Basic Aircraft Maintenance Training Manual

Module 6 – Materials and Hardware

Module 6
Materials and Hardware
6.10 Control Cables

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Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence

Basic knowledge for categories A, B1 and B2 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable
subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:

LEVEL 1
 A familiarization with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.

LEVEL 2
 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.

LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals and specific examples.
 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply corrective action where appropriate.

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INTRODUCTIONS

Upon completing this section, you should be able to determine the use, breaking strength, and care of wire rope used for rigging.

Cables, used in aircraft control systems, comply with a number of British and American Standards and are 'preformed' during manufacture.
These are made of extra flexible galvanized High Tensile Steel (HTS) or High Tensile Stainless Steel (HTSS) wire. The majority of the cables
used on British Aircraft are of the preformed type, which have the following advantages:

 Resists un-stranding

 Resists kinking

 More easily spliced

 If a wire breaks, it will tend to lie flat.

To form a cable, a number of wires are wound together to form a strand, and a number of strands are wound together to form a cable. The
straight strand running through the centre of the cable is known as the heart strand. Preformed cables are manufactured from either
galvanized carbon steel or corrosion-resistant steel, and are impregnated with friction-preventive lubricant (such as lanolin) during
manufacture. Non-preformed single strand cable may be found on some minor aircraft systems. Aircraft cables are usually classified by
either their minimum breaking load or nominal diameter. It is very rare for a cable to be manufactured by an operator. They are normally
ordered through the aircraft's IPC, and the aircraft manufacturer supplies the cable fully formed with the necessary end-fittings and to the
correct load factor.

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BRITISH CABLE Specifications

NO. OF STRANDS PER

MINIMUM BREAKING LOAD NO. OF WIRES PER STRAND CABLE DIAMETER
CABLES

5 cwt 7 7 0.08 in

10 cwt 14 7 0.12 in

15 cwt 19 7 0.15 in

20 cwt 19 7 0.16 in

25 cwt 19 7 0.18 in

30 cwt 19 7 0.21 in

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AMERICAN CABLE Specifications

NO. OF STRANDS PER

DIAMETER (In) NO. OF WIRES PER STRAND MINIMUM BREAKING LOAD
CABLES

1/16 7 7 480 lbs

3/32 7 7 920 lbs

1/8 19 7 2,000 lbs

5/32 19 7 2,800 lbs

3/16 19 7 4,200 lbs

7/32 19 7 5,600 lbs

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The majority of cables used in British aircraft control systems are of the preformed type complying with British standards. There are two
standards in common use:

 W9 Preformed Galvanized Carbon Steel Wire Rope.

 W11 Preformed Non-Corrodible Steel Wire Rope.

Cables manufactured to British standards are designated by their minimum breaking load in cwt i.e. 5 cwt 10 cwt 15 cwt etc.

American cables are designated by their diameters and a minimum breaking load in lbs (e.g. 1/4"diameter 7000 lbs Galvanized or 6400 lbs
Stainless Steel).

The construction of a cable is such that a number of wires make up a strand (usually 7 or 19 wires) Then 7 strands make up th e cable with
the exception of 3 cwt which only has 4 strands.

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To understanding of the different wire types that are available, the most common wires used for balustrades are 3.2mm 1 x 19, and 3.2mm 7
x 7 wire (also described as 3mm wire). 3.2mm refers to the diameter of the wire, and 1 x 19, and 7 x 7, refers to the construction or lay of the
wire i.e. 1 x 19 wires is made up of 1 single wire with 19 strands, whereas 7 x 7 wire is made up of 7 wires with 7 strands within each wire. The
NCC also mentions the use of 4mm 7 x 19 although we have found very few situations where it would be more practical to use this size and
type of wire as a suitable alternative. The below diagram's demonstrate the construction of each wire type.

CONSTRUCTION

Wire rope consists of three parts: wires, strands, and core. In the manufacture of rope, a number of wires are laid together to form the strand.
Then a number of strands are laid together around a core to form the rope.

The basic unit of wire rope construction is the individual wire, which may be made of steel, iron, or other metal in various sizes. The number

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of wires to a strand varies, depending on the purpose for which the rope is intended. Wire rope is designated by the number of strands per
rope and the number of wires per strand. Thus, a 1/2-inch 6-by-19 rope will have 6 strands with 19 wires per strand; but it will have the same
outside diameter as a 1/2-inch 6-by-37wirerope, which will have 6 strands with 37 wires of much smaller size per strand. Wire rope made up
of a large number of small wires is flexible, but the small wires are easily broken, so the wire rope does not resist external abrasion. Wire rope
made up of a smaller number of larger wires is more resistant to external abrasion but is less flexible.

