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A Total Framework for Inquiry

WARREN KINSTON

Sigma Centre, Institute of Organization and Social Studies, Brunei Unh·ersity. Uxbridge,
Middlesex UB8 3PH, U.K.

(ReceiL'ed 29 Jlllle 1987; ill ret'ised form 30 Seprember 1987)

Key Words-Inquiry; inquiring systems; knowledge; representation; testing; hierarchy; epistemology;

philosophy; creati\;ty; imaginalion.

Abstrllct-The 10101 fromell'ork for inquiry is formulated as production was concerned, it did not include the
consisling of seven hierarchical levels. The lower five, as
whole of inquiry. I indicated then that certain
described previously (Sysi. Res. 2 (198S), 95-104), are concerned
with representing knowledge; the sixth level has the function of elements associated ,.,.;th the inquiry process, such
testing and contains 'inquiring systems' ; and the seventh level as hypothesis testing. must lie in a higher domain
contains the function of wonder. The inquiring srs/ems are an
[23. p. 100] but I was not able to elaborate this
image of the framework and therefore also form a seven-level
hierarchy. in which the lower five levels have been identified conviction with precision. This is now possible. and
previously by Churchman (Tire Design of Inquirillg Syslems, the purpose of the present paper is to formulate the
Basic Books. New York, 1971). Two further inquiring systems
higher domain.
are described: the sixth is the 'dialogic' and the seventh is the
'contemplative'. The core teslillg processes which underlie each The paper will argue on the basis of empirical
of the seven inquiring systems and provide each with its different and theoretical investigation that the higher domain
guarantee of truth are distinguished. Each core testing process
contains two further hierarchically-ordered levels
(and hence each inquiring system) is shown to be underpinned
by a particular level in the inquiry framework. Various sym­ of inquiry which complete the framework of inquiry
metries and the possibility of homology between the two hier­ utterly_ The concrete practice of knowledge-creation
archical structures are briefly explored.
is defined by the set of five levels, as originally
proposed, plus two higher levels which serve to
guide and structure inquiry. These higher levels
are purely theoretical approaches which cannot be
INTRODUCTION
operated other than by use of the mind. Church­
INQUIRY is the process of producing or obtaining man's five inquiring systems, as described in Tile
knowledge by representing the world. As the pro­ Design of Inqllirillg Systems [8]. are situated in the
cess affects the form of the representation, any rep­ lower of these two higher levels. He implied that
resentation of the world should include an indi­ the inquiring systems might be seen as evohing from
cation of how that knowledge was obtained. A a primitive to an advanced form [8, p. viii] : and J
practical consequence is the requirement that scien­ have suggested elsewhere that the evolution might
tific papers include information about the methods be in the form of hierarchical emergence [21]. If
used. However, the injunction also has a theoretical this secondary hierarchy of inquiring systems were
consequence: it implies that any formal attempt to symmetrical or homologous to the primary hier­
model the process of representation should include archy of representation/inquiry itself. then two fur­
all elements in the inquiry process. ther inquiring systems are implied with a hier­
In a previous contribution to Systems Research archical relationship to those already identified. The
[23], I offered a five-level hierarchical framework present paper supports the case for homology. It
of distinct representing activities to explain and will do so by empirically identifying and describing
describe scientific analysis and knowledge pro­ two additional inquiring systems which emerge to
duction. Scientific analysis and representation is complete the secondary hierarchy: and by theo­
itself inquiry, and the levels of representation may retically demonstrating how the inquiring systems
therefore also be seen as levels of inquiry. However, themselves link reflexively to the primary frame­
while the system was complete in so far as knowledge work of inquiry.
9
10 W. Kinston

LO WER LEVELS IN THE FRAMEWORK

OF INQUIRY

In the earlier paper [23]. I analyzed the levels of

inquiry and representation from the point of view �
o
of ordinary human purposes to be achieved by the ...
...
.. .:
inquiring or representing activity. The emphasis ff' .!:!l
...
Q
was placed on representation because that paper
focussed on the misuse and misunderstanding of
measurement in the social sciences. Here. the ..
g...
emphasis will be on inquiry. A brief resume of the
6rst 6ve levels ID the framework of inquiry as
described in the earlier paper is necessary before
proceeding further.
The principles on which the hierarchical ordering
of inquiry/representation are based are as follows.
Each level can be built from the one below by
addition of a fundamental concept. Each level has
its own fundamental concept, its own purpose. its ..�
;;
own puzzle to sol\'e. its own operational and c­
.: ...
'"
c
mathematico-Iogical activity, and its own experi­ �
o Q
�
ential location. The uncertainty of inquiry varies ..
o
�
from level to level in association with characteristic ...
E
inherent and unavoidable types of error. Table I =
-:: c:
summarizes the main points under these headings ... . 2
'in
and the following brief description should be read .0
:: g..
in conjunction with it. ..::
The contents of the representational part of the .5
hierarchy are as follows. Level I inquiring is con­
cepruali=illg. Concepts (entities or ideas) are the .g c
...
... .�
c: c
- . ?:
vehicle which permit and are a result" of this process
.

which is essentially that of identifying or making '�j

>(- �
u
...
:E­
W o o
distinctions. Conceptualizing serves to reduce con­
fusion. Level II inquiring is observing. Facts are the .,
C
vehicle formed by indicating or pointing to some­ ::

thing. hence they depend on the additional idea c:

of thingness. Examples of a concept can now be .g

::
-= c
observed and referred to directly. Level III inquir­ 'eo
::
ing is comparil/g. Comparisons require the further �
idea of value so that things can be ranked or
ordered. Level IV inquiring is measuring. Measure­
ment adds the notion of a standard unit, and allows
for precise, generally applicable comparisons or
valuations. Finally, at Level V. inquiring is relating
or formulating. The system is here completed
reflexively by connecting or relating products of any
level of inquiry, including Level V itself. Relating
is therefore the new idea and its vehicles include
matrices and formulas. Relations are experienced
as usable knowledge and are the basis and spur for
action. The experiential location of the representing
(inquiring) activity oscillates between inte rn al or
subjective and external or objective. Thus making
distinctions (I) is felt to be subjective. Observing (II)
makes distinctions objective and publicly sharable
because it is based on external reference. Attribut­
ing value (III) is held to be subjective. Measuring = = > > :; >
 A total framework for inquiry II

(IV), which makes comparisons precise by using an to suit their particular problems, and also to arti­
agreed external standnrd unit, is publicly sharable culate epistemologies to justify these activities and
and objective. Relations (V) require plausibility and guarantee that the results may be accepted with
are formed subjectively. some degree of confidence. Taken to!!ether these
methods and epistemology constitut� a test of
knowledge. In other words, the essence of the prac­
tical activity here is testing. Testing is a complex
HIGHER LEVELS IN THE FRAMEWORK process that, when analyzed in real world inquiring.
OF INQUIRY appears as the use of an illqllirillg systelll, to adopt
As indicated above, the five-level system is closed Churchman's term [8]. The vehicles for testing are
in on itself and therefore complete in so far as it' distinguished from vehicles at lower levels by being.
describes all possible practical or concrete oper­ even in their simplest form. discrete and complex
ations of inquiry in the re.ll world. However the systems. At the core of each of these systems is
model does not comprise within it all that is a distinct approach to testing.
required to produce knowledge. Clearly the levels An inquiring system (Level VI) tells the scientist
do not give any indication about what is to be how he is to approach the real world. what lower
investigated or how knowledge is to be gained. Here levels are particularly important, and how the prod­
there are real choices to be made. Which problem ucts at each level are to be seen in relation to each
is likely to be soluble? Are facts to be collected, or other. There are a number of discrete inquiring
is a simulation to be developed? Should current systems. It is possible to live, work and die com­
knowledge-concepts, facts, comparisons, mea­ pletely identified with one of them and to deni!!rate
surements, relations-be accepted? Above all, and devalue the activities based on others, sinc�rely
how is the irreducible uncertainty to be overcome­ believing them to be invalid or inferior in absolute
by analysis, by experiment, by some other terms. Churchman's brilliant analysis of inquiring
method-so that confidence in results can be systems [8] was based on the work of his teacher,
gained? These choices define the inquiry process Singer [52], and has been articulated further bv his •

