Power Supply Design Seminar

Understanding and Optimizing

Electromagnetic Compatibility in
Switchmode Power Supplies
Topic Categories:
Basic Switching Technology
System Level Considerations
Power Supply Construction

Reproduced from
2002 Texas Instruments Power Supply Design Seminar
SEM1500, Topic 1
TI Literature Number: SLUP202

© 2002, 2011 Texas Instruments Incorporated

Power Seminar topics and online power-

training modules are available at:
power.ti.com/seminars

 Understanding and Optimizing Electromagnetic
Compatibility in Switchmode Power Supplies
Bob Mammano and Bruce Carsten

ABSTRACT
Electromagnetic noise issues have long been a concern with switching power supplies, as their high-
frequency switching of voltage and current generate higher order harmonics that have the potential to
cause interference with system operation. While international specifications and standardized testing
procedures have at least provided a greater understanding of the problems, optimum solutions must still
come from techniques that are applied during the design process. This topic attempts to describe the
more significant causes of EMI in power supplies and offer design techniques to minimize their impact.

I. INTRODUCTION
And electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) is
While switchmode power supplies are well
the absence of EMI. Two things follow from this
known and appreciated for their significant
definition. The first is that EMC is a system-level
benefits in reductions to both physical size and
consideration. While it is common to test for
internal power loss, the threat of generating
electromagnetic noise generation from a power
electromagnetic interference (EMI) from the high
supply as a stand-alone box, the ultimate
frequencies inherent in their fast-changing
standards that have to be met apply to the system
voltage and current waveforms has always been a
as a whole with the power supply as an internal
serious concern. As advances in power supply
component or subsystem. And the second aspect
technology have increased switching frequencies,
of this definition of EMI is that it involves three
and allowed these supplies to be used in closer
elements:
proximity to the systems they power, these
concerns – and the demands that designers react • A generator of electromagnetic energy:
to them – have only heightened. Thus, designing (a source).
for electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) has • Transmission of that energy between
become a requirement every bit as important as equipments: (a coupling means).
meeting a given set of power conversion • A receptor circuit whose operation is
performance specifications, and it is the purpose negatively impacted by the transmitted
of this discussion to address some of the more energy: (a victim circuit).
important principles and techniques involved. All three elements must be present for EMI to
First, note that while we have used the terms take place – remove any one and there can be no
EMI and EMC interchangeably, it should be clear interference. However, while shielding or
that one is the inverse of the other. The accepted separation may solve a specific interference
definition of EMI is: the interference of one piece problem by attacking the coupling or
of electronic equipment on the operation of susceptibility part of the system, the preferable
another by means of electromagnetic energy approach is to remove the problem at the source –
transfer. and that will be the thrust of this discussion.

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Texas Instruments 1 SLUP202

 II. UNDERSTANDING EMI One important point to keep in mind on this
subject is that EMI is a very low energy
While it may at times seem otherwise, EMI is
phenomenon! Because it can take an extremely
not a black art. Although often neglected in basic
small amount of energy, induced at the right
circuit design education, and appearing
place in the victim, to upset system performance,
sometimes to be quite complex in practice, the
noise specification limits have been established at
basic principles for both causing and correcting
very small values. For example, at 1 MHz, it
EMI are relatively simple. Fundamentally, it
takes only 20 nW of measured EMI power to fail
requires a recognition of the fields caused by
FCC requirements. This could be experienced
rapidly changing currents and voltages. While
with energy coupling of just a few parts per
these characteristics are quantitatively described
billion. Thus an easy trap to fall into is to
by Maxwell’s equations, we need only to know
discount some possible noise sources as too
that electronic noise may be induced by coupling
insignificant to be worth considering.
between circuit elements through the action of
either a magnetic or an electric field.
III. MEASURING EMI
A magnetic field will cause a changing
current in a conductor to induce a voltage in When we describe a potential noise-
another according to: generating system, the transmission of the noise
out of the system is by either or both of two
e = M • di dt separate coupling paths: as radiated energy from
where M is the mutual inductance between the system itself by way of magnetic or electric
the source and the victim. fields (as described above), or as conducted
Similarly, an electric field will cause a energy flowing in either the input, output, or
changing voltage on a surface to induce a current control lines connecting the system under
to flow in another conductor according to: evaluation to the “rest-of-the-world”, where these
lines can then become secondary radiators. These
i = C • dv dt conducting and radiating EMI noise sources are
where C is the capacitance coupling the considered as separate and distinct and are
source to the victim. typically specified separately when evaluating the
These equations tell us that where we have external characteristics of a definable system.
rapidly changing currents – as in the conductors One helpful characteristic, however, is that the
in series with power switching devices – we can efficiency of noise coupling is frequency
expect to see an induced voltage across other dependent - the higher the frequency, the greater
conductors coupled by a mutual inductance. And the potential for radiated EMI, while at lower
where there is a high dv/dt – as on the drain frequencies, problems are more likely to be
contacts of the power switching FETs – any caused by conducted noise. There seems to be
parasitic capacitance can couple an induced universal agreement that 30 MHz is the crossover
current into another path. While it may not be frequency between conducted and radiated EMI.
very helpful, it should probably be noted that one Most regulating agencies throughout the world
of the most obvious ways to reduce generated have thus established measurement standards
EMI would be to slow down the switching specifying the evaluation of conducted EMI at
transitions, but the cost in increased switching frequencies up to 30 MHz, with a separate set of
losses typically makes this a less viable solution. standards applicable above 30 MHz for radiated
EMI. We will discuss these two types of noise
sources separately, but before doing so, some
additional comparative information might be
helpful.