The core is the element around which the strands are laid to form the rope. It may be a hard fiber (such as manila, hemp, plastic, paper,
asbestos, or sisal), a wire strand, or an independent wire rope. Each type of core serves the same basic purpose-to support the strands laid
around it.

A fiber core offers the advantage of increased flexibility. Also, it serves as a cushion to reduce the effects of sudden strain and acts as a
reservoir for the oil to lubricate the wires and strands to reduce friction between them. Wire rope with a fiber core is used in places where
flexibility of the rope is important.

A wire strand core not only resists heat more than a fiber core, but also adds about 15 percent to the strength of the rope. On the other
hand, the wire strand makes the rope less flexible than a fiber core.

An independent wire rope core is a separate wire rope over which the main strands of the row are laid. It usually consists of six, seven-wire
strands laid around either a fiber core or a wire strand core. This core strengthens the rope more, provides support against crushing, and
supplies maximum resistance to heat.

Wire rope maybe made by either of two methods. If the strands or wires are shaped to conform to the curvature of the finished rope before
laying up, the rope is termed “preformed”. If they are not shaped before fabrication, the rope is termed “non-preformed”. When cut,
preformed wire rope tends not to un-lay, and it is more flexible than non-preformed wire rope. Wire non-preformed wire rope, twisting
produces a stress in the wires; and, when it is cut or broken, the stress causes the strands to un-lay. In non-preformed wire, un-laying is rapid

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and almost instantaneous, which could cause serious injury to someone not familiar with it.

The main types of wire rope used consist of 6, 7, 12, 19, 24, or 37 wires in
each strand. Usually, the rope has six strands laid around a fiber or steel
center. Two common types of wire rope, 6-by-19 and 6-by-37 rope, are
illustrated in views A and B of figure, respectively. The 6-by-19 type of rope,
having 6 strands with 19 wires in each strand, is commonly used for rough
hoisting and skidding work where abrasion is likely to occur. The 6-by-37
wire rope, having 6 strands with 37 wires in each strand, is the most flexible
of the standard 6-strand ropes. For that reason, it is particularly suitable
when small sheaves and drums are to be used, such as on cranes and similar machinery.

The construction of the cable is determined by the number of strands it contains, and the number of wires in each strand. For example a
cable designated as 7 x 19, consists of 7 strands, each containing 19 wires. The two most common forms of construction are the flexible and
the extra-flexible types.

Wire rope is typically constructed of several strands of steel wire, referred to as "outer strands", twisted around a center wire (see below, left).
These twisted wires are then twisted around a core which consists of wire rope or fibers resulting in a very high strength unit. Many wire
rope construction variations are available in the industry. A few of the most popular variations of wire rope are shown below as cross
sections.

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The size of a wire rope is the diameter of the circle which will just enclose all of the strands. The correct method is to measure over any pair
of opposite strands.

CABLE SYSTEM COMPONENTS

There are many components associated with cable systems and a selection is presented here merely for information. They include:

 End-Fittings

 Turnbuckles

 Shackle Pins

 Tensioning Devices

 Fairleads

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 Lock-clad cables

 Pulleys

Cable End-Fittings

Whilst cables were, previously, 'spliced' or 'whipped', to form end-fittings, the majority of modern cables have a 'swaged splice' end-fitting.
Most end-fittings, on control cables, are special-to type and end-fittings such as fork, threaded (internal and external), and ball end-fittings
(refer figure) can be found in various locations. The nominal overall length of a cable will depend on the type of end-fitting which is being
employed.

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Turnbuckles

Turnbuckles are devices which are attached (via internal or external threads) to appropriately designed end-fittings of aircraft cables and are
used to join lengths of cables and to adjust the tension of those cables.

Cable runs that are too tight will make the controls stiff to operate and, conversely, cables that are too slack will make the controls sloppy
and unresponsive.

Turnbuckles are adjusted by the use of a `left-hand' thread in one end of the turnbuckle, and a 'right-hand' thread in the other end (refer to
figure). When the centre part of the turnbuckle is rotated, its length will increase or decrease, and so it will adjust the cable tension.

The groove around one end of the turnbuckle barrel indicates the 'left hand thread'. Once the correct tension has been obtained and
confirmed (using a cable tension meter), the turnbuckle is checked for `safety' (sufficient threads are engaged in the turnbuckle) and the
device is then securely locked.