further, but now holistically. In other words, there pupil, Mitroff [38, 39].
must be a domain of higher levels which treat the Unlike many modern philosophers of science,
lower five levels as a complete system for knowledge Churchman never lost sight of the notion that scien­
production, Like the lower levels, the higher levels tific endeavour was imbued with purpose. He
of inquiry must be exoteric, that is to say, used regarded science as inextricably part of the reality
spontaneously by the man in the street. Rami­ of the social system within which it wished to in­
fications within the higher levels will, however, be vestigate; he believed that scientists needed to be
esoteric, because the scientist or professional self-aware; and he was able [0 appreciate assump­
inquirer, who needs to use all levels systematically tions underlying all varieties of useful inquiry. How­
and explicitly, must understand their properties and ever illquir)' to assist human alld social actioll is not
significance in some detail. identical with, and therefore call1lot flllly replace,
If the higher levels are indeed part of the same inquiry whose sole pllrpose is the productioll of
framework as the lower five levels, then it should generalized representations that are like'" to be trill'
be possible to describe inquiry at these higher levels [cf. 55, pp. 134-135]. To put this anot her way: to
in the same terms as the lower levels. Hence Table conduct an inquiry into the nature of an aspect of
1 is based on a matrix from the original paper, reality is a different task from presenting infor­
but with certain columns omitted. The column of mation on the nature of a problem to a decision­
fundamental entities is not required because the maker-and this point is not made sufficiently clear
higher levels are themselves real world products and by Churchman [cf. 39, p. 22 I]."
therefore consist of relations. Columns for numbers The completion of the Level VI row in the matrix
and mathematical operators also illustrated dis­ of Table I allows comparison of properties of an
tinctions amongst levels I-V. However, these sym­ inquiring system with properties of lower levels of
bols are only applicable to the actuality of repre­ inquiry. Testing is the dominant activity at this
senting (and the associated issue of scaling) and are level: a test meaning 'that by which the existence,
therefore not primary attributions of the higher quality or genuineness of anything is or may be
levels. The two higher levels will now be described
in detail. • Apparently Churchman does not accept the distinction. He
writes: .) don't accept the idea of knowledge for its own sake'
VI inquiry: testing, or using 'inquiring systems'
Let'el �pcrsonal communication. 1987). The view taken in this paper
�s that inquiry for its own sake as taught universally to scientists
Scientists and philosophers of science have been IS not only real and valid, but is a wonderful expression of the
concerned to develop detailed methods of inquiry human spirit,
12 W. Kinston

determined' (OED). The etymology of test is Latin: model of inquiring must explicitly account for both
testa meaning a pot. In other words the inquiring doubt and faith in inquiry, so this issue will be
system COl1laillS reality for us, because systematic returned to.
inquiring simultaneously tests representations out
as it produces them. Lerel VII illquiry: wonderillg
As clarified by Warfield [54], the practice of scien­ If we take the approach and attitude we have
tific inquiry involves systematically constructing an adopted thus far to its ultimate, it is clear that
inquiring process using two basic activities: ana­ another level is required, and that this level must be
lysing or partitioning [n] and synthesising or inte­ the final level of inquiry within the framework of
grating [1:]. The purpose of inquiring systems is inquiry. There is still a further question, a further
to maximize certainty in this work. Indeed in the activity, a further. purpose and puzzle which are
alternation between the sense of subjectivity and inherent in any inquiry when this is regarded as
objectivity, noted at lower levels, this level is objec­ carried out by real people in a real social environ­
tive. The puzzle which is uniquely handled at this ment. This new task is creating Ille object of
level is: Is it really true?-'it' referring to the entity, inquiry. Without creating some focus of attention,
observation, comparison, measurement, or relation no detailed inquiry process could be initiated, no
under consideration. Even the inquiring system hypothesis could be developed, and no knowledge
itself needs to be reflexively tested. The typical error would be created. As predicted by the schema, this
which therefore emerges at this level is due to the activity is experienced as profoundly subjective:
basis of testing, that is to say the inquiring system presumably it touches on 'the essence of the creative
chosen, having inherent limitations (v. Table 2, in each one of us' [8, p. 205].
columns 7 and 8). At the extreme, an inquiring The individual, much as when engaged in Level
system may be inappropriately applied. I activity [23], is surrounded by a world that is
Given that each inquiring system limits sight of partly given and partly undifferentiated and non­
certain aspects of the total situation, and given that represented. This total environment is an un­
there is a self-multiplying degree of uncertainty bounded and undefinable system. It is entered by
inherent in making numerous distinctions (I) and the practical activity of Irondering, whose purpose
relations (V), it follows logically that all inquiry is a realization of the need to know. For those who
must be associated with an extremely high degree are by nature curious, the need to know is a hunger,
of uncertainty. Nevertheless the function of testing a drive, a quest, which can never be fully satisfied.
is to produce the maximum possible certainty. It For the man in the street, the need to know may be
does so most overtly by using the function of criti­ strictly practical. It feels almost identical with the
cism, which is a probing inquiry into the inquiry. need to do; but the doing is based on assumptions
Proper use of critical questioning within agreed (knowledge) of the relevant world of the activity.
bounds defined by the inquiring system in use cre­ When doing does not achieve the desired objectives,
ates the sellse that kllDirledge has actually been or it is not clear what exactly should be done to
generated, irrespec/it'e of the inherelll uncertainties. further desires and purposes, then even the man in
As a consequence, finn adherents of particular the street wonders exactly what is going on, what
inquiring systems usually minimize the extent or possibilities might exist, and how he might get the
intensity of uncertainty. and avoid recognizing the required knowledge to progress. Desires and pur­
partiality of their view. A less satisfactory tendency poses are therefore essential orienting components
is the common urge to critique products of other of wondering, distinguishing it from imaginative
inquiring systems by appeal to wholly inappropriate reverie by providing a specific practical and per­
criteria which violate the assumptions of the inquir­ sonal focus. Wonder (VII) is hierarchically above
ing process actually used. constructing an inquiry (VI) because, for the
Churchman attempted to rescue the scientific inquirer, it is also necessary to wonder about the
endeavour from being overwhelmed by irreducible inquiry process itself, which inquiring system to
uncertainty by concluding that 'faith is an integral choose or, more usually, how to implement it.
part of all inquiry' [8. p. 243]. Polanyi similarly The puzzle that emerges at this level is 'What do
worked to establish as appropriate man's 'power for we need to know?'-which, because science is the
the deliberate holding of unproven beliefs' [47, p. art of the soluble [37], is followed rapidly by 'How
268]. Without an awareness of the role of faith and can we know it?'. Inherent error does exist at this
belief in underpinning scientific method, dogmatic level because it is possible to ask the wrong ques­
defence of the scientist's own inquiring system com­ tion-Mitroff and Betz's 'error of the third kind'
bined with annihilatOr)' hostility and devastating [40]-and in any case there are always other things
condemnation of alternative inquiring systems is we need to know and other ways we might satisfy
only too likely to continue [21, 39]. Any complete our curiosity. The effective operation of wonder
 A total framework for inquiry \3