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 Conducted noise is primarily driven by In the United States, the Federal
current but is measured as a noise voltage by Communications Commission (FCC) owns the
using a 50-Ω current shunt. Moreover, with our responsibility for the control of electromagnetic
discussion herein limited to power supplies, the interference through the Code of the Federal
FCC position is that only the ac input power lines Register (CFR), Title 47. Within this document,
are of concern, since it is here where noise Part 15 controls Information Technology
currents could most readily couple to other Equipment (ITE), Part 18 covers Industrial,
systems through the power distribution network. Scientific and Medical Equipment (ISM), and
While the maximum frequency of interest for Part 68 regulates equipment connected to a
conducted noise is 30 MHz, the minimum telephone network.
frequency limit can vary. In the United States and International EMI specifications have been
Canada, that limit is usually 450 kHz but many led by the International Electrotechnical
international specifications place the lower limit Commission (IEC), which has published a
at 150 kHz. And some telecom specs require European Union generic standard for emissions
testing all the way down to 10 kHz. (EN50081), and the French-led Comité
With radiated noise specifications starting International Spécial des Perturbations
with a lower limit of 30 MHz, the upper limits Radioélectriques (CISPR). This latter body has
can range from a few hundred MHz to 1 GHz or issued their specification - CISPR Publication 22
more. And while conducted noise can be - which is gaining world-wide acceptance and, in
evaluated with not much more laboratory so doing, is applying pressure for FCC
equipment than a spectrum analyzer and a acceptance of the same standards.
coupling device, radiated noise requires the At the time of this writing, noteworthy
measurement of magnetic or electric fields in free differences between the FCC and CISPR
space, causing the testing to become much more specifications include, in addition to some limit
complex. For this reason, radiation testing is value differences, a lower frequency range for
usually performed by a separate, specialized test CISPR conducted noise measurements, and
facility, where variables inherent in the testing radiation tests made at a fixed distance of 10
environment may be very closely defined and meters vs 3 to 30 meters for FCC testing. By
controlled. extrapolating the FCC radiation limits to 10
And speaking of variables, a non-trivial meters (linearly proportional to 1/distance) the
decision that needs to be made right at the comparisons can be better illustrated with the
beginning, is which specification to use. We have frequency plots shown in Figs. 1 and 2. [Ref. 2]
already alluded to the fact that each country has 70
its own set of specifications for EMI, but within FCC

65
this distinction, there are additional determinates CLASS A

defined by product type and usage. For example, 60

CISPR
Voltage - dBµV

some specs define power supplies as “digital

devices” while others combine them with 55

“information technology” specifications. System 50

CISPR
CLASS B
usage also defines “Classes” where Class A FCC
designates industrial and commercial 45

applications, and Class B includes residential 40

usage. Class B limits are typically more stringent 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 1 2 3 5 10 20 30 50 100
Frequency - MHz
under the assumptions that systems made for the
home are likely to be in closer proximity, and Fig. 1. Conducted noise limits,
that residential users typically have fewer options (FCC Part 15 vs. CISPR 22).
available for dealing with EMI.

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Texas Instruments 3 SLUP202
 50
conducted noise on a power line, a device is
Measuring Distance = 10 m
45 FCC needed to separate the high-frequency noise
CLASS A CISPR
signals from the input current, and that device is
40
called a Line Impedance Stabilization Network,
Field Strength - dBµV/m

