1.

1 Fischer-Tropsch (FT) Process

Coal and natural gas can be utilized as feedstock of the chemical industry and the
transportation fuels market. The conversion of natural gas to hydrocarbons (Gas-To-
Liquids route) is currently one of the most promising topics in the energy industry due
to economic utilization of remote natural gas to environmentally clean fuels, specialty
chemicals and waxes. Alternatively, coal or heavy residues can be used on sites where
these are available at low costs. The resources of coal and natural gas are very large,
see Table 1.1. Coal and natural gas can be converted into synthesis gas, a mixture of
predominantly CO and H2, by either partial oxidation or steam reforming processes.
Possible reactions of synthesis gas are shown in Figure 1.1.

Natural gas
CH3OH
Coal

CO+H2

Higher Alcohols Hydrocarbons

and oxygenates

Figure 1.1 Possible reactions from synthesis gas.

Table 1.1 World fossil fuel reserves and consumption (EJ,1018J) [1].
Reserves Consumption (1991)
Coal (1991) 27 185 69 91
Crude oil (1992) 6 054 143 67
Natural gas (1992) 4 512 79 44

1
2 C HAPTER 1

Table 1.2 Major overall reactions in the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis.

Main reactions
1. Paraffins (2n 1)H2 + nCO Cn H2n 2 + nH2O
2. Olefins 2nH2 + nCO Cn H2n + nH2O
3. Water gas shift reaction CO + H2O CO2 + H2
Side reactions
4. Alcohols 2nH2 + nCO Cn H2n 2O + n 1 H2O
5. Boudouard reaction 2CO C + CO2
Catalyst modifications
6. Catalyst oxidation/reduction a. Mx Oy + yH2 yH2O + x M
b. Mx Oy + yCO yCO2 + x M
7. Bulk carbide formation yC + x M Mx Cy

The conversion of the synthesis gas to aliphatic hydrocarbons over metal catalysts
was discovered by Franz Fischer and Hans Tropsch at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for
Coal Research in Müllheim in 1923 [2, 3]. They proved that CO hydrogenation over
iron, cobalt or nickel catalysts at 180-250 ˚C and atmospheric pressure results in a
product mixture of linear hydrocarbons. The Fischer-Tropsch product spectrum con-
sists of a complex multicomponent mixture of linear and branched hydrocarbons and
oxygenated products. Main products are linear paraffins and -olefins. The overall
reactions of the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis are summarized in Table 1.2. The hydro-
carbon synthesis is catalyzed by metals such as cobalt, iron, and ruthenium. Both iron
and cobalt are used commercially these days at a temperature of 200 to 300 ˚C and at
10 to 60 bar pressure [4, 5].
The reactions of the FT synthesis on iron catalysts can be simplified as a combi-
nation of the FT reaction and the water gas shift (WGS) reaction:

CO 1 m 2n H2 1 nCn Hm H2O F T - HF T = 165 kJ/mol (1.1)

CO H2O CO2 H2 W G S - HW G S= 41.3 kJ/mol (1.2)

where n is the average carbon number and m is the average number of hydrogen atoms
of the hydrocarbon products. Water is a primary product of the FT reaction, and CO2
can be produced by the WGS reaction. The WGS activity can be high over potassium-
promoted iron catalysts and is negligible over cobalt or ruthenium catalysts.
 I NTRODUCTION 3

Figure 1.2 shows a block diagram of the overall Fischer-Tropsch process config-
uration. The commercial process involves three main sections, namely: synthesis gas
production and purification, Fischer-Tropsch synthesis, and product grade-up. These
subjects are described in more detail below. Choi et al. [6] gives a capital cost break-
down of these three individual process sections for a 45,000 bbl/day FT plant. The
synthesis gas preparation (that is air separation plant, partial oxidation, steam reform-
ing of natural gas, and syngas cooling) is about 66 % of the total on-site capital costs.
The FT synthesis section consisting of FT slurry reactors, CO2 removal, synthesis gas
compression and recycle, and recovery of hydrogen and hydrocarbons is 22 % of the
total costs. Finally, the upgrading and refining section of hydrocarbons is about 12
%. Consequently, cost reduction of synthesis gas production is the most beneficial.
Note, however, that at a fixed production rate the selectivity of the FT process directly
affects the size of the syngas generation section. A high selectivity of the FT process
to desired products is of utmost importance to the overall economics.