distinguishes the creative research process, which ognizable or indistinguishable, and therefore
applies methods, however apparently routine, in a non-existent.
fresh innovative way, and tackles its subject in a Given this environment of 'non-existent un­
similar fashion. The routinized research process knowledge', man has striven [0 find ways of de­
excludes wonder: its topics are investigated without veloping confidence in what knowledge he has,
imagination, and its methods are chosen imitatively and of ensuring that any knowledge produced is
or from habit. This analysis suggests that imagin­ adequately substantiated. However, as noted
ative techniques should be generally fostered in earlier, agreement amongst inquirers on what
scientific training. They are relevant to all forms makes for confidence or constitutes adequate sub­
of inquiry and complement any preferred inquiring stantiation is noticeable by its absence.
system, or any systematic approach to inventive
activity such as that suggested by Altshuller (I].
HIGHER LEVELS IN THE HIERARCHY
It seems appropriate to specify the degree of
OF INQUIRING SYS TEMS
uncertainty at this level as 'absolute uncertainty'.
This may be the basis of the high value placed We therefore turn now from leL'els of inquiry to
on doubt and scepticism in scientific practice. After Jere/s of inqlliring syst em the lauer, as has been
-

presenting results in a scientific paper, it is an impor­ argued, nested within level VI in lhe former. To
tant custom to offer alternative explanations. first distinguish between levels of inquiry and levels of
in terms of uncertainties due to inherent lower level inquiring system, the latter levels will be indicated
error, and second by devising imaginative but plaus­ with a prime. Churchman has described five var­
ible alternative scenarios. Scepticism, properly ieties of inquiring system as follows;* I'-formal
applied in this way, encourages wonder by asking or deductive, II'-empirical or inducth'e, III'­
new questions and diminishing rigidity of outlook. synthetic, explanatory, or representational, IV'­
dialectic or conflictual, and V'-holistic or in­
terdisciplinary. It must be emphasized that
The framell'ork of inquiry as a whole Churchman and Mitroffboth prefer to present these
Each of the levels of the framework of inquiry systems as a simple set or list. It wiII be shown
might be properly termed inquiry. All levels need through analysis of basic assumptions in the final
to be driven by and infused with the spirit of wonder part of the paper that inquiring systems are appro­
(VII). However, only at Level V, where actual priately represented as hierarchically ordered. and
relations are explicit, does inquiry produce usable they will therefore be referred to in this way.
knowledge; and only at level VI does inquiry check Except for Level V', the holistic inquiring system,
the truth value of knowledge. Selection of a scien­ the levels have been well elaborated in the
tific hypothesis and then a research design are there­ literature of various disciplines and domains. So
fore born between or through conjunction of Level instead of a text summary, the reader is referred
VII and Level VI inquiry and should occur in a state to a set of precise formulations in Table 2 which
of intense uncertainty. How the world is defined and provides a description of each system when used
represented so that an inquiry process can be carried in a real-world situation. The formulations differ
out and knowledge result from wonder is then a somewhat from previous accounts by Churchman
matter for inquiry at Levels I-V. and Mitroff, in that they have been developed on
Making distinctions (I). like wondering (VII), is the basis that each level has its own language and
purely mind-based. Wondering (VII) about con­ so leads to a distinct view of the world. Key terms,
cepts (I) that are already part of existing knowledge such as 'model' and 'fact', are level-specific and
will destabilize them. In a single mental act the using them loosely as if they were generally appli­
whole painfully and effortfully constructed edifice cable and meaningful in all inquiring systems con­
of knowledge can be reduced to the meaningless fuses systematic inquiry in this area. Previous for­
chaos out of which it arose. The lowest (I) and mulations have also been unsatisfactory insofar as
highest (VII) levels therefore curiously link up with they have embedded aspects of the decision-mak ing
each other, both searching the not-yet-articulated­ process within the inquiring process (39). Church-
universe to commence or to recommence repre­
sentational activity. This not-yet-articulated-uni­
•Churchma/1 associated each inquiring system imaginatively
verse; this not-even-chaos, this undescribable void,
with a modern philosopher, in order: Leibni7.. Locke. Kanl.
which is both Level '0' and Level 'VIII', was Hegel and Singer. However. because some ofChurchman's ideas
described carlier as the environment or context of about these philosophers arc idiosynerdtic. their introduction
scrves as an irrelevant source of criticism. and tends to obstruct
the framework of inquiry. Knowledge may emerge
the main task of elucidating the framework of inquiry. The
from il and may disappear buck into it, that aspect philosopher labels have therefore been completely omitted in this
of the world becoming for the moment unrec- paper and the labels used follow Mitroffwith some modification.
14 W. Kinston

Table 2. Principle characteristics of the hierarchy of pr.Jctical inquiring systems as used within a situation to aid a dccision-maker

Result of an inquiry Growth Relation between realities and

Nature (example from health of knowledge representations
Level (labels) services research) in the situation (cr. core testing processes)
Col.I Col. 2 Col. 3 Col. 4

I' Formal A value-free analysis Generating ever Representations, deriving from elementary
(analytic, pertinent to the situation, more elaborate formal reasoning, reveal and embody
deductive, e.g. analysis of the and grounded enduring self-evident properties of the
rationalist) . .
different types of health analyses. situation. Realities are complex and
care programmes. difficult to know. cf. mathematico-
logical reasoning.

II' Empirical Empirical content on its Amassing and Representations arc justified by the facts
(inductive) own pertinent to the organizing ever (i.e. realities) deri\ing from sensory
situation, e.g. and more facts. experience. Ideas and reasoning are
epidemiological survey subjective and hence untrustworthy.
of morbidity. cf. empirical investigation.

III' Synthetic Selection of a beller Trying out and Representations and realities are
(representational, alternative in the situation, progressively inseparable, each deriving from and
explanatory) e.g. randomized improving ever interacting with the other. So multiple
controlled trials of more detailed representations of the same reality
alternative regimens alternatives. need to be developed and compared.
of care. cf. hypothesis testing.

IV' Dialectical Exposure of confticts in the Devising ever more Complete representations must contain at
(conftictual, situation due to opposing powerful syntheses least two directly opposite representations
critical) assumptions, with or and recognizing and agreed realities can support either.
without a resolution, ever more Representations are imbued with value
e.g. critical analysis of a antinomies. and affect agreement on reality.
health policy decision. cf_ dialectic analysis.

V' Holistic Formulation of a model Developing ever Representations are used to alter realities
(interdisciplinary, to indicate actions to more extensive in line with intentions. Representations
'soft-system', change the whole situation, and finely-tuned require key factors in reality to be
developmental) e.g. developing a model models. interrelated to rorm a structured system.
for practical organizational cf. system modelling.
change_

VI' Dialogic A conceptual analysis of Producing ever Representations depend on a properly

(Philosophical) aspects of the situation more sophisticated used framework of relevant fundamental
divorced from immediate: arguments and terms provided by ratiocination and
action, e.g. understanding conclusions. discourse. Realities are taken for granted,
the meaning of are not relevant or are challenged directly.
dying. cr. philosophical analysis.