35 FCC or LISN, and shown schematically in Fig. 3.

CLASS B CISPR LISN
30 Power
Power 50 µH Supply
25 Source Input

20 10 nF
10 20 30 50 100 200 300 500 1000 10 µF to
Frequency - MHz Ground 50 Ω 330 nF*
Fig. 2. Radiated noise limits, To
(FCC Part 15 vs. CISPR 22). Spectrum
* Capacitor value determined by lowest Analyzer
Note that the units in these specifications are specified frequency.
given as dBµV for direct measurements of
Fig. 3. A 120/240 VAC, 60 Hz LISN circuit. All
conducted noise and dBµV/m for field strength
measurements are made with respect to ground.
measurements of radiated noise as sensed with an
antenna. These are decibel values giving the ratio This device allows the use of a spectrum
between the actual voltage measurement and one analyzer to measure the noise current through a
microvolt. The calculation is: 50-Ω source impedance while isolating the
measurement from any high-frequency shunting
 V  which might exist in the power distribution
dBµV = 20 log10  
1.0µV  network. Typically, a LISN network is added to
each of the input power lines and the noise
and it applies to both volts and volts/meter.
signals are measured with respect to ground.
Finally, with all the variables we have been
Conducted noise at the power supply’s input
discussing, we have not mentioned one that you
can be further sub-categorized into two separate
might consider quite important - the operating
modes of current flow: differential mode (DM)
conditions of the equipment under test. The
noise, as measured between the power feed and
reason is that this raises so many other questions
its return path; and common mode (CM) noise
that it defies definition. For example, do you test
which is measured between each of the power
at the highest input voltage where dV/dt will
lines and ground. The contributors to these two
likely be at a peak, or at the lowest voltage,
modes are inherent to the basic operation of a
maximum load where dI/dt will probably be
switching power supply. The action of the
highest? And in the power circuitry, there is one
internal power switches causes rapid dI/dt
current path when the power switch is on and
changes in the differential current at both the
another when it is off, so duty cycle is likely to
input and outputs of the power supply, as
be a variable. As a result, in most cases the
illustrated in Fig. 4. Of course, input and output
operating conditions are left to whatever the
filters ideally would eliminate any high
manufacturer defines as “typical” but suppliers
frequency noise external to the power supply, but
should recognize this as a potential issue in
neither can do the job completely. So residual
correlating data.
ripple and switching spikes exist as a differential
IV. CONDUCTED EMI mode noise source with current flow
bidirectionally into one terminal and out the
We now will delve more specifically into the other.
causes and design implications of each of the two
major categories of EMI, focusing initially on
conducted noise as measured on the power
supply’s input power feed lines. To observe
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Texas Instruments 4 SLUP202
 very simplified form in Fig. 6, which also shows
the application of two LISN devices, in series
INPUT OUTPUT with both the power line input and its return.
NOISE NOISE
Note that both CM and DM modes of current
are present in each LISN but, with the polarities
shown, the power line LISN measures CM +
Fig. 4. Differential mode (DM) noise current is
DM, while the LISN on the neutral return
produced by normal switching action.
measures CM – DM. Both of these quantities are
There are also sources of rapidly changing vector sums and, where necessary, there are
voltage within the power supply which can circuit networks that can be used to separate CM
couple noise through parasitic capacitance to and DM signals,[Ref. 9] but the specifications
earth ground, some of which are shown in Fig. 5. typically do not differentiate. The total noise at
This type of noise in the ground path, which can each input must be measured because, with the
be seen as common mode noise on all power possibility of multiple current paths within the
supply terminals, is measured with respect to power supply, there is no reason to assume that
ground. the values of the CM and DM contributions at the
The paths for both DM and CM noise two inputs are identical.
currents at the power supply’s input are shown in
Capacitive Currents Primary
to Secondary

Input Output
Noise Noise

Chassis Ground Chassis Ground Chassis Ground

Capacitive Currents Direct to Chassis

Fig. 5. Common mode (CM) noise occurs when transients from switching voltages are coupled to earth
(or chassis) ground through parasitic capacitances.
Two LISN Circuits CM
LINE

SMPS OUTPUTS
GROUND DM

NEUTRAL
CM

CM

Spectrum CM and DM add vectorially

Analyzer 50 Ω
EMI (line) = CM + DM
EMI (neutral) = CM - DM

Fig. 6. DM and CM currents at the power supply’s input.

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Texas Instruments 5 SLUP202
 V. MINIMIZING CONDUCTED DM NOISE the power source, and Vout which is the input to
the power supply. In reality the filter provides
The first line of defense against conducted
current attenuation between current at the Vout
noise is the use of filters, but often this is easier
terminal into the power supply, and the current at
said than done. The practical aspects of effective
filter design are reviewed in Figs. 7 and 8, which the filter’s Vin terminal from the power source,
should be referred to in the following discussion. as measured through a LISN 50-Ω source
Some confusion could be created by the impedance. However, either a voltage or a
nomenclature used in Fig. 7. We will analyze the current analysis will yield the same attenuation
filter performance in terms of voltage attenuation performance.
between the VIN terminal, which is connected to
20 µH 20 µH 20 µH
VIN VOUT VIN VOUT VIN VOUT

+ 500 pF ESL 16 nH 500 pF 16 nH 16 nH 16 nH 16 nH

3200 µF

ESR 0.02 Ω 0.08 Ω 0.08 Ω 0.08 Ω 0.08 Ω

+ + 800 µF + 800 µF + 800 µF + 800 µF
(a) Basic Ideal Filter 3200 µF

(b) Actual Filter Circuit Including Parasitics (c) Paralleling Four Smaller Capacitors for Reduced ESL
5 pF