1.1.1 Synthesis Gas Production

Synthesis gas can be obtained by steam reforming or (catalytic) partial oxidation of

fossil fuels: coal, natural gas, refinery residues, biomass or industrial off-gases. The
composition of syngas from the various feedstocks and processes is given in Table 1.3
[7, 8]. Synthesis gas can be obtained from reforming of natural gas with either steam
or carbon dioxide, or by partial oxidation. The most important reactions are:
Steam reforming CH4 + H2O CO + 3H2

CO2 reforming CH4 + CO2 2CO + 2H2

Partial oxidation CH4 + 1 O2 CO + 2H2
2
Water gas shift reaction CO + H2O CO2 + H2

Usually, a combination of synthesis gas production processes is used to obtain syn-

thesis gas with a stoichiometric ratio of hydrogen and carbon monoxide.
Synthesis gas produced in modern coal gasifiers (Shell/Koppers or Texaco gasi-
fiers) and from heavy oil residues has a high CO content in comparison to synthesis
gas from natural gas. If synthesis gas with a H2/CO ratio below 2 is used, the compo-
sition is not stoichiometric for the Fischer-Tropsch reactions (see Table 1.2). Then the
water gas shift reaction is important to change the H2/CO ratio to 2. Figure 1.3 shows
the application ranges for iron (high WGS-activity) and cobalt catalysts (no WGS ac-
tivity) [10]. Inexpensive iron catalysts in comparison to cobalt can directly convert
4 C HAPTER 1

Synthesis Gas Production

Natural
Coal
Gas
Steam

Steam (Catalytic) Steam

Gasifier O2 Reforming
Partial Oxidation

Synthesis gas cooling

Purification

Fischer-Tropsch synthesis
Steam Fischer-Tropsch
Reforming Synthesis
Fuel Gas (LPG)
Steam CH4
Product C2H4 (polyethene)
Water
Recovery C3H6 (polypropene)
Aqueous
Oxygenates

Product Grade-up

Hydrocarbon pentene/hexene
Upgrading:
Naphtha
- Hydrocracking
- Isomerization Diesel
- Cat. reforming Waxes
- Alkylation

Figure 1.2 Overall process scheme Fischer-Tropsch.

 I NTRODUCTION 5

Table 1.3 Synthesis gas compositions.

Feedstock Process Component (vol%)
H2 CO CO2 Other
Natural gas, steam SR1 73.8 15.5 66 41
Natural gas, steam, CO2 CO2 - SR2 52.3 26.1 85 13 1
Natural gas, O2, ATR2 60.2 30.2 75 20
steam, CO2
Coal/heavy oil, steam Gasification1 67.8 28.7 29 0 6
Coal, steam, oxygen Texaco gasifier1 35.1 51.8 10 6 2 5
Coal, steam, oxygen Shell/Koppers gasifier1 30.1 66.1 25 1 3
Coal, steam, oxygen Lurgi gasifier3 39.1 18.9 29 7 12 3
SR= steam reforming, CPO= catalytic partial oxidation, ATR= autothermal reforming
1
Data from Cybulski et al. [7]
2
Data from Basini and Piovesan [9]
3
Data from Perry and Green [8]

low H2/CO ratio synthesis gas without an external shift reaction [11–13].
New ceramic membranes might become interesting for significant cost reduction
of synthesis gas production by 30-50 % [14]. Reduction of the synthesis gas costs
could also be accomplished by a decrease of steam/carbon and oxygen/carbon ra-
tios in the feedstock [9]. Basini and Piovesan [9] compared economical evaluations
of steam-CO2 reforming, autothermal reforming, and combined reforming processes.
They concluded that combined reforming has the lowest production and investment
costs at a H2/CO ratio of 2.
Although the capital costs predominate, the cost price of natural gas is also an
important factor in the overall process economics of GTL (Gas-To-Liquids) Fischer-
Tropsch plants. Remote gas fields or natural gas associated with crude oil production
has a low cost or a negative value as an undesired by-product. Reduction of flaring
of associated natural gas and the unfavorable economics of gas reinjection make the
Fischer-Tropsch process economically viable. FT derived fuels are easily transported
in standard vessels or pipelines relative to natural gas and LNG.