VII' Contemplative A whole rormulation which Creating ever more No distinction exists between realities and
(imaginath'e, completely grasps the imaginative representations. Representation stems
speculat ive, situation and its resolution. possibilities at all from truth immanent in the mind which
intuitive) (No specific example-can levels. employs image. symbols and the logic of
apply to many topics at the unconscious. cr. imaginative
each level.) insight.
 A total framework for inquiry 15

Table 2. (eontd)

Certainty Danl!crs Contraindications

of output Indications for use (usual criticisms) for usc
Col.S Col. 6 Col. 7 Col. 8

Very uncertain, • Well-understood and \\1:II-defined • Proliferation of propositions \\ith • Situation is poorly
as analysis may topic with clear objectives. liule concern for data or understood.
be inapplicable • Inquirer understands the topic implementation. • Inquirer does not
or artificial in and how it relates to the • Analysis becomes a self-fulfilling understand
the actual situation. situation. prophecy (i.e. 'true by definition'). the issue in context.
• Analysis is o\'er-extended
or over·elaborate.

Uncertain because • Well-structured recognized • Proliferation of data with little • III-structured problem
experience is problem. concern for explanations or is made to look
fallible, and facts • Agreement about relevant subjectivity (e.g. goals, well-structured.
get very complicated objectives. attitudes). • Hard data is limited, too
on close inspection. • Simple experiment or data • Excessive reliance on costly to cbtain, or
collection will suffice. agreement. inaccessible.
• Inquirer has a 'feel' for data. • Loss of extreme possibilities. • Consensus on data is
lacking.

Maximum cenainty • III-structured problem but an • Proliferation of alternath·es. • Overall picture is

because many overall picture is available and a • Important alternath-es are unavailable.
perspectives part can be defined and omitted, o r trivial ones • Objectives are confused.
and possibilities focussed on. are included. • Inquirer is biased.
can be examined. • Objectives are clearly given. • Realities and representations are
• Inquirer takes a balanced and changed to carry out the test.
unbiased view. • Too ready acceptance of the
validity of controls and
indicators.

Uncertainty which • JII-structured topic whose • Proliferation of unnecessary • An optimal solution

may lead to true nature is in doubt and subject conflict. is available.
vacillation between to intense debate by experts. • Loss of contact with specific • Issue is well·structured
alternatives or to • Opposing objectives in the realities. and uncontentious.
polarization. situation. • Excessive influence of
• Inquirer capable of intuitive prejudice.
and synthetic reasoning. • Development of weak
compromises.

High uncertainty • Situation demanding explicit • Generation of unnecessary • Simple alternati\'es

as the situation is structuring so as to aid complexity, uncertainty and must be decided.
ever-developing and intervention. individual awareness to violation • Sense of certainty of
psycho-social • Concern for future development. of values. results or acceptability
aspects of • Objectives unclear. • Lack of concern for reliability, to participants are of
participants and • Use of personal power likely. validity, consistency, objective o\'er-riding importance.
inquirer must • Inquirer can reason reftectively. certainty, or conflict and power
be included. issues.

Absolute • A framework for thinking is • Degenerates into sterile • Practical inquiry al lower
uncertainty; source required. word·play. levels is needed urgently.
of doubt and • Difficulty with problem • Degenerates into fanaticism.
dogmatic belief. formulation. • Lack of a basic understanding
• Issues of self·description or of the topic in practical
identity are present. terms.
• Inquirer capable of sustained
theorizing and arguing.

Absolute certainty: • Existing paradigm or idea has • Development of an idee fixe, or • Much immediately useful
source of faith too many obvious anomalies; messianism; which may lead to can be done within the
and inspired or too many philosophical the insight being applied outside existing paradigm.
belief. objections its area of development. • Social recognition of the
• Inquirer capable of concentrated • Nothing but speculation. need for imaginative
contemplation and abandonment of • Motivated by a desire for glory. reformation is missing.
previously held convictions.
16 W. Kinston

man's intense and confusing desire to sweep in description and discussion is closer to the spirit of
ethics and aesthetics and include the concept of science.
progress within inquiring at Level V' is one unsat­ If, as suspected, the hierarchy of inquiring sys­
isfactory consequence of this conflation. Such tems is symmetrical with the hierarchy of inquiry
important considerations are more naturally seen itself, then seven systems should exist. The present
in the context of choice and the design of action. five systems are systems of actual inquiring akin to
The position taken in this paper-and worked out the lower five levels of inquiry which generate actual
in more detail elsewhere [25]-is that inquiring and knowledge, hence two further higher level inquiring
action are conceptually and practically dis­ systems are to be expected. Wondering about
tinguishable. inquiry with this in mind has revealed the existence
Table 2 therefore indicates for each inquiring sys­ of two further approaches which deserve to be
tem in its own language: the typical output with labelled inquiring systems. These additional sys­
an example from health services research; the tems for developing and testing knowledge are the
way knowledge of a situation grows; root test­ intellectual foundation of the birth of rationalism
ing assumptions embodied in the relation between and modern science in the 17th century. Despite
representations of reality and actual realities; possessing the essential qualities of inquiring
certainty of the output; indications and contra-indi­ systems, they feel different from the inquiring sys­
cations for use; and possible dangers or common tems already referred 10 because they are not modes
criticisms. More detailed examples of research work of concrete investigation of the world. The higher
at each level have been provided elsewhere [21, 22, levels can be characterized under the same headings
39]. used to describe the lower levels, as shown in
The framework of inquiring systems can be clari­ Table 2.
fied and developed by explicitly recognizing core
testillg processes which underlie the various sorts of
inquiring system. This core becomes most evident Level VI' inquiring system: the dialogic
when inquiring is divorced from the needs of social All lower level inquiry systems are in their very
action and carried out solely in order to represent. nature comprised of words or mathematical sym­
This is because core testing processes are to do bols linked into propositions, and they operate with
with the certainty-conferring function of inquiring assumptions as to the meaning of these. It is there­
systems. The basic idea here is that explicit inquir­ fore necessary to develop an inquiring system which
ing systems have evolved historically and unself­ can regard this symbolic-linguistic structure as the
consciously out of more direct and primitive pro­ focus of a critical inquiry effort-and this is to move
cesses of practical inquiry and action. And in turn one level up the hierarchy to VI'. Such a move takes
core tc:sting processes have developed historically the inquirer away from an immediate focus on a
from (self-)conscious efforts to purify the essence particular concrete part of the real world, and the
of testing. Eventually, and relatively late in man's inquiry is therefore usually labelled philosophical
development, testing and the production of gener­ rather than scientific. Be that as it may, it is another
atlizations became an activity for its own sake. Core inquiring system, and it is implied by lower levels
testing processes will be examined further in the and itself implies lower levels. The underlying
final part of the paper. The relationship of the assumption of this system is that all inquiry depends
inquiring systems and their core testing processes on the correct use of key ideas combined with
to the framework of inquiry is shown in Fig. I. reasonable arguments based on assumptions
Although scrutiny of the research literature in a acceptable to the human mind. According to VI'
variety of disciplines does tend to suggest that the inquiring, certainty depends on the structure within
hierarchy is complete, both Churchman and Mitroff which findings are obtained and presented (the
positively disclaim that the five systems are exhaus­ inquiring system), because concrete evidence as to
tive-'such a claim would be as absurd as it would reality and any representations of reality are derived
be pretentious' [39, p. 221J. It is necessary to con­ from these assumptions and subordinate to them.
sider whether someone 'wondering' about some­ Certainty also depends on the fundamental terms
thing might choose to know about his object of in which the evidence is couched and these stem
interest in some other way, a way perhaps beyond from deep assumptions within the topic under
usual or direct scientific work. Although Church­ study. Knowledge in the topic area is therefore
man seemingly knew this and talked extensively developed by ratiocinative analyses of terms, argu­
around the issues, he deliberately avoided providing ments and assumptions within that arena. The
a clear answer, apparently on the basis of his belief results of such inquiry are conceptual analyses div­
that some things are best left untouched and unfor­ orced from action but nevertheless of relevance to
mulated. The present author holds that explicit it.
 A total framework for inquiry 17

