEEE; 2015, p. 139–44.
model in the U.S. residential and commercial solar PV markets because [12] Lasseter R, Akhil A, Marnay C, Stephens J, Dagle J, Guttromson R, et al. The CERTS
it can be used to capture tax and other related incentives while avoiding microgrid concept. White Pap Transm Reliab Program Power Technol US Dep
Energy 2002;2:30.
large upfront capital costs for the facility hosting the system. The in- [13] Hatziargyriou N, Jenkins N, Strbac G, Lopes JAP, Ruela J, Engler A. et al.
frastructure in a PPA is owned by a third party and leased to customers Microgrids - large scale integration of microgeneration to low voltage grids.
to provide electricity and related services to end customers. In the case CIGRE; 2006.
[14] McGowan E. Why two grids can be better than one - how the CERTS microgrid
of microgrids, improved security, reliability, and sustainability can be evolved from concept to practice.
marketed along with economic benefits like energy cost savings. In the [15] Lopes JAP, Madureira AG. Moreira CCLM. A view of microgrids: a view of mi-
case of combined cooling, heat, and power projects, thermal energy can crogrids. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Energy Environ 2013;2:86–103. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1002/wene.34.
be bundled in the PPA along with electricity. It is reasonable to expect
[16] Lasseter R, Piagi P. Microgrid: a conceptual solution. Germany: Aachen; 2004.
that operations and maintenance will be included in the PPA, since PPA [17] Marnay C, Bailey OC. The CERTS microgrid and the future of the macrogrid.
revenues depend on systems performing to their potential. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory; 2004.
[18] Piagi P, Lasseter RH. Autonomous control of microgrids. In: Proceedings of IEEE
Power Eng Soc Gen Meet, IEEE; 2006, p. 8–pp.
7. Conclusion [19] Eto J. et al. CERTS microgrid laboratory Testbed; 2009.
[20] Lasseter RH, Eto JH, Schenkman B, Stevens J, Vollkommer H, Klapp D, et al.
The costs of solar photovoltaic generation and battery storage are CERTS microgrid laboratory test bed. IEEE Trans Power Deliv 2011;26:325–32.
[21] Alegria E, Brown T, Minear E, Lasseter RH. CERTS microgrid demonstration with
rapidly dropping, to the point that they are closing in on cost parity large-scale energy storage and renewable generation. IEEE Trans Smart Grid
with traditional electricity sources. As a result, broad adoption of these 2014;5:937–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/TSG.2013.2286575.
technologies may soon accelerate to the point that energy prosumption, [22] Panora R, Gehret J, Furse M, Lasseter RH. Real-world Performance of a CERTS
microgrid in Manhattan. IEEE Trans Sustain Energy 2014;5:1356–60.
where end users import and export electricity, is the norm rather than [23] Parhizi S, Lotfi H, Khodaei A, Bahramirad S. State of the art in research on mi-
the exception. Before millions of distributed energy resources are con- crogrids: a review. IEEE Access 2015;3:890–925. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/
nected to the electrical grid, it behooves society to plan ahead and to ACCESS.2015.2443119.
[24] Akorede MF, Hizam H, Pouresmaeil E. Distributed energy resources and benefits to
understand what architecture will best integrate these and other dis- the environment. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2010;14:724–34. http://dx.doi.org/
tributed energy technologies. Microgrids are poised to manage this 10.1016/j.rser.2009.10.025.
transition by balancing supply and demand locally while ensuring re- [25] Bayindir R, Hossain E, Kabalci E, Perez R. A comprehensive study on microgrid
technology. Int J Renew Energy Res 2014;4:1094–107.
liability and resilience against what appear to be escalating natural and
[26] El-Khattam W, Salama MM. Distributed generation technologies, definitions and
man-made disturbances. benefits. Electr Power Syst Res 2004;71:119–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.
Whether microgrids remain a niche application or become ubiqui- 2004.01.006.
tous depends on two main factors: (1) to what degree regulatory and [27] Mariam L, Basu M, Conlon MF. Microgrid: architecture, policy and future trends.
Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;64:477–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.
legal challenges can be successfully surmounted, and (2) whether the 2016.06.037.
value they deliver to property owners and communities in terms of [28] Abusharkh S, Arnold R, Kohler J, Li R, Markvart T, Ross J, et al. Can microgrids
power quality and reliability (PQR) and other economic benefits out- make a major contribution to UK energy supply? Renew Sustain Energy Rev
2006;10:78–127. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2004.09.013.
weigh any cost premiums incurred to capture those benefits. These [29] Díaz-González F, Sumper A, Gomis-Bellmunt O, Villafáfila-Robles R. A review of
questions are now being answered in court rooms and commercial energy storage technologies for wind power applications. Renew Sustain Energy
markets around the globe as electricity grids evolve to address social Rev 2012;16:2154–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.01.029.
[30] Suvire GO, Mercado PE, Ontiveros LJ. Comparative analysis of energy storage
and economic concerns and incorporate 21st century technology to technologies to compensate wind power short-term fluctuations. IEEE 2010:522–8.
update Thomas Edison's original vision of the grid. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/TDC-LA.2010.5762932.
[31] Dragicevic T, Vasquez JC, Guerrero JM, Skrlec D. Advanced LVDC electrical power
architectures and microgrids: a step toward a new generation of power distribution
Acknowledgements
networks. IEEE Electrification Mag 2014;2:54–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/
MELE.2013.2297033.
This work was supported by Israel's Ministry of Energy grant [32] John JS. A current in every ceiling 〈http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/
read/a-current-in-every-ceiling-5278〉 [Accessed 4 May 2016]; 2008.
number 215-11-038, with the title 'Microgrids deployment in Israel:
[33] Justo JJ, Mwasilu F, Lee J, Jung J-W. AC-microgrids versus DC-microgrids with
socio-techno-economic analysis of benefits, challenges and regulatory distributed energy resources: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
framework'. 2013;24:387–405. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.03.067.
[34] Che Liang, Shahidehpour M, Microgrids DC. Economic operation and enhance-
ment of resilience by hierarchical control. IEEE Trans Smart Grid 2014;5:2517–26.
References http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/TSG.2014.2344024.
[35] Patterson BT. DC, come home: DC microgrids and the birth of the “enernet. IEEE
[1] Green M. Community power. Nat Energy 2016;1:16014. http://dx.doi.org/10. Power Energy Mag 2012;10:60–9.
1038/nenergy.2016.14. [36] Asmus P, Lawrence M. Emerging microgrid business models; 2016.
[2] Barker P, Johnson B, Maitra A. Investigation of the technical and economic fea- [37] Guerrero JM, Loh PC, Lee T-L, Chandorkar M. Advanced control architectures for
sibility of micro-grid based power systems. Palo Alto, CA.: EPRI; 2001. intelligent microgrids Part II: power quality, energy storage, and AC/DC micro-
[3] Lovins AB, Rocky Mountain Instituteeditors. Small is profitable. 1st ed.Snowmass, grids. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2013;60:1263–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/TIE.
CO: Rocky Mountain Institute; 2002. 2012.2196889.
[4] Gumerman EZ, Bharvirkar RR, LaCommare KH, Marnay C. Evaluation framework [38] Katiraei F, Iravani R, Hatziargyriou N, Dimeas A. Microgrids management. IEEE
and tools for distributed energy resources. Lawrence Berkeley Natl Lab 2003;73. Power Energy Mag 2008;6:54–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/MPE.2008.918702.
[5] Iannucci JJ, Cibulka L, Eyer JM, Pupp RL. DER benefits analysis studies: final re- [39] Lopes JAP, Vasiljevska J, Ferreira R, Moreira C, Madureira A. Advanced archi-
port. National Renewable Energy Laboratory; 2003. tectures and control concepts for more microgrids; 2009.
[6] Farmer BK, Wenger H, Hoff TE, Whitaker CM. Performance and value analysis of [40] Madureira AG, Pereira JC, Gil NJ, Lopes JAP, Korres GN, Hatziargyriou ND.
the Kerman 500 kW photovoltaic power plant. In: Proceedings of Am Power Advanced control and management functionalities for multi-microgrids. Eur Trans
Conference Chic. IL; 1995. Electr Power 2011;21:1159–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/etep.407.