1.1.2 Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis

The Fischer-Tropsch synthesis section consists of: FT reactors, recycle and compres-
sion of unconverted synthesis gas, removal of hydrogen and carbon dioxide, reforming
of methane produced and separation of the FT products. The most important aspects
6 C HAPTER 1

Coal Naphtha

Vacuum
Residue Fuel Oil

Natural Natural
Asphalt Gas Gas & Steam

Iron (Fe)

Cobalt (Co)

0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

H2/CO

Figure 1.3 Feedstocks and catalysts [10].

for development of commercial Fischer-Tropsch reactors are the high reaction heats
and the large number of products with varying vapor pressures (gas, liquid, and solid
hydrocarbons). The main reactor types which have been proposed and developed after
1950 are [5, 15, 16]:

1. Three-phase fluidized (ebulliating) bed reactors or slurry bubble column reac-

tors with internal cooling tubes (SSPD: Sasol; GasCat: Energy International,
AGC-21: Exxon, see Figure 1.4a)

2. Multitubular fixed bed reactor with internal cooling (Arge: Sasol; SMDS: Shell,
see Figure 1.4b)

3. Circulating fluidized bed reactor with circulating solids, gas recycle and cooling
in the gas/solid recirculation loop (Synthol: Sasol) (Figure 1.4c)

4. Fluidized bed reactors with internal cooling (SAS: Sasol) (Figure 1.4d)

Sie [5] compared the advantages and disadvantages of the two most favorite reactor
systems for the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis of high molecular weight products: that
is the multitubular trickle bed reactor and the slurry bubble column reactor. Major
drawbacks of the bubble column are requirements for continuous separation between
 I NTRODUCTION 7

G G L
coolant
slurry

coolant
coolant
G G
G L coolant

a. b. c. d.

Figure 1.4 Possible reactors for Fischer-Tropsch synthesis [5, 16]. a. Slurry bubble column
reactor; b. Multitubular trickle bed reactor; c. Circulating fluidized bed reactor; d. Fluidized
bed reactor.

catalyst and liquid products, a smaller scaling-up factor (500) in comparison to the
multitubular reactor (max. 10,000), and possible attrition of the catalyst particles. The
advantages are [17]: 1) Low pressure drop over the reactor. 2) Excellent heat transfer
characteristics resulting in stable reactor temperatures. 3) No diffusion limitations.
4) Possibility of continuous refreshment of catalyst particles. Disadvantages of the
multitubular reactor are the larger catalyst particles, the required equal distribution of
gas and liquid streams over all tubes, and the large reactor weight due to a large number
of tubes for effective heat transfer area. However, the most important disadvantage of
the multitubular reactor probably is in the high costs of 10 to 100,000 tubes, typical
for commercial scale.
De Swart [18] modeled a cobalt-based FT process both in trickle bed reactors
and in slurry bubble column reactors. The major conclusion was that 10 multitubular
trickle bed reactors (6 m diameter, 20 m height) or 4 slurry reactors (7.5 m diameter,
30 m height) can produce 5000 tonnes of middle distillates (C5 ) per day. Mainly
due to the high heat transfer rates occurring in the slurry system, the capital costs of
this system reportedly can be 60 % lower than that of the multitubular system [18].
Jager [19] stated that the costs of a single 10,000 bbl/day slurry reactor system is
about 25 % of that of a tubular fixed bed reactor. Although these capital cost figures
look impressive, it is emphasized again that the C5 selectivity is crucial to overall
economics. In other words, if a cheaper reactor delivers a lower C5 selectivity, the
larger syngas section needed may off-set the initial advantages.
8 C HAPTER 1

1.1.3 Product Upgrading and Separation

Conventional refinery processes can be used for upgrading of Fischer-Tropsch liquid

and wax products. A number of possible processes for FT products are: wax hydro-
cracking, distillate hydrotreating, catalytic reforming, naphta hydrotreating, alkylation
and isomerization [6, 20]. Fuels produced with the FT synthesis are of a high quality
due to a very low aromaticity and zero sulfur content. The product stream consists of
various fuel types: LPG, gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuel. The definitions and conventions
for the composition and names of the different fuel types are obtained from crude oil
refinery processes and are given in Table 1.4.

Table 1.4 Conventions of fuel names and composition [1].