Because terms and arguments only exist in used on itself, and formal philosophizing is reflex­
the process of dialogue, this inquiring system may ively criticized by an appeal to language, meaning,
be termed the 'dialogic'. The arch-protagonist of logical argument and inherent assumptions.
the careful examination of terms and assumptions Because the most fundamental assumptions and
was Socrates. As demonstrated in Plato's dialogues, the very words and sentences being used in pursuit
conviction can be developed through dialogue or of knowledge may be seized on as objects of uncer­
through witnessing a dialogue. The dialogic quality tainty and inquiry, this inquiring system may be
of ratiocination is reflected in the common for­ regarded as contributing absolute uncertainty. It
mation of small seminar groups of scientists or prac­ therefore counters the intense identification and in­
titioners with a philosophical bent who feel a real vestment of scientists with their own language
need to examine what underpins their work. and assumptions, and serves as the reservoir of
Churchman's book emerged from such seminars. doubt so essential for constructive self-reflection.
The dialogic method applies, of course, to the Dogmatic commitment may develop as a counter­
most general and perennial human concerns such as reaction to doubt and this fanaticism is one of the
existing, knowing, relating, feeling, communicating main inherent dangers of Level VI' inquiry.
and valuing. Such inquiry, though driven only Believers in philosophical critique not only generate
indirectly by intelligent action, may have practical uncertainty but tend to overvalue it, and so may deny
consequences. Longstanding areas of philosophical that anything can be known. This links to the other
inquiry of a more directly practical kind include inherent danger: the degeneration of inquiry into
politics, education and law; but these are still sterile word play. Popper, for example, has been
largely in the realm of professional philosophers. At scathingly critical of scientists or philosophers who
the most immediate applied level is dialogic inquiry ask 'What is 1' questions [49].
. . .

driven by the everyday needs of practical inquiry The common criticisms of proper Level VI'
and action. Such knowledge is produced by scien­ inquiry vary with their source. From scientists
tists with a capacity for philosophizing or by philoso­ working at a practical level, there is often the com­
phers prepared to identify themselves with a plaint that the work is divorced from practical
practical activity. It is a sign of scientific health reality-a complaint which is equivalent to sug­
and societal maturity that studies and journals of gesting that philosophical inquiry should be
applied philosophy are slowly emerging in new destroyed or prohibited. Unlike lower level inquir­
areas as disparate as biology [51], artificial in­ ing systems, where scientists, even of differing per­
telligence [10] and social work [32]. suasion, take each other's views into account as
In other words, although the Level VI' output is possibly offering better explanations, there appears
deliberately divorced from action, it may influence to be considerable internecine strife amongst
actual research and development of practical philosophers who come to radically differing
knowledge in due course. Because clarity as to the conclusions. The criticism here is that the other
possible meanings of key terms and value impli­ group 'lacks a basic understanding' of what is
cations of assumptions are divorced at this level involved. This phenomenon within the Level VI'
from any committment to action, a more radical inquiring system parallels the hostility amongst the
form of critical inquiry is possible without time Level VI inquiring systems, which has already been
pressure linked to practicalities of change. For noted.
example, in health services, the philosophy of medi­ A common·sense dictum specifies that the dialogic
cine stands above but can inform and in due course inquiring system ought not to be used for an inquiry
lead medical practice [45]; and debate over the which is more appropriately handled at another
meaning of each term in the phrase, 'managing level. It is nec�ssary therefore to specify the criteria
dying patients', can be expected eventually to affect which indicate that Level VI' inquiry is particularly
actual care regimens. The resource requirement for required. The usual stimulus for such philosophical
Level VI' inquiry, therefore, is that the inquirer and inquiry is the absence of a framework for addressing
his small group be capable of sustained creative but important problems. In particular, if there is reason
rigorous theorizing and arguing without responsi­ to believe that a major difficulty with problem for­
bility for action. mulation exists. irrespective of whether the problem
Testing by ratiocination may be called scientific is judged to be well- or iII·structured, then philo­
in so far as it is C"drried out rigorously, with a concern sophical inquiry may be indicated. For example.
to recognize and correct error, and with the aim when an apparently simple and well-structured
of progressive development of knowledge and problem tenaciously resists all efforts at resolution,
refinement of formulation. The dialogic method, as it may be that the question being asked is based on
with lower level methods, may therefore be subject erroneous assumptions or set in an inappropriate
to assessment. In this case, its own methods are framework.
18 W. Kinston

Philosophical inquiry seems to be stimulated least counter-intuitive. Kepler, commenting on his

whenever a question touches on issues of identity new notion of infinity as the second focus of the
and self-description. An obvious example is the parabola, said: 'The idea seems absurd, but I can
reaction of many scientists to expound philo­ find no flaw in it' (l4J. A consequence of this and
sophically rather than admit ignorance when their other properties already described is that the
own inquiring system is challenged. Whenever contemplative process, when it succeeds, is
scientists reflect on their own activity they become accompanied by a sense of absolute certainty. It
drawn into philosophical analysis [19, 41, 47]. The therefore seems likely that here is the source of faith
identity factor may partly explain why the phil­ and the guarantor of the validity of lower levels
osophy of mathematics has been largely neglected that Churchman �nd other philosophers before him
by outsiders [9], whereas psychoanalysis, which have repeatedly recognized and frequently labelled
affects man's view of himself, has attracted sub­ as 'God'.
stantial external philosophical attention [17,18,58]. An assumption underlying the contemplative
method, as spelled out by the mathematician Poin­
Leuel VII' inquiring syslem: llie cOlllemplarit'e care [46J, is the existence of a 'subliminal self' which
There is a form of inquiry that is both beyond carries out 'unconscious work'. Many creative indi­
actuality (I'-V') and beyond rational discourse viduals and those investigating them have come to
(VI'). and yet informs and shapes these lower a similar conclusion [6, 28, 29,43]. Einstein wrote:
systems. It is used regularly by all serious inves­ 'The words or language, as they are written or
tigators. It is used prominently and brilliantly by spoken, do not seem to play any role in my mech­
our most creative scientists. Keynes in his essay on anism of thought. The psychical entities which seem
Isaac Newton wrote [20] : to serve as elements in thought are certain signs and
more or less clear images which can be 'voluntarily'
I bclie\'e thai the clue to his mind is to be found in his unusual
powers of continuous conccnlr:ued introspection.... His
reproduced and combined.. .. Conventional words
peculiar gift was the power of holding continuously in his or other signs have to be sought for laboriously
mind a purely menial problem until he had seen straight only in a secondary state' [IIJ. Kekule, after much
through il .. I believe that NeWlon could hold a problem in
conscious struggle, solved the problem of the struc­
. .