[7] Hoff TE, Wenger HJ, Farmer BK. Distributed generation: an alternative to electric [41] Shuai Z, Sun Y, Shen ZJ, Tian W, Tu C, Li Y, et al. Microgrid stability: classification
utility investments in system capacity. Energy Policy 1996;24:137–47. and a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;58:167–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.
[8] Olivares DE, Mehrizi-Sani A, Etemadi AH, Canizares CA, Iravani R, Kazerani M, 1016/j.rser.2015.12.201.
et al. Trends in microgrid control. IEEE Trans Smart Grid 2014;5:1905–19. http:// [42] Palizban O, Kauhaniemi K, Guerrero JM. Microgrids in active network manage-
dx.doi.org/10.1109/TSG.2013.2295514. ment –Part II: system operation, power quality and protection. Renew Sustain
[9] Martin-Martínez F, Sánchez-Miralles A, Rivier M. A literature review of microgrids: Energy Rev 2014;36:440–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.04.048.
a functional layer based classification. Renew Sustain Energy Rev [43] Kaur A, Kaushal J, Basak P. A review on microgrid central controller. Renew
2016;62:1133–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.05.025. Sustain Energy Rev 2016;55:338–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.10.
[10] Ton DT, Smith MA. The US department of energy's microgrid initiative. Electr J 141.

409
A. Hirsch et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 90 (2018) 402–411

[44] Palizban O, Kauhaniemi K, Guerrero JM. Microgrids in active network [74] Williams NJ, Jaramillo P, Taneja J, Ustun TS. Enabling private sector investment
management—Part I: hierarchical control, energy storage, virtual power plants, in microgrid-based rural electrification in developing countries: a review. Renew
and market participation. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2014;36:428–39. http://dx. Sustain Energy Rev 2015;52:1268–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.07.
doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.01.016. 153.
[45] Meng L, Sanseverino ER, Luna A, Dragicevic T, Vasquez JC, Guerrero JM. [75] Nema P, Nema RK, Rangnekar S. A current and future state of art development of
Microgrid supervisory controllers and energy management systems: a literature hybrid energy system using wind and PV-solar: a review. Renew Sustain Energy
review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;60:1263–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ Rev 2009;13:2096–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2008.10.006.
j.rser.2016.03.003. [76] Bunker K, Hawley K, Morris J. Renewable microgrids: profiles from islands and
[46] Hatziargyriou N, Asano H, Iravani R, Marnay C. Microgrids. IEEE Power Energy remote communities across the globe. Rocky Mountain Institute; 2015.
Mag 2007;5:78–94. [77] Nayar CV. Recent developments in decentralised mini-grid diesel power systems in
[47] Bahramirad S, Khodaei A, Svachula J, Aguero JR. Building resilient integrated Australia. Appl Energy 1995;52:229–42.
grids: one neighborhood at a time. IEEE Electrification Mag 2015;3:48–55. http:// [78] Schnitzer D, Lounsbury D, Carvallo J, Deshmukh R, Apt J, Kammen D. 〈Micro-
dx.doi.org/10.1109/MELE.2014.2380051. grids_for_Rural_Electrification-A_critical_review_of_best_practices_based_on_seven_
[48] Rodriguez-Diaz E, Vasquez JC, Guerrero JM. Intelligent DC homes in future sus- case_studies.pdf〉 United Nations Foundation; 2014.
tainable energy systems: when efficiency and intelligence work together. IEEE [79] Ustun TS, Ozansoy C, Zayegh A. Recent developments in microgrids and example
Consum Electron Mag 2016;5:74–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/MCE.2015. cases around the world—a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2011;15:4030–41.
2484699. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2011.07.033.
[49] Roche R, Blunier B, Miraoui A, Hilaire V, Koukam A Multi-agent systems for grid [80] Hazelton J, Bruce A, MacGill I. A review of the potential benefits and risks of
energy management: a short review. In: Proceedings of IECON 2010-36th Annu photovoltaic hybrid mini-grid systems. Renew Energy 2014;67:222–9. http://dx.
Conference IEEE Ind Electron Soc, IEEE; 2010, p. 3341–6. doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2013.11.026.
