ANALYSIS OF EARTH RETAINING STRUCTURES USING FINITE

ELEMENT AND FINITE DIFFERENCE APPROACH

Abstract: Earth retaining structure can be defined as a structure which is necessary to support the
soil that cannot support itself. In conventional methods, retaining structures are analyzed using
Rankine earth pressure theory and Mohr coulomb’s failure criteria. But, FEM & FDM become
more popular now a day because it overcomes many shortages within the conventional methods.
FEM and FDM can simulate construction stages of retaining wall easily and the results are more
accurate and faster compare to conventional methods. This report focuses on the aspect of how
FEM & FDM works and solution for some real-life problems using FDM.

INTRODUCTION
Earth retaining systems are classified into portioning it and reinforcing it through
two main categories, they are Externally failure surface. Some examples of those
stabilized and Internally stabilized earth structures are as follows,
retaining system, sometimes a hybrid system - Soil nailing
also used which is the combination of both - Reinforced earth
system. - Anchored earth
It is important to analysis earth retaining
Externally stabilized earth retaining structures using proper method in-order to
structures have larger external structures ensure the safety of the slope as wells as to
where the pressure force is acting. Some ensure the stability of the adjacent structures.
examples of those structures are as follows,
- Gravity earth retaining structure METHOD OF ANALYSIS
- Reinforced concrete earth retaining Earth retaining structure typically analyzed
structures using Load and Resistance Factor Design
- Embedded earth retaining structures. (LRFD) approach where the load factors are
1.25 for Dead load, 1.5 for live load, the
Internally stabilized earth retaining structures resistance factors are 0.8 for angle of internal
Doesn’t usually have large external friction (∅) and 0.5-0.7 for cohesion(c).
structures. But, they restrain soil by

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 Analysis of earth retaining structures using FEM & FDM approach

Failure mechanism considered for earth FDM is a method which approximates

retaining walls are as follows differential equation into a difference
- Over turning (Rotation about toe due equation and solve the numerical problems.
to unbalanced bending movement) The discretization error is a difference
- Lateral sliding (movement of the between exact solution and FDM solution.
retaining wall horizontally due to
unbalanced shear force) Implementation of FDM to analyze the earth
- Deep-seated failure (the failure retaining problems such as FDM solution for
occurs because of location of Rankine earth pressure theory, Coulomb's
retaining wall inside the failure theory, Calculation of deformation along the
surface) retaining structure using FDM are considered
- Bearing capacity failure (Bearing in this report.
capacity failure occur beneath the
retaining structure, commonly occur FDM SOLUTION FOR RANKINE
in Gravity type retaining structure) EARTH PRESSURE THEORY
Rankine method can be applied in a situation
Retaining structures can be analyzed using where following assumptions are true,
hand calculations using Rankine method or - Horizontal soil layers
Coulomb's theory. However, this will be
very time consuming when we need to
analyze the complex problems or when we
need to analyze serious of retaining structure
problems and it is very inefficient to use hand
calculations to find out deflections along
Picture 1 – Sample section of earth retaining structure for
retaining structures. Therefore, it is become - No active earth pressure computation

important to use Spread sheet developed

friction between soil and retaining
using FDM or FEM & FDM software to
structure (no interface friction)
overcome the limitations of the traditional
- Vertical retaining structure
method.

FINITE DIFFERENCE METHOD

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 Analysis of earth retaining structures using FEM & FDM approach

FDM SOLUTION FOR GRAVITY - Water level is not considered

EARTH RETAINING STRUCTURE – (assumed that is below the concerned
RANKINE METHOD level)
Steps involved in solving gravity-earth Boundary condition is, BM and SF are zero
retaining structure is as follows, at the top of the gravity retaining structure.
- develop the equation of BM/SF with
2
one state of variable Driving BM - M= 0.5Kaγh *h/3+ Kaqh*h/2
- Develop a grid points (in our case, the 3
M+δM = Kaγ(h+δh) /6+ Kaq(h+δh) /2
2
3 2
examples are performed at 1m δM = Kaγ(h+δh) /6+ Kaq(h+δh) /2
3 2
interval) -Kaγh /6 - Kaqh /2
2 2 3
- Develop a difference equation - Mi - Mi-1 = Kaγ(3h *δh + 3h*δh + δh )/6
2
Explicit scheme is used. + Kaq(2hδh + δh )/2
2 2 3
- Solve the difference equation (to Mi = Kaγ (3h *δh + 3h*δh + δh )/6
2
determine BM & SF, forward method + Kaq (2hδh + δh )/2 + Mi-1
is used)