his mind for hours and days and weeks until it surrendercd to
him its secret. Then being a supreme mathemalicaltechnician, ture of the benzene molecule following a dream of
he could dress it up. how you will, for purposes of exposi­ a snake taking hold of its own tail [28]. He was
tion, but it was his intuition \\'hich was pre-eminently extra­
ordinary, . • ,
probably unaware that this is one of the oldest
mystical-religious symbols, the uroboros, which
This inquiring system, we suggest, should be represents the primordial union of man and nature.
termed 'contemplative'. Contemplation, argued The existence of an unconscious realm dominated
Aristotle, who of all the ancients most closely by images rather than words and with its own sense
embodied the modern dynamic and pragmatic of direction, though popularized by Freud and
scientific mentality, is 'a laying hold on immortality lung, is not new in Western thought [56]. We refer
as far as is possible for men' [3]. The aim in the here to Freud's 'unrepressed unconscious' and
contemplative method is to obtain a holistic vision, lung's 'collective unconscious' rather than to the
a complete answer to the problem of concern. The repressed unconscious generated by emotional
result is a theory, from Greek 8eWpl7. = con­ trauma [26]. In the unrepressed unconscious, the
templation, speculation, sight. The focus of con­ usual distinctions do not hold. Matte Blanco has
templation is the problem seen as a whole, and characterized as 'symmetrical' the logic used in the
the source of certainty resides both in the aesthetic unconscious because everything may be taken as
quality or elegance of the solution and the identical with everything else [35]; also, and sim­
emotional experience of harmony which accom­ ultaneously, everything may be taken as unique and
panies resolution. Taken to its logical conclusion, incommensurable. The unthinkable symmetrical
this inquiring system assumes without question state is the environment (or Level 0' and VIII')
that it is possible to construct an account of the of the hierarchy of inquiring systems.
world as a whole which wiII render it completely An extraordinary methodological assumption in
intelligible. It is clearly an intensely religious alti­ this inqufring system is that truth is immanent in
tude, though one entirely divorced from dogma. the mind. Not surprisingly the usual devaluing criti­
In practice, the elements of the solution which cism of Level VII' inquiry is that the output is
emerges for the given problem must be so disposed 'nothing but speculation' and that the accompany­
that the mind can simultaneously appreciate the ing certainty is evidence of personal or professional
totality, the details, and how the details inform the failure rather than success. Mitroff, for example,
totality. Sometimes, to the rational mind running found that Apollo scientists working in a specu­
in conventional paths, the result seems wrong or at lative-theoretical way were assigned a much higher
 A total framework for inquiry 19

status than others despite the intense vitriolic criti­ propriate when there is much to be done which is
cism to which their colleagues subjected them [39, immediately useful. In certain situations, however,
Ch.3]. The inherent dangers in Level VII' inquiry it might be argued that particular effort needs to be
include fixation on an incorrect idea and inap­ made to support the systematic use of Level VII'
propriate messianism. Speculative ideas are not inquiry. It seems particularly necessary when exist­
practically usable until they have been socially ing accepted ideas have too many obvious anom­
shared within the relevant community; and scien­ alies (I'-V'), or too many cogent philosophical
tific convention attempts to meet this requirement objections (VI'). A current example might be
by insisting on the use of inquiring systems at lower research into paranormal and psychical phenomena
levels. A serious danger exists even in the case of such as extrasensory perception. The inquiry effort
a satisfactory scientific product when it is applied here needs to be pursued by a researcher who is
outside its area of development and legitimacy. capable of the abandonment of previously held con­
Skinner's work on learning, for example, is inspired victions, and who can organize his everyday and
and of practical value in a delimited area of human mental life to allow concentrated contemplation.
behaviour; but when the same ideas are applied to
society as a whole they have little legitimacy and The hierarchy of inquiring systems as a whole
may even be positively dangerous [53]. The indis­ As indicated earlier, individual inquirers typically
criminate transposition of physical science models prefer one or perhaps t\VO of the inquiring systems
and methods to provide certainty in social science above the others. However, what the individual pre­
research is a similar sad and costly example [34, 57). fers diHers from what society needs. So the scien­
Scientific progress occurs at this level through tific enterprise which institutionalizes inquiring must
holistic syntheses which reframe or redefine the not promote just one or two methods of inquiring [21].
bounds and nature of an area of inquiry. The output The methods of logical analysis, data collection and
therefore is the production of a whole formulation. comparing alteratives (Levels I'-III') are necessary
As indicated above, it is essentially the product of to ground systematic inquiry but are not sufficient
a single individual, though his work can be greatly in themselves. Inquiring in these modes absolutely
enhanced and given support and understanding requires, consciously or unconsciously, the solid
from others within an institution or discipline. All rock of reasonable belief and intuition (LevelS VI'­
scientists work within a variety of imaginative con­ VII'). Mediating between these latter purely mind­
structions provided by their forebears which serve based approaches to knowledge and the former
as the source of a logically indefensible, but an concrete approaches to exploration of the real
emotionally and spiritually essential, confidence in world are dialectical processes and modelling efforts
the correctness and usefulness of their inquiring (Levels IV'-V') which offer challenging stimulation
activities. Level VII' formulations have a life-cycle. and provide new frameworks by which complexity
While nothing may be as powerful as an idea whose may be mastered. The present paper is an example
time has come, the emergence of a new conception of such activity: it offers an encompassing and syn­
before its time may lead to its neglect or rejection, thesizing framework (V'), which aims to reconcile
and ostracism or even persecution of its proponent. disputes amongst scientists and between scientists
The creative process of preparation, incubation, and practical men (IV').
inspiration, and realization is available to everyone. All the levels of inquiring system need to be
The benefits and importance of contemplative driven by and infused with the contemplative
inquiry are currently being realized in the business approach (VII'), because this provides the neces­
environment [15]; and in the philosophy of science, sary faith which is integral to human inquiry. Scien­
where Feyerabend's epistemological anarchism tists are educated to adhere to the prescriptions of
celebrates the humanitarian and creative element in lower levels, mainly levels I', II' and III' in the case
inquiry [12]. Level VII' inquiring, being a system, of the physical and biological sciences. The Level
is not haphazard: it has its own rules and require­ IV' inquiring system is regarded as legitimate by
ments [2]; training and facilitation is possible [27, many social scientists, and is used intuitively, but
36, 44] ; and the process and its results can be of viewed with discomfort, by natural scientists. The
better or poorer quality. For example, the extent of Level V' inquiring system produces knowledge
preparation and the length of time and intensity of which is sustained by personal (ethical) commit­
incubation affects quality. However, what is most ment, and is therefore essential for the growth of a
evident and of great social importance is whether social science which can influence practitioners. The
the quality of expression of the results permits the Level V' system is also the basis of education [24].
holistic and aesthetic nature of the output to be At Level VI', an inquiring system exists to check
appreciated by others. the validity of all inquiring systems, but not un­
A contemplative approach to inquiry is inap- naturally it finds the Level VII' inquiring system
 20 W. Kinston

unmanageable-calls it 'God', denies its existence, the scope of this paper. However, the existence of
or argues that it is beyond study. Such metaphorical homology can be illuminated, and our present
throwing of the hands in the air is undesirable. inquiry furthered, by isolating and examining the
Contemplative methods can be studied and con­ core testing processes which lie at the heart of the
jectures about the system, such as those produced various inquiring systems.
in this paper, may be useful and are amenable to
testing [5].
CORE TESTING PROCESSES