[50] Kantamneni A, Brown LE, Parker G, Weaver WW. Survey of multi-agent systems [81] Kuang Y, Zhang Y, Zhou B, Li C, Cao Y, Li L, et al. A review of renewable energy
for microgrid control. Eng Appl Artif Intell 2015;45:192–203. http://dx.doi.org/ utilization in islands. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;59:504–13. http://dx.doi.
10.1016/j.engappai.2015.07.005. org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.01.014.
[51] Dimeas AL, Hatziargyriou ND Agent based control of virtual power plants. In: [82] Domenech B, Ferrer-Martí L, Lillo P, Pastor R, Chiroque J. A community elec-
Proceedings of ISAP 2007 international conference on intell syst appl power syst trification project: combination of microgrids and household systems fed by wind,
2007. IEEE; 2007. p. 1–6. PV or micro-hydro energies according to micro-scale resource evaluation and so-
[52] Chatzivasiliadis SJ, Hatziargyriou ND, Dimeas AL Development of an agent based cial constraints. Energy Sustain Dev 2014;23:275–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
intelligent control system for microgrids. In: Proceedings of power energy soc gen j.esd.2014.09.007.
meet-convers deliv electr energy 21st Century 2008 IEEE. IEEE; 2008. p. 1–6. [83] Khatib T, Mohamed A, Sopian K. Optimization of a PV/wind micro-grid for rural
[53] Colson CM, Nehrir MH, Wang C. Ant colony optimization for microgrid multi- housing electrification using a hybrid iterative/genetic algorithm: case study of
objective power management. In: Proceddings of power syst Conference Expo Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia. Energy Build 2012;47:321–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.
2009 PSCE09 IEEEPES, IEEE; 2009. p. 1–7. 1016/j.enbuild.2011.12.006.
[54] Serna-Suárez ID, Ordóñez-Plata G, Carrillo-Caicedo G. Microgrid’s Energy man- [84] Palma-Behnke R, Ortiz D, Reyes L, Jimenez-Estevez G, Garrido N. A social SCADA
agement systems: a survey. In: Proceedings of the 12th international conference on approach for a renewable based microgrid—the Huatacondo project. In:
eur energy Mark EEM; 2015. p. 1–6. Proceedings of Power Energy Soc Gen Meet 2011 IEEE; 2011, p. 1–7.
[55] Center for Energy, Marine Transportation and Public Policy at Columbia [85] Yangbo C, Jingding R, Kun L. Construction of multi-energy microgrid laboratory.
University. Microgrids: an assessment of the value, opportunities and barriers to IEEE 2011:1–5.
deployment in New York State. New York State Energy Research and Development [86] De Bosio F, Luna AC, Ribeiro L, Graells M, Saavedra OR, Guerrero JM. Analysis and
Authority; 2010. improvement of the energy management of an isolated microgrid in Lencois island
[56] Kema DNV. Microgrids – benefits, models, barriers and suggested policy initiatives based on a linear optimization approach, IEEE; 2016.
for the commonwealth of Massachusetts; 2014. [87] Burr MT, Zimmer MJ, Meloy B, Bertrand J, Levesque W, Warner G. et al.
[57] Tweed K. New York looks to cement its lead as microgrid capital of the World. Minnesota microgrids; 2013.
〈https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/new-york-looks-to-cement-its- [88] Maryland Resiliency Through Microgrids Task Force. Maryland: resiliency through
lead-as-microgrid-capital-of-the-world〉 [Accessed 3 March 2016]; 2015. microgrids task force report; 2014.
[58] Wood E. Massachusetts awards $7M for community microgrid & resiliency pro- [89] DeBlasio D. Cycle of innovation. Fortnightly. 〈https://www.fortnightly.com/
jects. Microgrid Knowl 〈https://microgridknowledge.com/massachusetts-awards- fortnightly/2013/07/cycle-innovation〉 [Accessed 20 September 2016]; 2013.
7m-community-microgrid-resiliency-projects/〉 [Accessed 1 May 2016]; 2014. [90] Basso TS. IEEE 1547 and 2030 standards for distributed energy resources inter-
[59] Pachauri RK, Allen MR, Barros VR, Broome J, Cramer W, Christ R. et al. Climate connection and interoperability with the electricity grid. National Renewable
change: 2014: synthesis Report. Contribution of working groups I, II and III to the Energy Laboratory; 2014.
fifth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. IPCC; [91] Borenstein S, Bushnell J. The US electricity industry after 20 years of restructuring.