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑃𝑎 = 𝐾𝑎𝜎 𝑣 − 2𝑐√𝐾𝑎 𝐃𝐫𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐒𝐅 = 0.5Kaγh2 + Kaqh

1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ 𝑆𝐹 +δSF= 0.5Kaγ*(h+δh)2 + Kaq*(h+δh)

𝐾𝑎 = 2
1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ δSF= 0.5Kaγ*(2h*δh + δh ) + Kaq*δh
Ka – Coefficient of minimum active earth SFi - SFi-1= 0.5Kaγ*(2h*δh + δh ) + Kaq*δh
2

pressure SFi =0.5Kaγ*(2h*δh + δh2) + Kaq*δh + SFi-1

𝜎𝑣 − Vertical effective stress
c – cohesion

𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ − 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑃𝑝 = 𝐾𝑝𝜎 𝑣 − 2𝑐√𝐾p

1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅
𝐾𝑝 =
1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅

The following conditions are ignored during

developing the difference equation for the
gravity retaining structure,
- Cohesion is negligible

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 Analysis of earth retaining structures using FEM & FDM approach

BM with depth
800
700
600
BM (kNm)

500
400
300
200
100
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Depth (m)

Graph 1 – Showing BM variation with depth for the given gravity earth retaining problem

SHEAR FORCE VS DEPTH

250

200
SHEAR FORCE (kN)

150

100

50

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
DEPTH (m)

Graph 2 – Showing SF variation with depth for the given gravity earth retaining problem

Gravity retaining structure problem like FDM SOLUTION FOR EMBEDDED

Picture-1 is considered where are angle of EARTH RETAINING STRUCTURE –
internal friction is 32°, cohesion =0, RANKINE METHOD
surcharge load 20kN/m2, Density of the soil Steps involved in solving Embedded-earth
=18kN/m3, and the height of the retaining retaining structure is as follows,
structure is = 8m - develop the equation of BM/SF with
1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛32 one state of variable
𝐾𝑎 = 0.31 =
1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛32
- Develop a grid points (in our case, the
The results obtained using FDM are shown examples are performed at 1m
above. interval)

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 Analysis of earth retaining structures using FEM & FDM approach

- Develop a difference equation -

Explicit scheme is used.
- Solve the difference equation (to
determine BM & SF, forward method
is used)
The following conditions are ignored during
developing the difference equation for the
gravity retaining structure,
- Cohesion is negligible
- Water level is not considered
(assumed that is below the concerned
Picture 2 – Sample section of embedded retaining structure
level) Bending moment is taken about point-c,
- Surcharge load is not considered BM until h= 2.5m
2
Driving moment = 0.5Kaγh *h/3
Embedded retaining structure problem like 3
M+δM = Kaγ(h+δh) /6
Picture-2 is considered where are angle of 3 3
δM = Kaγ(h+δh) /6 - Kaγh /6
internal friction is 35°, cohesion =0, 2
Mi - Mi-1 = Kaγ(3h *δh + 3h*δh + δh )/6
2 3