Hierarchy alld homology The aim of the core testing process (VJ) is to
Testing is, in essence, an inquiry into inquiry; and produce a generalization grounded in reasonable
this is the logical basis of the nested arrangement. If argument (VI') which can be gllarameed 10 be
it is accepted that inquiry is hierarchical, then IIl1erly Irue in so far as this is humanly possible and
inquiry into inquiry will also be hierarchical. The meaningful. The core testing processes can be used
inquiring system hierarchy would therefore be to develop generalizations unrelated to the immedi­
expected to be in the image of the originating hier­ ate needs of any particular situation in so-called
archy, and parallels are readily noted. For example: pure inquiry. Pure testing leads to an impressive
Level r forms concepts, while Level l' depends on degree of rigour by restricting the sphere of interest
ideas; Level II forms things, while Level II' depends and activity to particular forms of representation,
on empirical observation; Level III compares and a restriction often not possible or appropriate in the
assigns value or preference, while Level III' depends world of human action. Table 2 indicates the usual
on comparing alternatives; Level IV makes com­ criticisms and possible dangers (Column 7) and
parisons generalizable and precise, while Level IV' the restriction on applicability (Columns 6 and 8)
depends on a precise general comparison, the generated when these core processes are imposed
opposite; Levels V and V' both complete the lower on the world of action. The social world, therefore,
levels reflexively and promote action; Level VI tests is not ideal for generating truth: for example, using
the results of inquiry, while Level VI' tests the very knowledge to aid decision-making in a situation
• methods of testing by which results are obtained; is scientifically problematic because situations are
Levels VII and VII' are both imaginative, creative then irreversibly altered and checking by replication
and unbounded. is impossible.
However these parallels or symmetries do not The philosophical justification for each practical
mean that the two hierarchies are homologous, or inquiring system is based in the corresponding pure
even if homologous, that they are of identical type. testing process. Making inquiring solely serve the
Clearly the two hierarchies are of different types. purpose of representing suggests a simple reflexive
The framework of inquiry is overtly an integrated focus of the pure testing processes on the original
and holistic structure, each level heavily and immedi­ framework of inquiry. For each level within the
ately dependent on the others above and below, framework, it appears that a core testing process
whereas the various inquiring systems appear as re­ which places utmost faith in that particular level of
latively discrete and independent, even antagonistic representation can be developed and articulated.
to each other and anti-hierarchical. This auton­ Figure I shows the core testing processes in relation
omy of inquiring systems may, however, be more to the framework of inquiry as well as to the
apparent than real as all depend on the same associated inquiring systems.
framework of inquiry. Scientists overtly operat­ The principal characteristics of the varieties
ing within any inquiring system implicitly depend (levels) of core testing processes, applicable to both
on or appeal to others in the course of their work. the physical and social sciences, are summarized in
Homology is of greater significance than type, Table 3. As noted earlier, it may be misleading,
because it refers to the identity of whatever con­ when it is not a matter of epistemological imperi­
stitutes the essence of the superficial phenomena alism or political expedience, to use terms that
being compared. In this case, the identity (if pre­ characterize one level at other levels. Language
sent) would be based in the abstract properties of improvement, though difficult and contentious, is
the hierarchical structure: the number of levels, the important [55], and a possible division of the essen­
abstract qualities of the levels, and the relation of tial terms used at the various levels is offered. The
the various levels to each other. Some of these have discussion below assumes conversance with the
been referred to, for example, each structure main issues.
appears to divide into a lower five-level set of con­ At Level J', the source of certainty resides in
crete and practical le\"els and a higher two-level conceptualizing (I). Concepts are defined (or pos­
set of abstract and theoretical levels. Such abstract tulated) using other concepts, and axioms are
properties are a study in themselves and beyond developed based on these. The scientific products
 A total framework for inquiry 21

Core lestlng processes undertylng Inquiring syslems [IS]

,....--
Level D' lma9inatJve insight guarantees Contemplative IS

Level n' Philosophical analysis guarant��s Oial09ic IS

Level :31:' System modelling guarantees HoUstfc IS

- Level IlZ:' Oialectlcal analysis (/IJCranfe�s Olatectic IS

Level m' Hypothesis testinll gucrrmtees Synthetic IS

Level II' Empirical illVestiqatian guarantees Empirical IS

Level I' Mathematico-lo9/cal reasoning guarantees Formal-analytic IS

-

Framework of inquiry

Level ::lZlI Wondering

Level JZI Testing I-

I-
Level :31: Rel ating

Level IlZ: Me asuring

Level m Comparing

Lil"/el II Observing

Level I Conceptualizill9

Fig. I. 'Framework ofInquiry' indicating hierarchical levels and the relation between core testing processes
and the practical inquiring systems. Note that the hierarchy or testing processes and corresponding inquiring
systems lie wholly within Level VI of the framework and reflect its levels. The framework is in a single
box indicating its holistic nature. The inquiring systems are in discrete boxes reflecting their separateness.

which result from manipulating concepts and axi­ appeal of empiricism as the way to truth rests on
oms deductively are called theorems. The whole its appeal to sacrosanct external facts and their
process is termed mathematico-logical reasoning, apparent freedom from subjective imposition or
and a theorem is assessed by criteria of proof, There distortion. In the associated empirical inquiring sys­
are a variety of starting points and hence distinct tem, the use of facts may be forcefully extended
branches of mathematics. Because of the tightly beyond what is obviously given by sensory per­
defined tautological framework, a theorem, in prin­ ception, e.g. in much organization research facts
ciple, is eternal and unchanging-hence the appeal may be constructed rather than sensed, and even
of rationalism as the way to truth. However, G0del apparently straightforward data may be disputed
showed that proof is a weaker notion than truth [50].
because any complex mathematical system is now At Level JIT', the source of certainty resides in
known to contain undecidable propositions of comparing alternatives (III). Data are not simply
undoubted significance [16]. In the associated for­ given by the world. but taken from it on the basis
mal-analytic inquiring system, the use of ideas and of explicit or implicit concepts-ruplu might be a
reasoning may be forcefully extended e.g. by better term [30]. However these concepts are also
deducing complex notions like an authority relation not simple, being themselves abstracted from obser­
from the basic properties of work [42], or by styl­ vations and experience. Specified observations (or
izing issues to suit mathematical techniques as in 'variables') are therefore regarded as 'indicators' of
much operational research [13]. 'constructs' which are themselves unreachable. In
At Level II', the source of certainty is facts (rn, the process of hypothesis testing, alternative ex­
that is to say, data (Latin: git-en) produced by planations or conjectures are entertained and evi­
direct sensory perception. In the process of empiri­ dence is produced as to which description of the
cal investigation, data are systematically collected world is preferable. The product of such inquiry is
and correlated. Resultant regularities or associa­ called a theory. Theories are changeable, and an
tions, when generalized using induction, produce important criterion as to whether a general proposi­
a law, e.g. Hooke's law, law of multiple proportions. tion is a theory or not lies in the possibility of
Hence laws, like theorems, are inherent in their falsifying it. However, because theories are both
origins. The data correlation and the law are inherent in reality (due to their fact base) and
assessed by criteria of verification. Laws, once imposed upon it (by their explanatory quality),
developed, endure-even though the regularity decisive falsification is no easy matter. The indices
frequently disappears if the conditions vary. The o.r controls used in falsification may always be chal-
22 W. Kinston

lenged and auxiliary explanations developed for

results. The paradox at this level is that certainty
is increased-paralleling the increased certainty of
Le'vel III representation-but only by abolishing
any guarantee of truth. As Popper puts it: ·The
empirical basis of objective science has then nothing
,5 "absolute" about it. .. , The bold structure of its
-5 theories rises, as it were, above a swamp' [48, p.
.� '�
c:
I IIJ. Although error is now guaranteed, reality may
e be approached in a piecemeal evolutionary fashion.
..