20 µH 20µH
1 µH
VIN VOUT VIN VOUT

50 pF 16 nH 16 nH 16 nH 16 nH 50 pF 16 nH 16 nH 16 nH 16 nH

0.08 Ω 0.08 Ω 0.08 Ω 0.08 Ω 0.08 Ω 0.08 Ω 0.08 Ω 0.08 Ω

+ 800 µF + 800 µF + 800 µF + 800 µF + 800 µF + 800 µF + 800 µF + 800 µF

(d) Reduced Inductor Capacitance, Single Layer Winding. Bypassed Core (e) Adding a Small Second Stage Inductor

Fig. 7. DM noise minimized by a filter design that pays careful attention to component parasitics.
500 pF

500 pF
16 nH

50 pF
4 nH

4 nH

8 nH
5 pF
0
20 µH
3200 µF 0.02 Ω
20 dB 3200 µF
0.08 Ω (b)
1 µH (c) 8 nH
50 pF
Attenuation - dB

40 dB (b)
(e)
(a) 0.02 Ω 500 pF
16 µH 20 µH
(d)
60 dB
(c)
5 pF
80 dB (e) 1 µH

0.02 Ω 50 pF
100 dB 4 nH 20 µH

120 dB
100Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz 1 MHz 10 MHz 100 MHz 1 GHz

Frequency - Hz
Fig. 8. DM filter frequency attenuation vs. circuit configuration.

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Texas Instruments 6 SLUP202
 The first point to remember is that if it is
differential mode noise we are attempting to
combat, the filter must connect across the S
Windings
F
differential lines. In other words, in Fig. 7(a) -
which shows an ideal LC filter in the power line Bobbin

where VIN is the power source and VOUT is the Core

power input connection to the power supply - the

capacitor negative terminal must connect to the
power return line - not ground! And the second
point is that there is no such thing as an ideal
filter that would yield the ideal attenuation curve
shown in Fig. 8(a). The actual filter will include Fig. 9. A single-layer winding reduces capacity
the effects of parasitic capacitance across the but coupling to the core must still be considered.
inductor, and parasitic ESL and ESR in series
with the capacitor, as shown in Fig. 7(b). Using Often, a significant benefit, at minimal added
typical values for these parasitic components, the cost – is to add a small “polishing” inductance
curve in Fig. 8(b) shows that now the filtering between some of the paralleled capacitors. This
action is much less than ideal, and “bottoms out” essentially makes the circuit a two-stage, or
with little more than 60 dB of attenuation. second-order, filter yielding a performance gain
Attacking first the capacitor, it can usually be as shown in Figs. 5(e) and 6(e).
shown that paralleling several smaller capacitors, Before leaving the design of this filter, its
instead of using one large one, may reduce the performance should also be examined from a
parasitic values and achieve some improvement resonance perspective. A simple L-C filter is
such as shown in Figs. 7(c) and 8(c). resonant at its natural frequency:
Recognizing that greater attention to the 1
inductor may also result in reduced parasitics, fr =
Fig. 9 indicates some of these considerations. 2π LC
Parasitic capacitance can be reduced if the design and this has the potential to introduce three
accommodates a single layer winding that additional problems:
achieves maximum spacing between the start and 1. A step application of input voltage could
finish ends of the coil. However, capacity from cause the capacitor voltage to ring to a value that
winding to core must also be considered. Since could approach twice the input voltage, possibly
the core is probably also a conductor, stray damaging a following converter.
capacitance to the core can have the same effect 2. If there is a potential for high-frequency noise
of shunting the winding. By careful control of the on the input power bus, any component of that
winding process, the inductor’s parasitic capacity noise at the filter’s resonant frequency is
can often be significantly reduced, yielding amplified by the “Q” of the filter.
further improvement in filter performance as
3. The effective output impedance of the filter,
shown in Figs. 7(d) and 8(d).
if undamped, rises at the resonant frequency,
raising the specter of oscillations with the input
impedance of a following converter.
For any or all of these reasons, filter damping
may be important. While there are many
approaches to optimizing filter damping, a good
starting point is to add a series R-C across the
filter’s capacitor as shown in Fig. 10.

