Lecture 2: Electrostatic Fields I

Lecturer: Scribes:

Note: LaTeX template courtesy of UC Berkeley EECS dept.

Disclaimer: These notes have not been subjected to the usual scrutiny reserved for formal publications.
They may be distributed outside this class only with the permission of the Instructor.

2.1 The force between two charged particles

The vector form of Coulomb’s law is used for the calculation of the force between two charged particles.
The formula given below assumes the particles have the same sign. If not one should be substituted with a
negative sign. Furthermore, it calculates the force on charge Q2 , F2 , in the direction a12 exerted by charge
Q1 .

Q1 Q2
F2 = 2 a12 (2.1)
4π0 kr2 − r1 k

Figure 2.1: Force between alike charges (Figure from (William2012))

Here, r1 is the position vector of Q1, r2 is the position vector of Q2 and a12 is the unit vector in the
−r1
direction of R12 . Therefore a12 = krr22 −r 1k
The force on charge Q1 by Q2 , F1 , has the same magnitude but
it is opposite in direction.
Exercise Two charges QA = −20µC and QB = 50µC are located at (−6, 4, 7) and (5, 8, −2) respectively in
free space. If the distances are given in meters, find the vector force exerted on QA by QB .

2-1
2-2 Lecture 2: Electrostatic Fields I

2.2 Electric field intensity E

When there exists a charged particle Q1 at a fixed location, it exerts a force on any charged particle which
resides around it. The force Q1 exerts on a unit charge is defined as the Electric field intensity. The Electric
field intensity E, at a distance R along a unit vector aR exerted by a charge of Q can be calculated using
the equation below.

Q
E= aR (2.2)
4π0 R2

If multiple charges are there the resultant electric field intensity can be calculated using the vector addition
of electric fields at a particular point.
Example
A charge of −0.3µC is located at (25, 30, 15) (in cm), and a second charge of 0.5µC is at (10, 8, 12) cm. Find
E at (15, 20, 50)cm.

2.2.1 Electric field intensity around an infinite line of charge

If we have an infinitely long line of charge with a line charge density of ρL C/m, the intensity of the electric
field does not change with the azimuth or in the direction of the line charge (i.e. if the line charge is along
the z-axis the field does not change with z). The first is called the azimuthal symmetry and the latter is
called the axial symmetry. The electric field intensity around this line of charge only changes with the radial
distance ρ from the this line of charge. The formula for the calculation of the electric field is given below:

ρL
E= aρ (2.3)
2π0 ρ

As one can see, here the electric field intensity is inversely proportional to the radial distance unlike the case
of point charge. This is different from the case of point charge where the electric field intensity is inversely
proportional to the square of the radial distance.
Exercise Two infinite uniform line charges of 5nC/m lie along the (positive and negative) x and y axes in
free space. Find E at: (a) PA (0, 0, 4); (b) PB (0, 3, 4).

2.2.2 Electric field around an infinite sheet of charge

If an infinite sheet of charge with surface charge density ρS C/m2 is placed in the yz plane, the field intensity
does not change in the directions of y and z axes. It only changes in the direction of the x axis. The formula
for the the electric field intensity in this scenario is given below:

ρS
E= aN , (2.4)
20

where aN is the vector normal to the sheet of charge.

Exercise Three infinite uniform sheets of charge are located in free space as follows: 3nC/m2 at z = 4,
6nC/m2 at z = 1, and −8nC/m2 at z = 4. Find E at the point: (a) PA (2, 5, 5); (b) PB (4, 2, 3); (c)
PC (1, 5, 2); (d) PD (2, 4, 5).
Lecture 2: Electrostatic Fields I 2-3

2.3 Electric flux and electric flux density

Electric flux is the measure of flow of an electric field through a given area. Electric flux density is the
electric flux per unit area. Electric flux is measured in Coulombs. Electric flux density is given the letter D

2.4 Gauss’s Law

“The electric flux passing through any closed surface is equal to the total charge enclosed by that surface.”
Let us assume a cloud of point charges surrounded by a closed surface. Let Ds be the flux density on the
surface at an infinitesimally small surface area ∆S. This surface area is a vector. Then the flux passing
through ∆S is given by the dot product of Ds and ∆S. The flux Ψ coming out of the entire surface can be
obtained using the following integral on the closed surface.