Name Synonyms Components
Fuel gas C1 - C2
LPG C3 - C4
Gasoline C5 - C12
Naphtha C8-C12
Kerosene Jet fuel C11 -C13
Diesel Fuel oil C13 -C17
Middle distillates Light gas oil C10 -C20
Soft wax C19 - C23
Medium wax C24 - C35
Hard wax C35

The diesel fraction has a high cetane number resulting in superior combustion
properties and reduced emissions (see Table 1.5). New and stringent regulations
may promote replacement or blending of conventional fuels by sulfur and aromatic
free FT products [21, 22]. Also, other products besides fuels can be manufactured
with Fischer-Tropsch in combination with upgrading processes, for example, ethene,
propene, -olefins, alcohols, ketones, solvents, specialty waxes, and so forth. These
valuable by-products of the FT process have higher added values, resulting in an eco-
nomically more attractive process economy. The value of Fischer-Tropsch products
used as blending stocks for transportation fuels (kerosene and diesel) is higher than
crude oil derived fuels due to their excellent properties (see Table 1.5). Choi et al. [6]
assumed the FT gasoline and FT diesel to be 10.07 $/bbl (0.24 $/gallon) and 7.19 $/bbl
(0.17 $/gallon) more expensive than transportation fuels derived from crude oil.
 I NTRODUCTION 9

Table 1.5 Product quality, adapted from Sie [5] and Gregor [22].
Product Property SMDS Hydrocracked Specification
products Arge FT-wax
Diesel Cetane number 70 74 min. 40
Cloud point, ˚C -10 -7 -20 to +20
Kerosene Smoke point, mm 100 50 min. 19-25
Freezing point, ˚C -47 -43 max. -47 to -40

1.2 Industrial Fischer-Tropsch Processes

Below, the major industrial Fischer-Tropsch processes are discussed briefly. The em-
phasis is on processes developed after 1980. Table 1.6 gives an overview of the major
companies and their patents divided in the following sections: 1. FT catalyst devel-
opment; 2. process design and development; 3. upgrading of specific FT products.
A comparison of the several industrial Fischer-Tropsch companies is presented in Ta-
ble 1.7.

Table 1.6 Estimate of patents of the major companies active in Fischer-Tropsch (April
1998).
Company Catalyst Process Separation and
development development product grade-up
BP 13 4 0
Exxon 71 15 5
Rentech 1 8 0
Sasol 2 3 3
Shell 45 27 13
Statoil 5 3 1
Syntroleum 0 1 0

Energy International

Energy International (Pittsburgh) is owned by Williams International Corp. (formerly

owned by Gulf Oil Corp.) which is promoting slurry bubble column reactors for the
FT process. They claim the major advantage of their process to be low capital costs
in comparison to other processes. Highly active cobalt catalyst on alumina carriers
10 C HAPTER 1

Table 1.7 Comparison of the major companies active in Fischer-Tropsch (October 1998).
Company Synthesis gas preparation1 FT reactor Capacity Catalyst
(bbl/day)
Energy Int. PO with O2 slurry - Co
Exxon CPO (O2 ) slurry 200 Co
Rentech PO with O2, SR, ATR slurry 235 Fe
Sasol PO with O2, SR, slurry 2,500 Fe, Co
coal gasification fluidized 110,000
Shell2 PO with O2 fixed 12,500 Co
Syntroleum ATR with air fixed 2 Co
1 (C)PO= (Catalytic) Partial Oxidation, SR= Steam Reforming, ATR= Autothermal Reforming
2 Capacity until December 1997

(GasCat catalyst) produce a high liquid fuel yield relative to other cobalt catalysts
[23]. Energy International performs a US Department of Energy funded study for the
concept of a 25,000 bbl/day floating Fischer-Tropsch plant for the deep waters of the
Gulf of Mexico (Remote Gas Strategies, October 1997).

Exxon

The Exxon’s process is known as AGC 21 (Advanced Gas Conversion 21st Century)
[24]. The process consists of the following steps: 1. Fluidized bed synthesis gas
production; 2. Slurry phase FT reactor; 3. Hydro-isomerization process. Exxon has
a 200 bbl/day GTL pilot plant in Baton-Rouge, USA, that has been operating until
1996. The AGC-process can be scaled up to commercial plants producing 50,000-
100,00 bbl/day at a location in Qatar [25]. A significant number of patents (about
70) between 1980-1993 of Exxon deal with the development of new formulations of
catalysts. Main emphasis is on cobalt and ruthenium-based catalysts. Recent licenses
(after 1993) are also dealing with slurry-phase processes [26, 27].