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Texas Instruments 7 SLUP202
 Undamped Filter
Damping
Components
In this example, we show a single-ended
power stage with a switching FET alternating
L
LINE
between driving a transformer primary and
RD ≈ 2 L
C
blocking its reset voltage of 2 VIN. With a
SOURCE C
POWER
SUPPLY
switching frequency of 200 kHz, one might
CD ≈ C
expect a FET drain voltage swing of 400 V with
RETURN
a rise and fall time of 100 nsec as shown in the
Fig. 10. A damping R-C network may be figure. If, for example, the FET is in a TO-220
necessary to minimize problems caused by filter package mounted on a grounded heat sink with
resonance. an insulating washer, the parasitic capacitance
from drain to ground could be in the 12 – 32 pF
VI. MINIMIZING CM GROUND NOISE range. Using the lower number, and solving for I
The above discussion has been with respect to = C(dV/dt) results in a peak current of +/- 48 mA
optimizing a filter for DM noise, but the same – a not insignificant amount of injected ground
considerations can apply to a filter intended to noise. Fig. 12 illustrates how this injected current
reduce CM conducted noise. As stated earlier, completes its path back to the power lines
CM noise is largely created by parasitic through the two 50-Ω LISN resistors in parallel,
capacitance to ground. A simplified example of thereby creating a noise voltage at each LISN
one of the major problem sources and its output.
potential solution begins with Fig. 11.

+200 VDC 400 V

V 5 µs

100 ns
+48 mA
I 20 ns

IRMS = 9.6 mA
12 pF
–48 mA

(Typical TO-220 insulator capacitance is 12 pF, fs = 200 kHz)

Fig. 11. A typical CM noise source is capacitive coupling of the switching FET’s drain voltage
waveform to a chassis-grounded heat sink.

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Texas Instruments 8 SLUP202
 LISNs SMPS
PWR

12 pF
VN

RET 25 Ω
60 VRMS
600 kHz
VN
400 V
200 kHz
VN 50 Ω 3rd harmonic eqivalent
50 Ω 12 pF noise voltage circuit

ICM

Fig. 12. Current induced in chassis ground has a return path through the LISN output impedance.

The solution for this problem is the insertion Co < 0.17 pF!
of a CM filter in series with the current path and
0.95 mV
its definition is most easily accomplished by 12 pF
419 mH VN
using the equivalent voltage noise circuit also 60 VRMS
shown in Fig. 12. This equivalent circuit is 600 kHz (Xc = 22.1 kΩ) 25 Ω
generated by starting with the 400-V peak-to- (XL = 1.58 MΩ)
(N ≅ 2 X 250T)
peak waveform at the FET’s drain terminal.
Assuming a 50% duty-cycle square wave, the Fig. 13. Achieving 37 dB attenuation with a
rms value of this signal is 200 V at the switching series inductor requires an unrealisticly low
frequency of 200 kHz. Since 200 kHz is below parasitic capacitance.
the FCC minimum specified frequency of
450 kHz, we can ignore the fundamental and look We will then try a shunt capacitor as shown
to the third harmonic - 60 VRMS at 600 kHz - as in Fig. 14 to lower the impedance of the 25 Ω
the most significant contributor to the noise load to get under the 1.0 mV limit. The same
spectrum. This signal yields a noise voltage calculations in this case yield a requirement for
across the paralleled LISN resistors of 760 nF, which could have a parasitic series
approximately 68 mV which, while seemingly a inductance of 93 nH and still meet the attenuation
fairly small value, must be compared with the requirement. While this at least looks viable, we
FCC noise limit of 1.0 mV for Class A products run into another problem in that if the input to
at 600 kHz. (The limit for Class B is even lower this power supply is ac line voltage, there are
at 250 µV.) usually safety specifications that limit input line
To reduce 68 mV to less than 1.0 mV, we capacitors to less than 10 nF.
need to insert a filter that will produce an 12 pF 0.95 mV
(XC = 22.1 kΩ)
attenuation of 37 dB at 600 kHz. One way to VN
accomplish this is with the addition of a series 760 nF
60 VRMS 25 Ω
common mode inductor. Working backwards, we 600 kHz (XC = 0.35 Ω)
can calculate the required inductance from the
reactive impedance we need at 600 kHz as shown ESL < 93 nH
in Fig. 13. However, completing this analysis
would show that, while the required inductance
would be 419 mH, we cannot have more than Fig. 14. Achieving 37 dB attenuation with a shunt
0.17 pF parasitic capacitance across the capacitor requires an unacceptably large value.
inductance. Not likely!
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Texas Instruments 9 SLUP202
 So we finally come to the best solution for a Fig. 16 shows a possible input filter
CM input filter, which includes both inductance configuration combining both DM and CM
and shunt capacitance, but with reasonable values filters. In this figure, the input load power is
for each, even considering expected parasitic shown as flowing from left to right, from the ac
values. This solution is shown in Fig. 15 and is line to the input rectifiers of the power supply.
typically implemented with two windings on a The noise signal, however, is flowing from right
single core wound in opposition such that the to left, from internal sources within the supply
flux caused by the power supply’s dc input back toward the ac line terminals, which are the
current will cancel and not contribute to core external input power connections.
saturation. Of course, in this application the shunt Working from right to left, Cd1 and Ld1
capacitors are connected to ground instead of represent the main DM filter. Cc1 and Lc1 (2 of
differentially. each) form the CM filter for ground noise, with
Co < 66 pF the two windings of Lc1 built onto a single core.
153 mV Cd2 works with the leakage inductance between
0.95 mV
12 pF VN these windings to form a second, higher-
1.07 mH
frequency DM filter element. Ln and Cn form a
60 VRMS 4.7 nF 25 Ω notch filter at the switching frequency with Rn
600 kHz (XC = 56 Ω) (XL = 4.03 kΩ) providing both damping and some spreading of
(N ≅ 2X13T)
the notch width. Finally, Cd3 and Cc2 (2) are often
used for a last cleanup, right at the terminals
Fig. 15. Using both a shunt capacitor and a
where a pair of LISN devices would be
series inductor achieves a solution with practical
connected to evaluate noise performance. These
values for both.
last capacitive elements work against the
A CM input filter may also have to be undefined ac line impedance so their
damped to prevent problems at resonance, but performance, while helpful, is difficult to predict.
since the maximum capacitance is limited, the Additional components, not shown in this figure,
usual approach is to divide the required could be damping networks, transient protectors,
capacitance into two capacitors, and then place fuses, and other application-dependent devices.
an appropriately sized resistor in series with one
of them.
Diff. Mode
Inrush Limiter