2014. National Bureau of Economic Research; 2015.
[60] Shmelev SE, van den Bergh JCJM. Optimal diversity of renewable energy alter- [92] Romankiewicz J, Marnay C, Zhou N, Qu M. Lessons from international experience
natives under multiple criteria: an application to the UK. Renew Sustain Energy for China's microgrid demonstration program. Energy Policy 2014;67:198–208.
Rev 2016;60:679–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.01.100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2013.11.059.
[61] Gamarra C, Guerrero JM. Computational optimization techniques applied to mi- [93] Malkin D, Centolella P. Results-based regulation. Fortnightly. 〈https://www.
crogrids planning: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2015;48:413–24. http:// fortnightly.com/fortnightly/2014/03/results-based-regulation〉 [Accessed 19
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.04.025. October 2016]; 2014.
[62] Shmelev SE Ecological economics. Sustainability in practice. Springer Science and [94] Energy Future Coalition. Maryland Utility 2−0 Pilot Project; 2013.
Business Media; n.d. [95] Massachusetts Department of Public Utilities. Investigation by the Department of
[63] Asmus P, Lawrence M. Market data: microgrids; 2016. Public Utilities on its own Motion into the Modernization of the Electric Grid;
[64] DeForest N. Microgrid dispatch for macrogrid peak-demand mitigation. In: 2014.
Proceedings of 2012 ACEEE Summer Study Energy Effic Build Asilomar [96] New York Public Service Commission. Reforming The Energy Vision: NYS
Conference. Cent Pac Grove CA. August 12–17 2012; 2013. Department of Public Service Staff Report and Proposal. Case 14-M-0101; 2014.
[65] Van Broekhoven SB, Judson N, Nguyen SV, Ross WD. Microgrid study: energy [97] Barton J, Emmanuel-Yusuf D, Hall S, Johnson V, Longhurst N, O’Grady A. et al.
security for DoD installations. DTIC Document; 2012. Distributing Power. A transition to a civic energy future; 2015.
[66] Naval Facilities Engineering Command. Technology transition final public report: [98] Cohn L. Playing nice: what the duke energy microgrid test bed teaches. Microgrid
smart power infrastructure demonstration for energy reliability and security Knowl 〈http://microgridknowledge.com/duke-energy-microgrid-test-bed/〉
(SPIDERS). U.S. Department of Defense; 2015. [Accessed 28 February 2016]; 2016.
[67] Van Broekhoven S, Judson N, Galvin J, Marqusee J. Leading the charge: microgrids [99] John JS. How Duke’s solar and battery microgrid is weathering disruptive grid
for domestic military installations. IEEE Power Energy Mag 2013;11:40–5. http:// events 〈http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/how-dukes-solar-and-
dx.doi.org/10.1109/MPE.2013.2258280. battery-powered-microgrid-is-weathering-grid-events〉 [Accessed 21 September
[68] Sechilariu M, Wang B, Locment F. Building-integrated microgrid: advanced local 2016]; 2016.
energy management for forthcoming smart power grid communication. Energy [100] Asmus P. Microgrids: friend or foe? Public Util Fortn 2015:18–23.
Build 2013;59:236–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2012.12.039. [101] Montoya M, Sherick R, Haralson P, Neal R, Yinger R. Islands in the storm: in-
[69] Lasseter RH. Microgrids and distributed generation. J Energy Eng 2007. tegrating microgrids into the larger grid. IEEE Power Energy Mag 2013;11:33–9.
[70] Khalilpour R, Vassallo A. Leaving the grid: an ambition or a real choice? Energy http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/MPE.2013.2258279.
Policy 2015;82:207–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2015.03.005. [102] Walton R. Former FERC chair says microgrids are key to grid security. Util Dive
[71] Suryanarayanan S, Rietz RK, Mitra J. A framework for energy management in 〈http://www.utilitydive.com/news/former-ferc-chair-says-microgrids-are-key-to-
customer-driven microgrids. IEEE 2010:1–4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/PES. grid-security/327814/〉 [accessed 13 September 2016]; 2014.
2010.5589873. [103] DeBlasio D. Toward a self-healing smart grid. Fortnightly 〈https://www.