Rentech Inc.

Rentech licenses an iron based catalyst [28] and a slurry phase process [29–31] for
the production of high quality FT diesel. Rentech built 0.038 m and 0.15 m diameter
slurry reactors on laboratory scale. A 1.8 m diameter and 16.7 m high slurry reactor
producing 235 bbl/day was built in Pueblo, Colorado, U.S in 1992. Recently, this plant
 I NTRODUCTION 11

was dismantled and transported to Arunachal, India were it is expected to produce

350 bbl/day of waxes in 1999 in cooperation with the Indian company Donyi Polo
Petrochemicals Ltd.

Sasol

Sasol has operated commercial Fischer-Tropsch plants since 1955. A detailed review
of Sasol’s commercial plants from 1950 to 1979 is given by Dry [32]. A commercial
plant in Sasolburg (South Africa) (Sasol 1) use multitubular (2050 tubes, 50 mm ID)
fixed bed and entrained bed Kellogg reactors. Synthesis gas is predominantly pro-
duced with Lurgi coal gasifiers. Sasol 2 and Sasol 3 plants in Secunda went on stream
in the beginning of the eighties. These plants use circulating fluidized bed reactors
(Synthol, Figure 1.4c) for the production of fuels and low molecular weight olefins.
Currently, Sasol has two new processes for the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis. A process
at high temperatures (HTFT: 330-350 ˚C) for the production of gasoline and light
olefins and a process for wax production at lower temperatures (LTFT: 220-250 ˚C).
The HTFT is performed in Synthol circulating fluidized bed (CFB) reactors, but a more
efficient Sasol Advanced Synthol (SAS) reactor with gas-solid fluidization was devel-
oped recently [16]. The Synthol reactors will be replaced by the new SAS reactors.
Conventionally, ARGE tubular fixed bed reactors were used for the LTFT process.
In 1990, a slurry bubble column reactor (Sasol Slurry Phase Distillate; SSPD) with
a diameter of 1 m was commissioned [15]. A commercial-scale slurry reactor is in
operation since 1993 and has a diameter of 5 m and a height of 22 m with a capacity of
about 2,500 bbl/day. Table 1.8 shows an overview of different Sasol reactors [15, 19].
Further scale up of the SSPD reactor is planned to 20,000 bbl/day per reactor.

Table 1.8 Sasol Fischer-Tropsch commercial reactors (bbl/day), adapted from Jager [19].
CFB SAS ARGE SSPD
Total installed capacity 110 000 11 000 3 200 2 500
Capacity per reactor 6 500 11 000 500-700 2 500
Potential per reactor 7 500 20 000 3 000 20 000

Phillips Petroleum, Sasol, and Qatar General Petroleum Corp. signed a memo-
randum of understanding to build a 20,000 bbl/day GTL plant at Ras Laffan, Qatar.
The new complex will use Sasol’s Slurry Phase Distillate Process. Start-up is planned
for 2002 (Remote Gas Strategies, August 1998). Sasol and Chevron announced plans
(May 1998) to build a 20,000 bbl/day GTL (Gas-To-Liquids) plant based on the SSPD
12 C HAPTER 1

technology in Nigeria. The estimated cost price of this complex is $ 500-600 million
(Remote Gas Strategies, May 1998). Most patents of Sasol (see Table 1.6) concern the
development of a slurry reactor with continuous in-situ wax-solid separation [33] and
grade-up of olefins by hydroformulation [34].

Shell

In 1993, Shell started up a $ 850 million FT synthesis plant in Bintulu, Malaysia. The
Shell Middle Distillate Synthesis (SMDS) process [5, 35] produces heavy paraffins on
a cobalt catalyst in multitubular trickle bed reactors. Part of these products are sold as
wax specialties; another part is hydro-cracked over a noble metal catalyst into clean
transportation fuels (see Table 1.5). The plant converts 100 million cubic feet/day of
natural gas from off-shore fields by non-catalytic partial oxidation into 12,500 bbl/day
hydrocarbons. The air separation plant of the SMDS plant in Bintulu exploded in
December 1997. Shell Oil wants to reopen the SMDS plant in 1999 (Remote Gas
Strategies, April 1998). Most Shell patents focus on either catalyst development or on
the way the SMDS process is preferably carried out, for example, see patents [36, 37].
Some patents for improving a slurry process have been filed as well [38–40].