surcharge load = 0kN/m2, Density of the soil 2

Mi = Kaγ(3h *δh + 3h*δh + δh )/6+ Mi-1
2 3

=17kN/m3, and the height of the retaining

structure is = 2.5m BM between h= 2.5m & h=2.5+d
2
Driving moment = 0.5Kaγh *h/3
Boundary condition is, BM & SF are zero at 2
- 0.5Kpγ(h-2.5) *(h-2.5)/3
3 3
the top of the Embedded retaining wall and M+δM = Kaγ(h+δh) /6 – Kpγ((h-2.5)+δh) /6
point-c 3 3
δM = Kaγ(h+δh) /6 - Kaγh /6 –( Kpγ((h-
3 3
2.5)+δh) /6 - Kpγ(h-2.5) /6)
2 2 3
Mi - Mi-1 = Kaγ(3h *δh + 3h*δh + δh )/6 –
2 2 3
Kpγ(3(h-2.5) *δh + 3(h-2.5)*δh + δh )/6
2 2 3
Mi = Kaγ(3h *δh + 3h*δh + δh )/6
2 2 3
- Kpγ(3(h-2.5) *δh + 3(h-2.5)*δh + δh )/6 +Mi-1
SF until h= 2.5m

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 Analysis of earth retaining structures using FEM & FDM approach

Driving SF = 0.5Kaγh2 we can find “d” by locating the point C where

SF +δSF= 0.5Kaγ*(h+δh)2 BM is zero, and the embedment depth should
δSF= 0.5Kaγ*(2h*δh + δh2) be 1.2*d (this 20% increase is to account the
SFi - SFi-1= 0.5Kaγ*(2h*δh + δh2) sliding balance – to equalize the active and
SFi = 0.5Kaγ*(2h*δh + δh2) + SFi-1 passive earth pressures)

SF between h= 2.5m & h=2.5+ Point-c for the above example is 4.2m.
Driving SF = 0.5Kaγh2 -0.5Kpγ(h-2.5)2 Therefore, the “d” is 1.7m (4.2m-2.5m). The
SF +δSF= 0.5Kaγ*(h+δh)2-0.5Kpγ(h-2.5+δh)2 embedment depth should be 1.2*1.7 = 2m.
δSF= 0.5Kaγ*(2h*δh + δh2) ) - 0.5Kpγ*(2(h- BM and SF for any retaining wall satisfying
2
2.5)*δh + δh ) “Rankine”- earth pressure theory can be find
2
SFi - SFi-1 = 0.5Kaγ*(2h*δh + δh ) - using the FDM method by using the spread
2
0.5Kpγ*(2(h-2.5)*δh + δh ) sheet for example the above embedded wall
SFi = 0.5Kaγ*(2h*δh + δh2) - 0.5Kpγ*(2(h- with a tie rod (with a pinned tie rod) can be
2.5)*δh + δh2) + SFi-1 analyzed by taking the moment about the tie
rod, A common spread sheet can be
The BM & SF difference equations for this developed or a spreadsheet can be formed to
problem can be formatted as shown above,

BENDING MOMENT VS DEPTH

25

20

15

10
BENDING MOMENT (kNm)

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
-5

-10
DEPTH (m)

Graph 3 – Showing BM variation with depth for the given embedded earth retaining problem

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 Analysis of earth retaining structures using FEM & FDM approach

SHEAR FORCE VS DEPTH

20
10
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
-10
SHEAR FORCE (kN)

-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
DEPTH (m)

Graph 4– Showing SF variation with depth for the given embedded earth retaining problem

solve a given problem based on its boundary will be obtained, then the total earth pressure
condition. vs angle of failure surface will be drawn,
FDM SOLUTION FOR EARTH maximum earth pressure obtained is the
RETAINING STRUCTURE USING active earth pressure
COULOMB’S METHOD Boundary condition is, BM and SF are zero
Earth retaining problems which doesn’t at the top of the gravity retaining structure.
satisfy Rankine’s assumption have to be
solved using coulomb’s method.