[72] Bronski P, Creyts J, Guccione L, Madrazo M, Mandel J, Rader B. et al. The eco- fortnightly.com/fortnightly/2013/08/toward-self-healing-smart-grid〉 [Accessed
nomics of grid defection: when and where distributed solar generation plus storage 20 September 2016]; 2013.
competes with traditional utility service; 2014. [104] Marnay C, Asano H, Papathanassiou S, Strbac G. Policymaking for microgrids.
[73] Illindala M, Siddiqui A, Venkataramanan G, Marnay C. Localized aggregation of IEEE Power Energy Mag 2008;6:66–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/MPE.2008.
diverse energy sources for rural electrification using microgrids. Lawrence 918715.
Berkeley National Laboratory; 2006. [105] Minkel JR. The 2003 northeast blackout – five years later. Sci Am 〈http://www.

410
A. Hirsch et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 90 (2018) 402–411

scientificamerican.com/article/2003-blackout-five-years-later/〉 [Accessed 13 [126] Foster Jr JS, Gjelde E, Graham WR, Hermann RJ, Kluepfel HM, Lawson RL. et al.
September 2016]; 2008. Report of the commission to assess the threat to the united states from electro-
[106] Asmus P. Microgrids, virtual power plants and our distributed energy future. Electr magnetic pulse (EMP) Attack. Volume 1: Executive Report. DTIC Document; 2004.
J 2010;23:72–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tej.2010.11.001. [127] Maize K. EMP: the biggest unaddressed threat to the grid. Power Mag; 2013.
[107] Soshinskaya M, Crijns-Graus WHJ, Guerrero JM, Vasquez JC. Microgrids: experi- 〈http://www.powermag.com/emp-the-biggest-unaddressed-threat-to-the-grid/〉
ences, barriers and success factors. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2014;40:659–72. [Accessed 30 May 2016].
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.07.198. [128] Miller CR. Electromagnetic pulse threats in 2010. DTIC Document; 2005.
[108] Gridwise Architecture Council. Gridwise transactive energy framework version 1. [129] Wilson C. High altitude electromagnetic pulse (HEMP) and high power microwave
0; 2015. (HPM) devices: threat assessments, DTIC Document; 2008.
[109] Schwaegrl C, Tao L, Lopes JAP, Madureira A, Mancarella P, Anastasiadis A. et al. [130] Perez EUS. investigators find proof of cyberattack on Ukraine power grid. CNN
Report on the technical, social, economic, and environmental benefits provided by 〈http://www.cnn.com/2016/02/03/politics/cyberattack-ukraine-power-grid/
Microgrids on power system operation; 2009. index.html〉 [Accessed 13 September, 2016]; 2016.
[110] Parag P. Beyond energy efficiency: a ‘prosumer market’ as an integrated platform [131] Times of Israel. Steinitz: Israel’s electric authority hit by severe cyber-attack;
for consumer engagement with the energy system. ECEEE 2015 Summer Study 〈http://www.timesofisrael.com/steinitz-israels-electric-authority-hit-by-severe-
Energy Effic 2015:15–23. cyber-attack/〉 [Accessed 22 May 2016]; 2016.
[111] Parag Y, Sovacool BK. Electricity market design for the prosumer era. Nat Energy [132] Smith R. Assault on California power station raises alarm on potential for ter-
2016;1:16032. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nenergy.2016.32. rorism. Wall Str J 2014.
[112] Linnenberg T, Wior I, Schreiber S, Fay A. A market-based multi-agent-system for [133] Smith R. How America could go dark. Wall Str J 2016.
decentralized power and grid control. In: Proceedings of the 16th conference on [134] Campbell RJ. Weather-related power outages and electric system resiliency.
emerg technol fact autom ETFA 2011, IEEE; 2011. p. 1–8. Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress; 2012.
[113] Lacey S. The Energy Blockchain: How Bitcoin Could Be a Catalyst for the [135] Tweed K.Con. (editor) Looks to batteries, microgrids and efficiency to delay $1B
Distributed Grid. 〈http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/the-energy- substation build 〈http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/con-ed-looks-
blockchain-could-bitcoin-be-a-catalyst-for-the-distributed-grid〉 [accessed 28 to-batteries-microgrids-and-efficiency-to-delay-1b-substation〉 [Accessed 18
February 2016]; 2016. September 2016]; 2014.