Statoil

Patents of Statoil involve slurry reactor design and continuous catalyst-wax separations
with the use of filtration [41]. Recent patents with respect to Fischer-Tropsch catalysis
concern the development of cobalt catalysts promoted with Rh, Pt, Ir, or Re on alumina
(for example, [42]). Statoil formed an alliance with Sasol for the development of
floating Fischer-Tropsch plants on ships or floating production systems. These floating
off-shore plants can be used to utilize natural gas associated with oil production [43].

Syntroleum

Syntroleum is a small research firm in Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA, which has signed li-
censing agreements with Texaco, ARCO, Kerr-McGee, and Enron. A laboratory pilot
plant (2 bbl/day) is used to demonstrate their FT process. They claim that their pro-
cess eliminates a costly air separation unit, since their Autothermal Reformer (ATR)
produces nitrogen-diluted synthesis gas from natural gas [44]. Nitrogen can be used to
remove some of the generated heat during the FT reaction. The Syntroleum process is
the basis of an agreement between Texaco, Brown & Root and Syntroleum to develop
 I NTRODUCTION 13

a 2,500 bbl/day GTL plant, starting end 1999 (Remote Gas Strategies, January 1998).
Recently, Syntroleum and Enron announced final agreement to build a 8,000 bbl/day
GTL plant in Wyoming, USA. The plant is expected to operate in 2001 [45].

1.3 Research on the Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis

An optimal design with respect to product yield and selectivity of a large scale reactor
requires a deep understanding of hydrodynamics, reaction kinetics, catalytic system
and FT chemistry (see Figure 1.5). Research on the various aspects of the FT process
will be discussed briefly. A detailed review on kinetics and selectivity of the Fischer-
Tropsch process is given in Chapter 2.

Kinetics, selectivity
Deactivation
Catalyst development

coolant

Hydrodynamics, mixing,
mass transfer, heat transfer,
solids, bubble size, design,
slurry
vapor-liquid equilibria

Mathematical Model synthesis gas

Pilot plant for verification
and scale up Commercial Reactor

Figure 1.5 Modeling of a large scale Fischer-Tropsch reactor.

Reaction Kinetics

The complexity of the FT reaction mechanism and the large number of species in-
volved is the major problem for development of reliable kinetic expressions. Most
catalyst studies aim at catalyst improvement and postulate empirical power law kinet-
ics for both the carbon monoxide conversions and the carbon dioxide formation rate
[46, 47]. Langmuir-Hinshelwood-Hougen-Watson (LHHW) type of rate equations
have been applied in literature (see Chapter 2.8). The water gas shift reaction can
play a dominant role on iron catalysts. Only a few studies report on WGS kinetics on
14 C HAPTER 1

iron catalysts under FT conditions. A thorough comparison of the available literature

models is presented in Chapter 2.

Product Selectivity

The products from the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis form a complex multicomponent

mixture with substantial variation in carbon number and product type. Main products
are linear paraffins and -olefins. According to Anderson [48], the product distribu-
tion of hydrocarbons can be described by the Anderson-Schulz-Flory (ASF) equation:
n 1
mn 1 with m n the mole fraction of a hydrocarbon with chain length n
and the growth probability factor independent of n. determines the total carbon
number distribution of the FT products. The range of depends on reaction condi-
tions and catalyst type. Dry [49] reported typical ranges of on Ru, Co, and Fe of:
0.85-0.95, 0.70-0.80, and 0.50-0.70, respectively. More recent references report Co
catalysts with chain growth factors between 0.85-0.95 [5]. Significant deviations from
the ASF distribution are reported in literature: i) Relatively high yield of methane. ii)
Relatively low yield of ethene. iii) Change in chain growth parameter and expo-
nential decrease of the olefin to paraffin ratio with increasing carbon number. These
deviations are predominantly caused by secondary reactions of -olefins, which may
readsorb on growth sites of the catalyst surface and continue to grow via propagation
with monomer or terminate as hydrocarbon product. Details on the characteristics of
the product selectivity and on modeling of the selectivity are discussed in Chapter 2.

Reactor Engineering Model

Mathematical modeling of FT slurry bubble columns was reviewed by Saxena et al.