Lc1
Cc2 LN
Cd3 Cc1 Cd1
Discharge

Cd2
AC Line
CN

Cc2 Cc1 Ld1 DC Bus

RN
Lc1

Final Cleanup With Common Mode Differential Mode

Line Impedance
Notch Filter for FS

Fig. 16. Multiple filter components are combined in this example of conductive noise reduction
circuitry.

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Texas Instruments 10 SLUP202
 VII. ADDITIONAL CM NOISE SOURCES capacitance, can become CM noise. Properly
applied, electrostatic shields can prevent this by
Before leaving the subject of CM conducted
diverting the coupled noise into the primary
noise, we should mention that the drain terminals
common bus. (As an additional hint, the shield
of the power switches are certainly not the only
could do its job connected to either the high
place where high dV/dt signals might introduce
voltage rail or the return. As a rule of thumb, if
ground noise. Heat sinks are another potential
the power FET dV/dt is greater at turnon than at
problem area, as safety requirements typically do
turnoff, connect the shield to the return, but if
not allow them to be charged to a high voltage
turnoff is faster, then connect it to the positive
potential. If the heat sink is small enough that it
rail.) Alternative shield configurations are shown
can be enclosed within the power supply’s case,
in Figs. 19 and 20.
then connecting it electrically to the circuit
Internal Heat Sink Tied to PCB Ground (return)
common rather than chassis ground may be an Insulators
acceptable solution. Using an insulated
intervening bracket connected electrically to Case at HF AC

circuit common may allow the accommodation of

larger, grounded heat sinks by shunting
capacitively coupled noise to the common rail PCB
where it can more easily be attenuated. These
Bracket Contacting
options are shown in Fig. 17. PCB Ground
The same approach for diverting what might Chassis Grounded
become CM noise away from ground is PCB Mounted Heat Sink
Heat Sink
applicable to transformers by the use of Shielding Heat Sink Bracket
electrostatic shields between the windings, as
Fig. 17. Two heat sink arrangements that divert
shown in Fig. 18. In many power supply designs,
the secondary-side output circuitry is ground capacitively coupled noise to circuit common
referenced, and it therefore follows that any high rather than chassis ground.
voltage ac potential on the primary side, which is
coupled through the transformer by parasitic
Use of Primary Shield
CORE

ALTERNATE
SHIELD
CONNECTION

Unshielded
Correct Incorrect!
Transformer
Fig. 18. Using an electrostatic shield in a transformer can minimize CM noise.

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Texas Instruments 11 SLUP202
 Shielding primary and
secondary windings. Adding a third shield for safety.
Fig. 19. Alternative shield configurations.

Core Core Testing for radiated electromagnetic

compatibility is a much more complex process
than for conducted noise. In the first place,
SEC

SEC
PRI

PRI

because - by specification - we are looking for

signals above 30 MHz, all the test
instrumentation becomes more crucial. Second,
the test environment must be well-controlled,
Basic arrangement of Shielding a floating or which typically means using either an RF screen
PRI and SEC shields. safety grounded core room to shield the test setup from any extraneous
from a HV primary. RF signals from other generators or reflections,
Fig. 20. Positioning shields for maximum or open-air testing in a well-defined environment.
effectiveness. In either case, a knowledgeable operator is vital
in order to obtain reliable data. The type of
VIII. RADIATED EMI antenna and its distance and orientation with
respect to the device under test, as well as a
As we leave the subject of conductive EMI method to sweep all radiating angles, are all
and move on to radiated interference, we should important parts of the test conditions. A
first emphisize that while we treat each type of schematic representation of a radiation EMI test
noise separately, they are not unrelated. In an setup is shown in Fig. 21.
electronic system, particularly a switchmode
Power Source SMPS "Load"
power supply, EMI energy can be transformed
back and forth between conducted and radiated
forms - perhaps even several times - between its Test fixture on
generation and its measurement. If the noise rotating turntable Antenna
energy is conducted in a wire or PCB trace, an
Spectrum
electromagnetic field is created which gives us Analyzer
Antenna on variable
radiated EMI. If there is then mutual inductance height vertical support
or capacitive coupling to another conductor, then
Fig. 21. Measuring radiated noise with an
the radiated energy is transformed back to
antenna.
conducted noise, but now in a different location
in the system. The point is that any conductor can
become an antenna, and an antenna can both send
and receive radiated signals.