FDM SOLUTION FOR GRAVITY

EARTH RETAINING STRUCTURE –
COULOMB’S METHOD
Active Earth pressure calculation using
Coulomb’s method on a gravity earth
retaining structure can be calculated by
assuming a failure surface at angle -αA, then
the total earth pressure acting on the retaining
structure for different angle of failure surface Picture 3 – Typical section of earth retaining structure to be
analyzed using Coulomb’s method

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 Analysis of earth retaining structures using FEM & FDM approach

Where Resultant active Earth pressure acting on the

β – slope of the back-fill gravity earth retaining structure can be
αA -failure surface at angle calculated using Muller-Breslam formula as
Ѳ – slope of the retaining wall below if following conditions are satisfied,
W – Weight of the soil wedge - Cohesionless backfill
∅ - Interface friction angle of soil - no seepage forces
𝛿 – Interface friction angle between wall and - no surcharge loads
soil PA = 0.5KAγh2
PA – Resultant force acting at earth retaining Where KA is defined as below
structure form the assumed soil wedge
F – Resultant force acting at failure surface
from the assumed soil wedge
PA will act at H/3, H- Height of the retaining
structure.
Difference equations can be generated using
the above formula (the same way we did
using Rankine equation), and variation of PA
with depth can be calculated and total P A for
different αA can be calculated.
PAcos(δ)cos(Ѳ) is the total driving sliding
force acting on the retaining wall and
PAcos(δ)*H/3 is the driving BM acting on the
retaining wall.
Picture 4 – Force triangular to solve earth retaining Difference equation for the above retaining
structure using Coulomb’s method
wall can be derived as below,
𝐒𝐥𝐢𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 = (0.5KAγh2) cos(δ)cos(Ѳ)
𝑆𝐹 +δSF= (0.5KAγ*(h+δh)2) cos(δ)cos(Ѳ)
2
SFi - SFi-1= (0.5KAγ*(2h*δh + δh )) cos(δ)cos(Ѳ)
2
SFi - SFi-1= (0.5KAγ*(2h*δh + δh )) cos(δ)cos(Ѳ)
SFi =(0.5KAγ*(2h*δh + δh2)) cos(δ)cos(Ѳ)
Picture 5 – Variation PA with αA
+ SFi-1

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 Analysis of earth retaining structures using FEM & FDM approach

2 Where KP is defined as below,

Driving BM - M= (0.5KAγh *h/3) cos(δ)
3
M+δM = (KAγ(h+δh) /6) cos(δ)
3 3
δM = (KAγ(h+δh) /6 -KAγh /6) cos(δ)
2 2 3
Mi-Mi-1 = (KAγ(3h *δh + 3h*δh + δh )/6) cos(δ)
2 2 3 We can solve the embedded retaining
Mi= (KAγ(3h *δh + 3h*δh + δh )/6) cos(δ)+Mi-1
structure problem using coulomb’s method
the same way we used to solve the above
FDM SOLUTION FOR EMBEDDED
problems.
EARTH RETAINING STRUCTURE
DEFLECTION CALCULATION USING
USING COULOMB’S METHOD
FDM
Active pressure acting on the embedded
Deflection relationship for flexible retaining
retaining structure can be calculated the same
structure is obtained by a researcher Fabian,
way we did for gravity earth retaining
K. (QIT) can be used to find the deflection
structure.
along earth retaining structure such as
Passive Earth pressure calculation using
embedded sheet pile earth retaining structure.
Coulomb’s method on a embedded earth
The basic relationship between the BM and
retaining structure can be calculated by
deflection is used to derive the pile stiffness.
assuming a failure surface at angle -αA, then
the total earth pressure acting on the retaining 𝑑2𝑤
𝐵𝑀 = 𝐸𝐼
structure for different angle of failure surface 𝑑𝑧2
The wall of 1m width is taken to derive the
will be obtained, then the total earth pressure
equation.
vs angle of failure surface will be drawn,
minimum earth pressure obtained is the 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 − 𝐸𝐼 +cw = q
passive earth pressure.
w- wall deflection
Resultant passive Earth pressure acting on c – coefficient of earth reaction
the embedded earth retaining structure can be q - load
calculated using Muller-Breslam formula as
below if following conditions are satisfied,
- Cohesionless backfill
- no seepage forces
- no surcharge loads
Pp = 0.5KPγh2

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 Analysis of earth retaining structures using FEM & FDM approach

be positive definite symmetric and it can be

solved by gaussian elimination (Fabian, K.).