The spring type of locking clip (used in place of locking wire) can only be inserted into the turnbuckle when the corresponding longitudinal
grooves in the barrel and end fittings are aligned.

When all adjusting and rigging on the cables iscompleted, safety the turnbuckles as necessary. Only two methods of safetying turnbuckles
have been adopted as standard procedures by the armed servicesthe clip-locking (preferred) method and thewire-wrapping method.

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Lock clips must be examined after assembly for proper engagement of the hook lip in the turnbuckle barrel hole by the application of slight
pressure in the disengaging direction. Lock clips must not be reused, as removal of the clips from the installed position will severely damage
them.

The clip-locking method of safetying uses an NAS lock clip. To safety the turnbuckle, align the slot in thebarrel with the slot in the cable
terminal. Hold the lockclip between the thumb and forefinger at the end loop.Insert the straight end of the clip into the apertureformed by
the aligned slots. Bring the hook end of thelock clip over the hole in the center of the turnbucklebarrel and seat the hook loop into the hole.
Applicationof pressure to the hook shoulder at the hole will engagethe hook lip in the turnbuckle barrel and complete thesafety locking of
one end. The above steps are thenrepeated on the opposite end of the turnbuckle barrel.Both locking clips may be inserted in the
sameturnbuckle barrel hole, or they may be inserted inopposite holes.

American Turnbuckles - An American turnbuckle consists of a brass barrel having a left hand thread at one end and a right hand thread at
the other. End fittings may be eye ends, fork ends or swaged on, cable end fittings. A groove on the turnbuckle barrel indicates the left-hand
threaded end.

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The turnbuckle is in safety when not more than three end fitting threads are visible. It is locked using locking wire. Clip type locks may be
used in place of locking wire if the turnbuckle barrel is drilled to accommodate this type of clip. The locking clips are used once only.

Wire-Wrapping Turnbuckles

First, two safety wires are passed through the holein the center of the turnbuckle barrel. The ends of thewires are bent 90 degrees toward
the ends of the turnbuckle, as shown in figure.

Next, the ends of the wires are passed through theholes in the turnbuckle eye or between the jaws of theturnbuckle fork, as applicable. The
wires are then benttoward the center of the turnbuckle, and each onewrapped four times around the shank. This secures thewires in place.

When a swaged turnbuckle terminal is beingsafetied, one wire must be passed through the holeprovided for this purpose in the terminal. It
is thenlooped over the free end of the other wire, and both endswrapped around the shank.

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Shackle Pins

These are used with fork joints, fork ends and other applications
where they take shear loads. They are secured in place with split
pins. While non-standard end fittings are used, a collar may be
placed over the small end and the split pin passed through the
collar and shackle pin.

Shackle pins are made from High Tensile Steel and High Tensile Stainless Steel. H.T.S.S. shackle pins have a dimple at the shank end and/or
the letter 'Z' marked on the head.

The diameter is denoted by a letter starting from A which is 5/32 in and rising by 1/32 in from each letter up to T.

Length is indicated by a number starting with 1 which is 0.25 in and rising 0.050 in per number, and is measured from the underside of the
head to the nearer side of the split pin hole. Example: D9 is 1/4 in diameter, 0.65 in long.

Cable Tensioning Devices

Although the cable tension can be correctly adjusted on the ground that set tension may alter once the aircraft is in flight. This can be due
to the large temperature differentials involved-particularly with larger aircraft, which fly at high altitudes and are capable of experiencing
various climates in one flight - and the consequences of an expanding, contracting and flexing airframe. To overcome these problems a
tension regulator is installed in some control runs.

As previously stated, engineers will use a tensiometer to set and check the tension of a cable.

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The tension regulator is a device which has springs, incorporated within the mechanism, to ensure that the cable tension remains constant,
regardless of the flexing and temperature changes of the airframe.

Cable Tension Regulators can be very dangerous, when disconnecting cable runs, so it is important to ensure that they are locked or
`snubbed', in accordance with the AM M, before any work is done on the controls.

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Cable Fairleads

The cables of a control run must be

supported otherwise they may foul the
airframe structure. They are supported by
fairleads, which are usually made from
fibre. These fairleads should not be
lubricated as this will collect dirt and dust,
which will cause extra wear on the cable
and fairlead. Where a change in direction
of the cable is required, a pulley is
normally used, due to its low friction in
comparison with fairleads. Guards are
fitted to pulleys when the risk of the cable
riding off the pulley is high.