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 One potential escape from this problem is a Within the near-field region, an additional
clause in the FCC requirements which states that assumption which is usually valid is that if the
the frequency range of EMI testing is based on source has high voltage and low current, the
the highest fundamental internally generated resultant field will primarily be electric, while
clock frequency, and if that frequency is less than with a high current, low voltage source, a
1.705 MHz, then the maximum test frequency is magnetic field will predominate.
30 MHz. While this might preclude the need for An electric field is produced when switched
radiation testing on most stand-alone power voltages are present on surfaces such as heat
supplies, it is unlikely to be of much benefit sinks or magnetic cores, causing them to act as
when the power supply is combined with its load antennas. Typical locations within a power
and the entire system must be evaluated for EMI. supply where this might occur are shown in
Note that in performing system-level Fig. 22. Electric fields can usually be shielded
radiation EMI tests, the input and output relatively easily by conductive enclosures, where
connections to the power supply need to be the conductive material terminates the field by
included, and it is here where high frequency converting it to current. Of course, there must be
conducted EMI energy might generate an RF a path for this current but, with the enclosure
field and contribute to the total radiated noise. normally grounded, this current merely
For this reason, ac line cords often include a contributes to overall CM conducted noise
ferrite snubber and, if the actual system load is energy where it can be addressed with filters as
not included, the power supply should be loaded previously described.
with passive resistors rather than an electronic
load unless the effects of dynamic loading are an LARGE
objective of the testing program. E E E AREA HIGH
dV/dt
ANTENNAS

IX. COMBATING RADIATED EMI

The contributors to radiated EMI can also be
subdivided into two categories depending upon Fig. 22. Electric fields are generated by surfaces
how the energy is generated. This energy can be with high dV/dt acting as antennas.
from an electric field, which is generated by
dV/dt on conductive surfaces, or from a magnetic Magnetic field EMI energy can emanate from
field which is generated by dI/dt in conductors. a power supply as either stray fields from
The nature of these fields change as the distance transformers or inductors, or as magnetic fields
from the source to the point of measurement which are created when there is a rapidly
increases. At distances close to the source, the changing current flowing in a conductive loop. It
fields are determined by their cause and both is here where internal wiring layout becomes
electric and magnetic fields must be considered very critical as the magnetic field from a current
separately. This region is called the near-field. loop is a function of the inductance that is
Beyond this region (in the far-field) the two determined by the area enclosed by the loop.
fields meld together into a single electromagnetic Fig. 23 shows just one example where the high-
radiation. The boundary between near-field and current secondary leads from a power
far-field distinctions is defined by the wavelength transformer connect to the output rectifiers.
of the noise energy, as λ/2π. When you consider While this is a flagrant illustration of “good” and
that the wavelength of a 1 MHz signal is 300 “bad” practices of handling conductors with high
meters, it is usually safe to assume that most dI/dt, these basic principles should be observed
power supply concerns can be limited to near- throughout the power supply.
field phenomena.

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Texas Instruments 13 SLUP202
 Rectifier Rectifier

Transformer

Transformer
Large Loop Area
With High dI/dt

Wide, Closely Spaced Copper

Straps

Worst case! Much Better!

Fig. 23. Conductors with large loops and high dI/dt make excellent antennas!
High dI/dt
Switching
Loops

I H
I

Stray Transformer and

Inductor Fields

Fig. 24. Magnetic fields must be minimized by design as shielding can be difficult.

Additional power supply contributors to In designing transformers for switchmode

magnetic fields are shown in Fig. 24. Magnetic usage, it is well known that leakage inductance
fields are not as easily shielded - it takes a between primary and secondary windings can be
magnetic material to block a magnetic field and detrimental to electrical performance, but it can
while magnetic material in sheet form exists, it is also contribute significantly to radiated magnetic
(1), very expensive when used for this purpose, fields. Fig. 25 shows a two-winding transformer
and (2), its magnetic properties fade very rapidly wound on what might be an EE or EI core
at the higher frequencies of EMI. However, structure. The leakage inductance generates a
shields of non-magnetic, conductive material can transverse magnetic field between the windings
be used for magnetic fields, but the process is and, while some of this field may be captured by
that the magnetic noise induces eddy currents to the core, the rest acts as a magnetic dipole
flow in the enclosure, which in turn generate a radiating out into surrounding space with an
canceling magnetic field. The catch here is that intensity which decays as the cube of the
there can be no interruption of these eddy distance.
currents - any gaps, joints, or holes in the A change in the winding procedure to
shielding will allow a surprising amount of the interleave the primary as shown in Fig. 26 now
magnetic field to escape, or leak, from the produces two leakage fields with opposite
enclosure. Thus it is far better to combat the polarities. This provides for a significant amount
problem at its source by minimizing current loops of cancellation and the resultant quadrapole field
and containing magnetic fields. falls off with the fourth power of the distance,
and thereby greatly attenuates the radiant energy.