SOIL REACTION MODULUS BASED

ON P-Y CURVES

Picture 6 – Deformation calculation – Fabian, K. (QIT)

Central difference method is used to

determine the above relationship.
The boundary conditions for the sheet pile
embedded earth retaining wall are,
- Top and bottom end of the sheet pile
Picture 7 – P-Y curve
is free
- BM and SF is zero at top end c- soil reaction modulus is varying with the
- BM is zero at bottom end depth of retaining structure and the
- Summation of shear force is zero at calculation method is different for different
bottom end. type of soil. The soil is to divide to number of
equal height elements for the height of earth
Also, there are other relationship between retaining structure (here it is taken 1m depth
deflection and shear force which is as of the soil) and c-value must be found out and
follows, the matrix c will be formed. The below
𝑑3𝑤 matrix is formed using explicit finite
𝑆𝐹 = 𝐸𝐼
𝑑𝑧3
difference method. And the short form of the
c- soil reaction modulus can be written in a matrix is written as below,
diagonal matrix form to solve the deflection ( k +c) w = q
problem, C must have at least two non-zero
elements for to have a coefficient of matrix to

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Deflection can be calculated by solving

above matrix, BM and SF also calculated Problem 2: Soil properties and wall
using following relationship, properties are same as Problem-1, But an
𝑑2𝑤 anchor is provided 2m below the surface, and
𝐵𝑀 = 𝐸𝐼 2
𝑑𝑧
no GWT is considered, initial anchor force is
𝑑3𝑤
𝑆𝐹 = 𝐸𝐼 3 116kN, anchor stiffness is5000kN/m
𝑑𝑧
Earth retaining problems are solved by Solution 2:
Fabian, K. using the above matrix, some of
the solutions are as follows
Problem 1: Reinforced concrete sheet pile
wall, homogenous half space with friction
angle 30° and c=0, GWT=5m below the
surface, RC sheet pile thickness is 650mm
(made of G25 concrete)
Picture 9 – solution -2
Solution 1:

FDM GEOTECHNICAL SOFTWARE -

FLAC
FLAC (Fast Lagrangian Analysis of
Continua) is a 2-D explicit FDM software.
Large deformation problems such us design a
retaining structure for an earth quake of
Picture 8 – solution -1
magnitude 7 can be designed effectively
using FLAC software. This report is not

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 Analysis of earth retaining structures using FEM & FDM approach

intending to analyze about FLAC software Perform analysis: if the above content is
deeply because this report mainly focuses on defined, then the analysis can be performed,
analyzing retaining structure using FEM and results to be verified with actual site
FDM (using spread sheet), we are stopping condition.
analyzing about FLAC after mentioning the -Stage of construction also can be included
steps involved in analyzing earth retaining in the analysis.
structure using FLAC. The following steps
should be followed to analyze the earth FINITE ELEMENT METHOD (FEM)
retaining structure. The idea of Finite element method(FEM) is
-Select plane strain model for the earth based on building a complicated structure
retaining structure analysis with a simple element or dividing a
Define the physical region: Define the area complicated object into simple and
of influence due to the earth retaining wall. manageable elements. In FEM physical
Soil data and constitutive model: Input soil problems are replaced by a model consisting
data and constitutive model - It is the model finite number of discrete elements, full
represent the stress strain relationship of the continuity is usually maintained at the nodes
soil, details of constitutive model are given in which are common to more than one element,
FEM part of the report. various degree of continuity exists along
Define structural element: define structural inter-element boundaries.
element (for embedded steel earth retaining In FEM, stiff ness matrix is divided into two,
structure, steel sheet pile is to be defined as a they are Exact stiffness matrix where
structure) elements can be readily identifiable (e.g.
Define boundary condition: boundary truss) and Approximate stiffness matrix
conditions should be given for a problem where we need to select the element (e.g.
such No displacement boundary, no shear analyzing earth retaining structure).
force/bending moment boundary, water Selection of the elements to be used in the
table, initial surcharge load if any. analysis depends on following characterizes,
Create a Finite difference mesh: it is the - Geometry of the problem
assemblage of one or more finite difference - expected physical behavior
zone, finite difference zone/element in FLAC - degree of accuracy required
is a quadrilateral element. - Times and functions available