The fairleads, already mentioned, simply

allow the cable to pass through the
bulkheads without chafing. If, however,
the bulkhead is the divider between the
pressure cabin and the outside air pressure, then the fairlead will be designed to be an airtight seal, as well as a cable guide.

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Lockclad Cables

Lockclad is a standard twisted steel wire cable with an aluminium tube swaged around it. This type of cable has two advantages. One is that
the cable's coefficient of expansion is nearer that of the aircraft's fuselage than the standard steel wire cable. With temperature changes,
they expand or contract by almost the same amount.

The other advantage is that Lockclad cable is more rigid. There is less cable sag and fewer supports are needed for a given length of cable.

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Fork Joints

These are used in conjunction with bracing wires, tie rods, tension rod turnbuckles, etc. Identification is as follows:

1. Low Tensile Steel - Plain collar

2. Stainless Steel -No collar or groove
3. High tensile Steel -Groove around collar
4. H.T. Stainless Steel -Groove around shank

Size and nominal thread diameter is determined by a code marked on the shank. Code numbers commence from:

412 which is 4 BA

413 which is 2 BA

For numbers starting from 414, subtract 406 the size being in 1/32 in. The letter R or L added as a suffix indicates left hand or right hand
thread e.g. 420R.

420 =7/16 in. B.S.F.

R =Right hand thread

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Pulleys

Cables that run from the flight deck to the control surfaces require the ability to change direction (possibly a number of times).

If the cable needs to change direction to another angle, the conventional method of a pulley allows this change with little friction. The
example of the elevator flying control run of a simple aircraft has pulleys that can change the direction of the cable through a large range of
angles.

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Standard equipped with full primary flight controls including conventional control sticks and adjustable rudder pedals. Thecontrol surfaces
are operated by a direct mechanical linkage to the control surface deflections.

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BOWDEN CABLES

The Bowden system of control consists of a stainless steel wire, housed in a flexible sleeve or conduit. The control is intended for pull
operation only, with the cable being returned, on release of the control lever, by a return spring. The transmitting end of the cable is
attached to the actuating lever whilst, at the receiving end, the cable is secured to the component to be operated.

The flexible cable is made up of several strands of stainless steel wire with nipples soldered onto the end of the wire. The nipples are of
different shapes, depending on their use. The flexible conduit consists of close-coiled wire, covered with cotton braiding and a waterproof
coating. For long runs, or runs not requiring flexibility, the Bowden cable is fed through rigid metal tubing, which can be bent over large
radius curves if required.

A Bowden cable is a type of flexible cable used to transmit mechanicalforce or energy by the movement of an inner cable (most commonly
of steel or stainless steel) relative to a hollow outer cable housing. The housing is generally of composite construction, consisting of a helical
steel wire, often lined with nylon, and with a plastic outer sheath.

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The linear movement of the inner cable is most often used to transmit a pulling force, although push/pull cables have gained popularity in
recent years e.g. as gear shift cables. Many light aircraft use a push/pull bowden cable for the throttle control, and here it is normal for the
inner element to be solid wire, rather than a multi-strand cable. Usually provision is made for adjusting the cable tension using an inline
hollow bolt (often called a "barrel adjuster"), which lengthens or shortens the cable housing relative to a fixed anchor point. Lengthening
the housing (turning the barrel adjuster out) tightens the cable; shortening the housing (turning the barrel adjuster in) loosens the cable.

The original, standard Bowden cable housing consists of a close-wound helix of round or square steel wire. This makes a flexible housing but
causes the length to change as the housing flexes. Because on the inside of the bend the turns of a close-wound helix can't get any closer
together, the bending causes the turns to separate on the outside of the bend, and so at the centerline of the housing, there must also be
an increase of length with increasing bend.

This housing has several wire strands running in a multiple helix, with a pitch short enough such that bends in the cable are shared by all
strands, but long enough so that the housing's flexibility comes by bending the individual strands rather than by twisting them. A
consequence of a long winding pitch in a support helix is that it approaches the case of parallel strands where the wires are bound only by
the plastic jacket. Housings with a long helix cannot withstand the high compression that is associated with high cable tensions, and on
overload tend to fail by the buckling of the housing strands. For this reason, helical support for brake cables is close wound, while housings
with a longer helix are used for less critical applications. Longitudinally arranged support wires are used in applications such as bicycle gear-
shifting.