Figure 2.2: Calculating flux (Figure taken from (William2012))

˛
Ψ= Ds dS (2.5)
S

The Gauss’s law for a closed surface containing a charge density ρv can be represented using the below
equation.

˛ ˚
Ds dS = ρv dv (2.6)
S vol

Exercise Given the electric flux density, D = 0.3r2 ar nC/m2 in free space: (a) find E at point P (r = 2, =
25o , = 90o ); (b) find the total charge within the sphere r = 3; (c) find the total electric flux leaving the
sphere r = 4.

2.5 Continuity equation

Consider a physical flow of something, for example a water flow.Then, let us analyze this flow in an in-
finitesimal cube of volume dV considering the flow through each side of this cube. Let the flow of water be
2-4 Lecture 2: Electrostatic Fields I

Figure 2.3: Elemental volume (figure taken from (Web1) )

represented by a vector field a(x, y, z), which has the magnitude equal to the flow of mass through a unit
area normal to a(x, y, z) = ax (x, y, z)~i + ay (x, y, z)~j + az (x, y, z)~k in a unit time. In the Cartesian coordinate
system this infinitesimal volume dV can be represented by the product dxdydz.
First let us consider the face which is perpendicular to y axis and pointing outward towards the negative y
direction. This face has an area dS = −dxdz~j. The component of the vector field perpendicular to this face
is:

a · dS = −ay (x, y, z)dxdz (2.7)

Then the outward flow from the opposite surface to the surface mentioned before is given by:

 
∂ay (x, y, z)
ay (x, y + dy, z)dxdz = ay (x, y, z) + dy dxdz (2.8)
∂y

∂ay (x,y,z) ∂ay (x,y,z)

Then the total outward flux from these two surfaces are ∂y dxdydz, which is equal to ∂y dV
Similarly, the outward flux from the other surface pairs can also be calculated. Then finally, the total outward
flux from this infinitesimal cube can be given by:

˛  
∂ax (x, y, z) ∂ay (x, y, z) ∂az (x, y, z)
a · dS = + + dV = ∇ · a(x, y, z)dV , (2.9)
S ∂x ∂y ∂z

where S is the total area of the infinitesimal cube.

Therefore, the outward flux from a closed surface can be calculated by integrating the divergence of the
vector field over the entire volume enclosed by that closed surface.
Lecture 2: Electrostatic Fields I 2-5

2.6 Maxwell’s first equation

The flow from unit area above has the same properties as the flux density D. Therefore the following
relationship is true for the infinitesimal volume δV .

div D = ρv (2.10)
Where, ρv is the charge density of the volume enclosed by a closed surface.

2.7 Energy spent in moving a point charge in an electric field

When moving a point charge Q in an electric field E the energy source that moves the charge either expends
energy or gains energy. It can be shown that this energy does not depend on the path taken. It only depends
on the initial and final positions of the point charge. If we assume the movement is in the direction of the
infinitesimal vector dL, the infinitesimal work done is given by −QE · dL. Then by integrating this quantity
from the initial position to the final position, the energy spent or gained can be found as given in the equation
below:

ˆ f inal
W = −Q E · dL (2.11)
init

Exercise Given the nonuniform field E = yi + xj + 2k, determine the work expended in carrying 2 C from
B(1, 0, 1) to A(0.8, 0.6, 1) along the shorter arc of the circle x2 + y 2 = 1z = 1. Then show that the energy
spent moving the charge in a straight line from A to B is also the same.
The expressions for dL in the three different coordinate systems are given below:

dL = dxi + dyj + dzk (2.12)

dL = dρaρ + ρdφaφ + dzaz (2.13)
dL = drar + rdθaθ + r sin θdφaφ (2.14)

Exercise Determine the work done moving a point charge of 1 C in the presence of a line charge of infinite
length (a) In a circular path of radius ρ having the line charge going through the center point (b) In a radial
path going away from the center from ρ = a to ρ = b.