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STEPS OF FEM ANALYSIS OF EARTH Solid (3-D) - for modelling 3-dimensional

RETAINING STRUCTURE structures (tetrahedron, 8-node solid element)
- Establish FE mesh FE mesh to be generated within the area of
- Identify the primary unknown physical model, Mesh size / number of
- Derivation of shape function element depends on the physical problems
- Derivation of stiffness matrix and degree of accuracy required for that
- Constitutive soil model problem.
- Solve primary unknowns
- Solve secondary unknowns IDENTIFY THE PRIMARY UNKNOWN
- Interpretation of results The primary unknown to be obtained from
the FEM analysis, to identify deformation of
Finite elements of continuous domain the retaining structure, the deformation/Shear
(Establish the FE mesh) force will be the primary unknown for earth
Bar - for modeling trusses/frames/beams retaining structure.
Plates (2-D) - for modelling plate type
structures/physical properties varying on DERIVATION OF ELEMENT
planes (triangular plate element, higher order EQUATION
triangular plate element, Quadrilateral pate Soil can be considered as a spring with
element, higher order quadrilateral plate stiffness K, and the shape function for
element) displacement can be written as below,

Picture 10 – FEM Mesh element

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 Analysis of earth retaining structures using FEM & FDM approach

The shape function for displacement of DEFINE INTERFACE ELEMENT

anchor can be written as below, The interface element to be designed in steel
sheet pile earth retaining structure is the
contact surface between the pile and soil, why
we need to consider special attention to the
interface element is because of huge
difference in soil and pile stiffness. Due to
this huge difference, there are chances for
slippage at the contact surface. It is common
to use a surface element with 4 nodes at the
intersection surface.

CONSTITUTIVE LAWS FOR SOIL

Constitutive soil model is one of the vital part
in setting up numerical solution, it describes
the relations between stress and strain. There
The shape function for displacement of thin
are many constitutive models used in
beam member can be written as below,
Numerical problems, some of the numerical
models are, Linear elastic, non-linear elastic,
elasto-plastic, Mohr-Coulomb, hardening
model. We only provided description and
stiffness matrix of linear elastic and Mohr-
coulomb model in this report.

LINEAR ELASTIC MODEL

The constitutive matrix of linear elastic
model for isotropic material is shown below
where E- Young's modulus and ʋ- poison’s
ratio

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 Analysis of earth retaining structures using FEM & FDM approach

Mohr-Coulomb model is an elastic-perfectly

plastic model, Mohr-Coulomb model is often
used to model soil behavior in general.
Elastic parameters in Mohr-Coulomb model
are Young’s modulus -E and Poisson’s ratio
-ν, Plastic parameters in Mohr-Coulomb
model are friction angle -ϕ, cohesion -c and
dilatancy angle -ψ.

Picture 11 – Linear elastic stress strain

relationship

Picture 13- Mohr-Coulomb criterion in primary stress

space

According to Tresca (1993) when the stress

Linear elastic stiffness matrix – C for 3D model state lies in a pyramid surface with the
hexagonal section which centerline pass
through the point where 𝜎1 = 𝜎2 = 𝜎3 the
stiffness matrix can be expressed as shown,
Linear elastic stiffness matrix – C for 3D model

MOHR-COULOMB

Where

𝐴=

- m -sin ∅
- n -sinѱ
Picture 12 – Mohr-Coulomb Stress-strain diagram - G -shear modulus and