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A third type of housing consists of short hollow rigid aluminum or carbon fiber cylinders slid over a flexible liner. Claimed benefits over steel
wire housing include less weight, tighter curves, and less compression under load.

The control fittings are used at each end of the cable to transmit and actuate the movement required. These fittings are the hand levers and
adjustable stops. The illustration shows a simplified set-up of a Bowden cable control, with an operating lever and an adjustable stop. The
double-ended stop is used if the component does not permit access to the stop at that end of the cable.

At points along the conduit, connectors may be found which allow the conduits to be separated for maintenance. Junction boxes are also
used, to permit either more than one input, to actuate a single operating lever, or one input to operate a number of operating mechanisms.

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Teleflex Control Systems

The Teleflex control system differs from most other cable control systems in that, rather than have a pair of cables (both of which operate in
tension only), the Teleflex system allows a single, flexible cable to operate in both push and pull mode, without the need for a return spring.

Examples of the types of systems, operated by Teleflex controls, are engine and propeller controls, trimming controls and fuel valves.
Teleflex controls can also be used to transmit movement from one place to another, such as in a mechanical Flap Position indicator or as

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interlocks between controls and throttles during control lock operation.

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The Teleflex Controlemploys a flexible cable, which operates inside a rigid conduit. This cable has a continuous helix (form like a screw
thread) throughout its length. In most instances this rack engages with the teeth of gear wheels at the transmitting and receiving endsof
the control runs. It is also used as a thread by which various end fittings can be attached to the cable.

(a) Cable
The cable is made of high tensile steel wires, which enable it to transmit both push and pull. The strand core A transmits the pull, whilst
the first wire wrap B transmit the push. A and B are wound in different directions to prevent the cable from twisting under load. A wire
of heavier gauge C, interspaced by three turns of wire D, forms the helix which acts as a bearing surface when working in the conduit
and by which the end of the cable is gripped in the control unit.

(b) Conduit
The flexible conduit consists of a wound wire casing, suitably protected externally. The rigid conduit consists of a number of light alloy
tubes, jointed together by clamps to make up the total length required.
The conduits operate in a similar manner to the Bowden system and are made from copper, aluminium or steel. The linings are of PTFE
on most conduits except in high temperature areas like engine bays.

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(c) Box Fittings

(i) Control end units vary in detail. In the "box" (or wheel) unit at the control end the large wire of the cable C is engaged between the
teeth of the gear wheel and the body of the unit. The gear lever is turned by a hand lever or hand wheel, thus moving the cable into
or out of the box. In some boxes (double entry) the cable engages the pinion for 180 degrees and an outlet it provided for the free
end of the cable, which is protected by a short length of conduit. Theseboxes permit much greater movement of cable.

(ii) Alternatively, the control may consist of a simple

push-pull unit. This is sometimes fitted with a spring-
loaded stop to retain the control in any position; or
sometimes fitted with a spring which returns the control
to its original position when released from operation.
The cable is attached to such a fitting by clamping a
short coil of wire, which is screwed to the cable end,
between two parts of the control knob,

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(iii) At the operating (or terminal) end the fitting may be box type (with gear wheel) or a simple sliding end fitting to which the cable is
attached in a similar manner to that for a push-pull type of control. This final attachment to the component operated could vary,
being either fork end or ball and socket –examples of which are shown.

(iv) A swivelling coupling is sometimes used to allow the sliding end fitting an angular movement; this is used when the lever on the
component scribes an arc.

Manual No. : BCT-0011/M6 For Training Purpose Only Rev. 0: Aug 19, 2015
Airframe Powerplant Copyright by GMF Learning Services
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 Basic Aircraft Maintenance Training Manual
Module 6 – Materials and Hardware

To operate the system, the cable and conduit are connected to control units at each end of the control run and, in between, to other units
and fittings, which are used to direct the run. In many locations, the cables are attached to lever-operated wheel units or to push-pull
handles. At the receiving end of the run, another wheel unit or sliding end-fitting is used to actuate the mechanism.

The Teleflex system allows a variety of controls to operate a wide selection of end-fittings (refer to figure.

Manual No. : BCT-0011/M6 For Training Purpose Only Rev. 0: Aug 19, 2015
Airframe Powerplant Copyright by GMF Learning Services
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 Basic Aircraft Maintenance Training Manual
Module 6 – Materials and Hardware

Manual No. : BCT-0011/M6 For Training Purpose Only Rev. 0: Aug 19, 2015
Airframe Powerplant Copyright by GMF Learning Services
32