2.8 Electrostatic potentials

The potential difference is defined as the work done moving a positive unit charge from one point to another
in the presence of an electric field. Thus it can be given as below:

ˆ f inal
V =− E · dL (2.15)
init

Then the potential difference VAB (the potential difference between points A and B) is defined as the work
done in moving a positive unit charge from point B to point A.
2-6 Lecture 2: Electrostatic Fields I

ˆ A
VAB = − E · dL (2.16)
B

2.8.1 Potential field of a point charge

The potential difference in moving a unit charge from point B to point A in the presence of an electric field
from a point charge of Q C is given by:

 
Q 1 1
VAB = − (2.17)
4π0 rA rB
We can assume the potential at an infinite distance to be zero. Then, if point B is at infinity the the absolute
potential at point A can be given by:

Q
VA = (2.18)
4π0 rA

Q
The physical interpretation of this is that; Q/ 4π0r
joules of work need to be performed in carrying a unit
charge from infinity to any point at an r distance from a point charge of Q C.
Exercise A 15 nC point charge is at the origin in free space. Calculate V1 if point P1 is located at (2, 3, 1)
and (a) V = 0 at (6, 5, 4); (b) V = 0 at infinity; (c) V = 5V at (2, 0, 4).

2.8.2 Potential of a system of charges

The potential is independent of the path taken. The only thing that matters is the starting point and the
end point. Furthermore, potential field is linear with respect to the charge. Therefore the superposition rule
suggests that the potential field arising from the n point charges to be:

n
X Qm
V (r) = (2.19)
m=1
4π0 kr − rm k

Then the potential from a continuous volume charge distribution of density ρv (r) at point r is given by:

ˆ
ρv (r0 )dv 0
(2.20)
vol 4π0 kr − r0 k

Since the work done only depends on the initial and final points in static fields, no work is performed in
taking a unit charge around any closed path. This kind of fields are Conservative fields. There exist time
varying fields which are Non-conservative.

2.8.3 Potential gradient

´
We know the relationship between the electric field and the potential to be V = − E · dL. Then if we
consider an infinitesimal element of length ∆L along a direction where the electric field is constant, the
increment in the potential difference ∆V is given by:
Lecture 2: Electrostatic Fields I 2-7

∆V = −E · ∆L (2.21)

The vector ∆L can be decomposed into the magnitude and direction and presented as ∆LaL , where aL is
the unit vector in the direction of ∆L. Then, if this unit vector makes an angle θ with the electric field the
above dot product can be given as below:

∆V = −E∆L cos θ (2.22)

Then, if we send this ∆L to zero and take the limit. We can come up with the derivative of V w.r.t the
distance.

dV
= −E cos θ (2.23)
dL

This equation indicates that the maximum positive increment occurs in the opposite direction to E. Fur-
thermore the maximum positive increment in the potential is equal to the electric field.
Then it can be shown that the relationship between the potential and electric field is given by the gradient
operator as shown below:

E = −grad V (2.24)

This grad operator in different coordinate systems is defined as below:

∂V ∂V ∂V
δV = ax + ay + az (rectangular)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂V 1 ∂V ∂V
δV = aρ + aφ + az (cylindrical)
∂ρ ρ ∂φ ∂z
∂V 1 ∂V 1 ∂V
δV = ar + aθ + aφ (sperical)
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ

References
[William2012] W. H. Hayt and J. A. Buck, “Engineering Electromagnetics 8th Edition,” Mc Graw-Hill,
2012, ISBN 978-0-07-338066-7.
[Carter2010] Richard Carter “Electromagnetism for Electronic Engineers,” ,ISBN: 978-87-7681-465-6,
http://bookboon.com/en/electromagnetism-for-electronic-engineers-ebook
[Web1] “Vector Operators: Grad, Div and Curl ”, https://www.cse.iitb.ac.in/ cs749/spr2016/handouts/
jem graddivcurl.pdf