-g In the associated synthetic inquiring system,"the

use of comparisons may be forcefully extended to
complex alternatives such as different ways of run­
ning a hospital, or even a national economy, where
controls and indicators are difficult if not impossible
to establish with confidence.
Hypothesis testing (III') is now believed to be the
cornerstone of modern scientific method. However,
because many scientists do not naturally incline to
the 'method of multiple working hypotheses' [7],
they must present a facade of hypothesis testing
while engaged in other modes of inquiry, most com·
monly objective fact-finding(II') or the defense of
an embattled theoretical position (v.i. IV'). This
may be due to explanation and hypothesis testing,
like comparing (III), being inherently subjective.
The subjectivity of hypothesis testing resides in such
personal decisions as selecting which questions are
soluble, which conjectures deserve testing and
which data require notice. These decisions depend
in the end on the scientists's judgement or 'personal
skill' [471.
The next level approach is dialectical analysis
(IV'), which, like measurement (IV), is based on a
precise, stringent and general form of comparison
and can be developed objectively in relation to any
generalization under scrutiny. The comparison,
..

�
c which serves as the source of certainty in this inquir­
8 ing system, is the alternative which is precisely the
opposite of the generalization-and therefore is
recognizable within it. The inquiring process here
demands first, the development or recognition of a
conflict between a generalization, called a thesis,
and its opposite, called the olllithesis; and then a
s)'lllhesis of these opposites via the development of
a new principle. This principle is itself a thesis and
the process potentially repeats itself leading to
growth of knowledge. Principles are imposed on the
thesis-antithesis and, if they resolve the conflict by
..
their strength and appeal, they endure. even when
� superseded by new syntheses. For example, the con·
c..
flict between hereditary and environmental effects
on individuals, both forceful and fruitful theses
(theories at Level III'), has been superseded by
interactional conceptions. However the conflict
between physical and emotional (or personal) bases
of mental illness has not been synthesized. Which
 A total framework for inquiry 23

side is taken in the battle between thesis and antith­ and meaning are crucial elements, largely alien to
esis depends on personal preference, need, and the origins 9(systems analysis and systems design,
intuition; and also on the elegance and economy of which still· tend to be bypassed in the associated
the arguments. Observation is irrelevant except in holistic-interdisciplinary inquiring system.
so far as it is shaped and selected for the preferred At Level VI', the source of certainty resides in
thesis. The researcher finds that support for either the act of testing itself (VI), that is to say. in a
one of the opposing conceptions has implications framework of fundamental assumptions provided
for funding and for his career and professional by rational discussion. Inquiring is carried out by
relationships. Opposing scientific conceptions, even a process of philosophical analysis, much as
when concerned with purely physical phenomena' described earlier. The key activity is one of ratiocin­
like light or the origin of the Universe, develop ation and discourse, based on the assumption that
cultural value as source metaphors for use in society in the end the human mind can, indeed must, com­
at large. In other words, values pla y as large a part prehend reality. The products of ratiocination are
in physical science as social science, but the)' are cone/usions, which are judged reflexively according
minimized ill the former because they are not the to whether they are reasonable. Conclusions are
subject oj inquiry. In the associated dialectical imposed on reasoning, and yet believed to be
inquiring system, the ideas in conflict may be too inherent in it. Hence the major conclusions of phil­
rapidly identified with the values of individuals and osophy are perennial. Even when proved incorrect
groups, rather than seen as opposed in themselves. or partial, they are useful objects of study, exem­
Synthesis and consensus in this case often develops plifying a world-view and indicating the eITOrs into
by formulating a compromise, rather than by devel­ which a reasonable person may fall. Just as other
oping an encompassing principle. levels contain aspects of lower levels suitably modi­
At Level V', the source of certainty resides in fied. so philosophical analysis can be recognized as
relations (V). Inter-relations are identified, and based in analytical (rationalist), empirical,
these create a hierarchic structure composed of the synthetic, dialectic or systemic assumptions and
elements in the relations and the whole formed by methods, or some combination of these.
the relations. This whole is termed a system, and Philosophical analysis may be reflexively turned
the process of inquiring is termed system modelling. on to the systems of pure inquiring themselves,
The scientific product is a model which aims to because each represents a fundamental world-view.
represent the structure of relationships. Models like Such a reflection generates a nested hierarchy within
theories change over time, sometimes rapidly as Level VI' which homologously parallels the nested
previously ignored factors demand inclusion. Sys­ hierarchy within Level VI. The reflection appears to
tem modelling is reflexive in that it may operate generate the principal divisions of pure philosophy,
within any one of the lower levels, e.g. it is mean­ which are distinct from applied or practical philo­
ingful to speak of modelling a system of math­ sophy discussed earlier. These divisions may be
ematics, or of developing an empirical model; or a briefly summarized as follows:
model may use a mixture of concepts, data, laws,
Level I' inquiring when subject to philosophical ratiocination
theories and principles, e.g. modelling the past and leads to statements about the nature of being. i.e. gener-dtes
future development of the Universe [4]. In model­ metaphysics. Scrutiny of Level II' assumptions poses impor­
tant questions of how we can be sure that a sense impression
ling. a system is imposed on the elements and
is what it appears to be, i.e. it provides the impetus for epis­
relations. Because reality is believed to inhere within temology. The relation between the realms of ideas (I) and of
systems, the elements themselves are regarded as things (tl) and the validity of structures that mediate such
relations. assumed at Level m·. is the subject mailer of
systems, and the system itself is regarded as an
olll%g)". Scrutiny of Level IV' assumptions leads to ques­
element of a higher-order system. The end result is tioning the bases of adherence to any thesis and the criteria
an urge to sweep in variables and attempt to model for developing conflict or judging its resolution. all of which
a completely inter-connected reality as an ultimate are mailers of social and personal value, i.e. rooted in aesthet­
ics. Level V· assumptions of complete interrelationship and a
system of systems. This is the vision presented by systematic comprehension of totality leads to questions of
Churchman as Singerian inquiry, and the basis of intervention and hence to ethics. Scrutiny of Level VI' assump­
tions leads to the study of language and argument or formal
ideological claims to scientific supremacy by many
phi/o.wphy, to which much modern philosophy has retreated.
adherents to system theory [33]. System modelling Finally scrutiny of Level VII' assumptions leads to mystical
might be considered to be best suited to handling philosophy. most noticeable in oriental philosophies such as
the real world, because the real world is dealt with Taoism and Buddhism, which comprise descriptions or the
direct experience orthe nature or enlightenment and its impli­
via representation, and only system modelling sup­ cations for being. knowing. Ih·ing. valuing. thinking. relating
ports all varieties of representation. However, sys­ ami other aspects or existence.
tem modelling is vulnerable to omission of key
elements. Despite the efforts of workers like At Level VII', the source of certainty rests in the
Ackoff and Churchman, human intention, feeling imaginative process itself, which involves sustained
24 W. Kinston

identification of the inquirer with an unbounded has been proposed and illustrated, but not dem­
totality. The underlying assumption is that the mind onstrated fully. As an example, the twin uniquely
is identical to the universe; and hence the whole or human qualities of reason and imagination have
any part of the Universe can be comprehended by been formally located within the two highest levels
entering the proper state of mind. The product may of both hierarchies, stimulating and guiding prac­
be referred to as a ret'elation or enlightenment or tical action 'at lower levels and thereby providing
more colloquially as a 'flash of insight'. A flash hope for the creation of a worthwhile future.
needs to be assessed in its own terms, that is to say
Acknowledgemenu-This paper would not have been wrillen
according to whether or not it is indeed inspired
without the stimulation of Stephen Sinnoll and the general
or no more than an act of self-delusion removing assistance, persistent encouragement and critical comments of
confusion and doubt but contributing nothing. The Ralph Rowbottom. In addition, Jimmy Algie provided hc:lpful
emergence of inspired awareness is not uncommon clarification on a number of points.

in scientific endeavour, but after subsequent testing

and digesting at lower levels, it tends to become lost
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