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- K -bulk modulus primary compression (compression

hardening). Irreversible strain due to primary
CAM-CLAY MODEL AND MODIFIED deviatoric stress can be modelled using shear
Cam-clay & modified Cam-clay models were hardening and Irreversible strain due to
developed by researchers from Cambridge primary compression can be modelled using
University, it is the first critical state model compression hardening (Ti, K.S.). Both
describing the behaviors of soft soils, it models are contained into yield contour of 3D
describes three major aspects of soil model as shown below, this model is good to
behavior, they are, Strength, apply for problems involves in reduction of
compression/dilatancy and critical state mean effective stress and shear strength
where soil element experience unlimited mobilization at a time (such as retaining wall
distortion without stress increment. A large construction problems, tunnel boring).
percentage of soil mass (especially in soft
soils) occupies by water and air. therefore,
the volume changes in soft soils are often
irreversible which cam-clay model and
modified cam-clay model take account for.
The modified cam-clay model is an elastic
plastic strain hardening model, it is based on
critical state theory. modified cam-clay
model is more suitable to describe
Picture 14- PLAXIS hardening model - (Ti, K.S.)
deformation compare to failure for normally
consolidated clays (Ti, S.T.)
BOUNDARY CONDITION
Defining Boundary condition is the most
PLAXIS HARDENING SOIL MODEL
important part in FEM analysis because the it
The soil hardening model is generally a true
define the geotechnical problem which to be
second order model. The hardening soil
solved. The boundary conditions to be
model involves friction hardening for
defined are, mesh boundaries, assumption of
modelling plastic shear strain due to
symmetry, plain strain/plane stress/axi-
deviatoric loading (shear hardening) and cap
hardening for modelling volumetric strain in

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symmetry model, Interaction between soil How structural elements can be simulated in
and structure. PLAXIS, constitutive soil models in PLAXIS
and the steps to be followed to analyze earth
Mesh boundaries: The size of the mesh retaining structure in PLAXIS.
boundary depends on the geotechnical Plane strain model: Plane strain model valid
problem, the mesh boundary for most of the for geotechnical problems which Z-
geo technical problem to be located by trial dimension is much higher compare to other
and error process. two dimension because it assumes zero strain
in Z-direction. Though Z-strains is assumed
SOLUTION to be zero, Z stresses will not be zero. It is
Retaining structure problem can be solved used to analyze straight earth retaining
after above steps are completed, the solution problems.
part involves in three steps, they are, Plane stress model: It is valid for
 Solving primary unknowns components which Z dimension is smaller
 Solving Secondary unknowns compare to other two dimension. assumes
 Interpretation of results. zero stress in Z-direction. Though Z-stress is
Basic understanding of geotechnical assumed to be zero, Z strain will not be zero.
engineering is most important thing to ensure Axi-Symmetric model: Some problems
the reliable output and verify the results. In possess rotation symmetry. In axi-symmetry
finite element method, the accuracy of the problem, all the cross sections above the axis
output is mainly depend on the accuracy of are identical. It is used to analyze curved
the input data. earth retaining problems.
Axis of symmetry: symmetric earth
FEM GEOTECHNICAL SOFTWARE – retaining structures in PLAXIS can be
PLAXIS modelled using half of its symmetry which
PLAXIS is a FEM software which is will reduce the modelling time as well as the
available in both 2-D and 3-D, this report is analyzing time. An illustration of axis of
only explaining the basic model of the symmetry is shown below,
PLAXIS which should be known in-order to
understand how to simulate the actual
geotechnical problem in PLAXIS modelling,

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 Analysis of earth retaining structures using FEM & FDM approach

node - node anchor - they are the springs used

to model ties between two nodes. They can
be used to model soil nails, anchors, struts in
earth retaining wall. EA is the axial stiffness
of the anchor. node to node anchors cannot
Picture 15- A symmetrical Earth retaining problem take BM in PLAXIS.
Fixed end anchors - This type of anchors one
The above earth retaining problem can be node is fixed. This type of element can be
modelled using have of its symmetry as used to model structs, props in earth retaining
shown below, structure.