[114] Mihaylov M, Razo-Zapata I, Rădulescu R, Nowé A. Boosting the Renewable Energy [136] U.S. Department of Energy, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Combined heat
Economy with NRGcoin; 2016. and power – a clean energy solution; 2012.
[115] Madureira AG, Peças Lopes JA. Ancillary services market framework for voltage [137] Braun M. Technological control capabilities of der to provide future ancillary
control in distribution networks with microgrids. Electr Power Syst Res services. Int J Distrib Energy Resour 2007;3:191–206.
2012;86:1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2011.12.016. [138] Morris GY, Abbey C, Joos G, Marnay C. A framework for the evaluation of the cost
[116] Distributed Energy Resources Roadmap for New York’s Wholesale Electricity and benefits of microgrids. CIGRÉ International symp electr power syst future-
Markets. New York Independent System Operator; 2017. integrating supergrids microgrids Bologna Italy. 13-15 Sept. 2011; 2012.
[117] Kirubakaran A, Jain S, Nema RK. A review on fuel cell technologies and power [139] Bhatnagar D, Currier A, Hernandez J, Ma O, Kirby B. Market and policy barriers to
electronic interface. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2009;13:2430–40. http://dx.doi. energy storage deployment. Sandia National Laboratories/Office of Energy
org/10.1016/j.rser.2009.04.004. Efficiency and Renewable Energy; 2013.
[118] Mekhilef S, Saidur R, Safari A. Comparative study of different fuel cell technolo- [140] Byrne RH, Concepcion RJ, Silva-Monroy CA. Estimating potential revenue from
gies. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2012;16:981–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser. electrical energy storage in PJM. Power energy soc gen meet PESGM 2016, IEEE;
2011.09.020. 2016, p. 1–5.
[119] Neef HJ. International overview of hydrogen and fuel cell research. Energy [141] Denholm P, O’Connell M, Brinkman G, Jorgenson J. Overgeneration from solar
2009;34:327–33. energy in California: a field guide to the duck chart. Natl renew energy lab tech rep
[120] President’s Council of Economic Advisers, U.S. Department of Energy Office of NRELTP-6A20-65023 Nov; 2015.
Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability. Economic benefits of increasing elec- [142] California Independent System Operator. What the duck curve tells us about
tric grid resilience to weather outages. Executive Office of the President; 2013. managing a green grid; 2016.
[121] Newman D. Right-sizing the grid. Mech Eng 2015;137:34. [143] Liu E, Bebic J. Power system planning: emerging practices suitable for evaluating
[122] U.S.-Canada Power System Outage Task Force. Final report on the August 14, 2003 the impact of high-penetration photovoltaics. National Renewable Energy
blackout in the United States and Canada: causes and recommendations. U.S. Laboratory; 2008.
Department of Energy; 2004. [144] Hoke A, Hambrick RBJ, Kroposki B. Maximum photovoltaic penetration levels on
[123] Wang W, Lu Z. Cyber security in the smart grid: survey and challenges. Comput typical distribution feeders. Natl Renew Energy Lab; 2012.
Netw 2013;57:1344–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.comnet.2012.12.017. [145] Martin R. Texas and California have a bizarre problem: too much renewable en-
[124] Baker D, Balstad R, Bodeau JM, Cameron E, Fennell J. Severe space weather events ergy. MIT Technol Rev. 〈https://www.technologyreview.com/s/601221/texas-
– understanding societal and economic impacts: a workshop report. Washington, and-california-have-too-much-renewable-energy/〉 [Accessed 18 September
D.C.: National Academies Press; 2008. 2016]; 2016.
[125] Maize K The Great Solar Storm of 2012? POWER Mag 2011. 〈http://www. [146] Martin R. Loading up on wind and solar is causing new problems for Germany.
powermag.com/the-great-solar-storm-of-2012/〉 [Accessed 13 September 2016]; MIT Technol Rev. 〈https://www.technologyreview.com/s/601514/germany-
2011. runs-up-against-the-limits-of-renewables/〉 [Accessed 18 September 2016]; 2016.

411