[17] and more recently by Saxena [50]. He showed that none of the available mod-
els is accurate enough for a reliable reactor design. The bottleneck appears to be the
lack of reliable kinetic equations for all products and reactants based on realistic re-
action mechanisms. Until now, none of the available literature models obtain enough
details to describe the complete product distribution of the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis
at industrial conditions (high temperature and pressure) as a function of overall con-
sumption of synthesis gas components and operating conditions. Either the product
distribution model (ASF behavior) or the kinetic scheme (no WGS and rates equa-
tions with first order in hydrogen) is oversimplified, or the hydrodynamic situation is
unrealistic under industrial (churn-turbulent or heterogeneous flow regime) operating
conditions. The features of the models available will be compared in Chapter 7.
 I NTRODUCTION 15

1.4 Aims and Outline of this Thesis

The problem to be dealt with in this thesis is the lack of accurate models for prod-
uct distributions and reaction kinetics, necessary for reliable design and scale up of
industrial Fischer-Tropsch processes.
Therefore, the major aim of this thesis is the development of a product distribution
model and a kinetic model both in gas-slurry as well as in gas-solid reactors over a
commercial precipitated iron catalyst based on own experimental work. The product
distribution model should be able to explain the deviations from the ASF distribution
observed experimentally. It should include a mechanistic model of olefin readsorption
and kinetics of chain growth and termination on the same catalytic sites. Accurate
intrinsic rate expressions for the CO conversion to Fischer-Tropsch products and for
the water gas shift (WGS) reaction over a precipitated iron catalyst on the basis of
reliable mechanisms are another aim. A detailed multicomponent mathematical model
for a large scale slurry bubble column reactor with use of our detailed models is the
final aim of this thesis.
Chapter 2 presents a literature review on the kinetics and selectivity of the Fischer-
Tropsch synthesis. The focus is on the reaction mechanisms and kinetic models of the
water gas shift and Fischer-Tropsch reactions. Literature product selectivity models
are reviewed as well. Here the areas which require further research will be defined.
Chapter 3 describes the experimental setup of the kinetic experiments both in a
gas-solid and gas-slurry laboratory kinetic reactor and the catalyst applied. The ana-
lytical section and the experimental procedures are described as well.
The development of a new -Olefin Readsorption Product Distribution Model
(ORPDM) based on own experiments for the gas-solid FT synthesis, over a precip-
itated iron catalyst is presented in Chapter 4. The effect of variation of process condi-
tions on the selectivity is described as well.
Chapter 5 presents the kinetic experiments and kinetic modeling of the CO hydro-
genation and the water gas shift reaction of gas-solid Fischer-Tropsch synthesis over
the precipitated iron catalyst.
The influence of the slurry liquid on the product selectivity and the reaction ki-
netics is presented in Chapter 6. The product selectivity model developed for the
gas-solid system will be applied for the description of the product selectivity at in-
dustrially relevant conditions over a precipitated iron catalyst suspended in the slurry
phase. Furthermore, Chapter 6 describes kinetic modeling of the gas-slurry Fischer-
Tropsch synthesis based on a methodology derived in Chapter 5.
16 C HAPTER 1

The models obtained in Chapters 4-6 and literature data on hydrodynamics and
mass transfer in the heterogeneous flow regime are incorporated in a multicomponent
reaction engineering model for a large scale Fischer-Tropsch slurry bubble column
reactor in Chapter 7. The main novel aspect of this model is that, for the first time,
multicomponent vapor-liquid equilibria with detailed kinetic expressions for all reac-
tants and products (based on original experimental work) are combined to predict the
compositions of the gaseous and liquid streams and the performance of a slurry bubble
column reactor.

References

[1] Kroschwitz, I.; Howe-Grant, M., Kirk-Othmer encyclopedia of chemical tech-

nology, Wiley & Sons, New York, fourth edn. 1996.
[2] Fischer, F.; Tropsch, H., Uber die Herstellung synthetischer ölgemische (Syn-
thol) durch Aufbau aus Kohlenoxyd und Wasserstoff, Brennst. Chem. 1923, 4,
276–285.
[3] Fischer, F.; Tropsch, H., German Patent 484337 1925.
[4] Jager, B.; Espinoza, R., Advances in low-temperature Fischer-Tropsch synthesis,
Catal. Today 1995, 23, 17–28.
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