SOIL MODEL EQUIPPED IN FEM

GEOTECHNICAL SOFTWARE
PLAXIS ARE AS FOLLOWS
Constitutive relations are the relations
between stress, strain and time. The
following models are used in PLAXIS
analysis
Picture 16 – A PLAXIS model using half of the symmetry - linear elastic
(picture 15)
- Mohr-Coulomb
- jointed rock model
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS USED IN - hardening soil model
PLAXIS - soft soil model
Plate Element: This can be used to model - soft soil creep
stiff elements such as concrete walls, sheet - cam-clay model
walls, secant piles, diaphragm walls, - modified cam-clay model
foundation and slabs where EA -is the axial
stiffness, EI -is the bending stiffness. STEPS TO BE FOLLOWED TO
Anchors: There are two types of anchors ANALYZE EARTH RETAINING
defined in PLAXIS, they are STRUCTURE IN PLAXIS.

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 Analysis of earth retaining structures using FEM & FDM approach

 Select plane strain model for the CONCLUSION

earth retaining structure analysis The report stated how FDM & FEM can be
 Define the physical region: Define used to analyze the earth retaining structure,
the area of influence due to the earth what are the parameters should have
retaining wall. accounted for, the steps to solve earth
 Soil data and constitutive model: retaining structure using FLAC and PLAXIS,
Input soil data and constitutive model explanation of some terms used in PLAXIS,
(Mohr-Coulomb model will suite for and number of FDM-spreadsheet examples
most of the cases generally) were performed for some retaining structure

 Define structural element: Define problems.

Sheet pile, anchor FEM and FEM are removing limitations of

 Define boundary condition: conventional manual calculation because

boundary conditions should be given they can be used to design earth retaining

for a problem such No displacement structure with irregular shape back fill,

boundary, no shear force/bending retaining structure with water drainage

moment boundary, water table, initial provided. (etc.). And also stage construction

surcharge load if any. can be simulated easily in FEM & FDM

 Create a Finite difference mesh: software’s.

Medium size mesh is oaky for most of

the problems, but we can choose the ACKNOLEDGEMENT AND

mesh size based on the physical DECLARATION

problem. Autor want to state that sources for this

review have been indicated.
 Perform analysis: if the above
contents are defined, then the analysis
can be performed, results to be
REFERENCE
verified with actual site condition.
 Qingzhi Yan and Xiangzhen Yan,
 Stage of construction also can be
"Numerical Simulation Research and
included in the analysis.
Use of The Steel Sheet Pile
Supporting Structure in Vertical
Excavation", The Institute of Storage-

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 Analysis of earth retaining structures using FEM & FDM approach

Transportation & Architectural 10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-

Engineering, China University of 5622.0000394.
Petroleum, China.  Hassan, H.F., Jawad, S.M. (2012),
 Popa, H. & Batali, L. (2010), “Using "Finite Element Analysis of Earth-
finite element method in geotechnical retaining Structures Problems in
design. soil constitutive laws and Nonlinear Partially Saturated Soil",
calibration of the parameters”- Journal of Engineering and
retaining wall case study. WSEAS development, 16:01
Transactions on Applied and  Vaziri, H.H. (1996), A simple
Theoretical Mechanics, 5(3), pp.177– numerical model for analysis of
186. propped embedded retaining walls.
 Woods, R.I(2003). ” The application  Ti, K.S., Huat, B.B.K, Noorzaei, J.,
of finite element analysis to the Jaafar, M.S., Sew, G.S., A Review of
design of embedded retaining wall”. Basic Soil Constitutive Models for
 Desai, C.S. (2012), Application of Geotechnical Application, EJGE 14
finite element and constitutive
models - Solid, Structure and Soil-
Structure interaction.
 Kristof F. Computation of the
behavior of flexible retaining walls
using a finite difference method, QIT.
 Das, B.M., Fundamentals of
Geotechnical Engineering (third
edition)
 Craig, R.F. (2004), Craig’s Soil
Mechanics (seventh edition)
 Damians, I.P., Bathurst, R.J., Josa,
A., Lloret, A. (2014), "Numerical
Analysis of an Instrumented Steel-
Reinforced Soil Wall", DOI -

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