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Texas Instruments 14 SLUP202

 SEC

SEC

SEC

SEC
PRI

PRI
Core P P Core P P

Fig. 25. The transformer leakage inductance field Fig. 26. Sandwiched windings create opposite
for a single primary and secondary is a dipole leakage field dipoles that tend to cancel.
field.

Another technique for reducing stray Inductors are also potential generators of
magnetic fields from a transformer is the use of a stray magnetic fields. Fig. 28 illustrates a poor
conductive “flux strap” (also sometimes called a inductor design with significant stray field caused
“belly band”, “flux band”, or “hum strap”). This by the gaps in the core which are outside the coil
copper band, illustrated in Fig. 27, provides a winding. Changing the core design so that all the
path for the eddy currents that result from the gap is in the center leg, and now fully contained
leakage inductance magnetic dipole. The current within the winding, reduces this source of
flowing in the flux strap then creates an opposing radiated EMI. Fig. 29 shows some additional
magnetic dipole which tends to cancel the inductor designs that can create problems with
original field at close proximity to the stray fields.
transformer.

Core

Coil

Fig. 28. Stray magnetic fields are caused when

Fig. 27. A continuous flux strap around the air gaps are not enclosed by the inductor
transformer further reduces magnetic fields. winding.

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Texas Instruments 15 SLUP202

 Winding

Core

Magnetic fringe field around partial toroidal Drum and rod core fields, good antenna
winding on a distributed gap core. design; poor for EMI.

Fig. 29. Other inductor designs with strong leakage fields.

X. FINAL THOUGHTS XI. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This Topic has attempted to cover the high Much of the material incorporated in this
points of EMI prevention by the use of design presentation was derived from work by Bruce
techniques applied within the power supply. We Carsten, who conducts full one-day seminars on
have described the differences between this subject at both public conferences and
conducted and radiated noise, emphasizing that through private in-house presentations. For
while the solution to conducted noise lies with further information, contact:
effective filter design, radiated noise prevention
is largely influenced by construction techniques.
One issue not discussed is the other side of the Bruce Carsten Associates, Inc.
coin - susceptibility to noise from external 6410 N.W. Sisters Place
sources; but it turns out that in most cases, the Corvallis, OR 97330
best defense is a good offense. In other words, Phone: 541-745-3935
the action taken to reduce the generation of noise FAX: 541-745-3923
often also contributes to reduced susceptibility. E-mail: [email protected]
Finally, there is another “noise reducing”
technique which some have applied to
switchmode power supplies. Since EMI
specifications are written to evaluate noise at
specific frequencies, by using some form of
random modulation of the supply’s switching
frequency, the noise generated by the power
supply is “smeared” or spread out instead of
falling at specific harmonics of a constant
fundamental.[Ref. 8] Since this can greatly reduce
the average energy content at any specific
frequency, compliance with FCC specifications is
certainly eased, but this technique is controversial
over whether it is just exploiting a loophole in the
standards or truly benefiting the system’s EMC.

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Texas Instruments 16 SLUP202

 XII. REFERENCES
[7] Peter Bardos, Predicting the EMC
[1] Mark Montrose, Printed Circuit Board
Performance of High Frequency Inverters,
Design for EMC Compliance, Second
IEEE APEC’01 Conference Proceedings,
Edition, IEEE Press, Piscataway, NJ, 2000.
Anaheim, CA, pp. 213-219.

[2] Henry Ott, Noise Reduction Techniques in

[8] D.A. Stone, B. Chambers, & D. Howe,
Electronic Systems, Second Edition, John
Easing EMC Problems in Switched Mode
Wiley & Sons, New York, 1988.
Power Converters by Random Modulation
of the PWM Carrier Frequency, IEEE
[3] Bruce Carsten, Design Techniques for the APEC’96 Conference Proceedings, San
Inherent Reduction of Power Converter Jose, CA pp. 327-332.
EMI, Powercon 11 Proceedings, Dallas, TX,
1984.
[9] T. Guo, D. Chen, & F. Lee, Separation of
the Common-Mode and the Differential-
[4] Bruce Carsten, Design Tricks, Techniques, Mode Conducted EMI Noise, HFPC 1994
and Tribulations at High Conversion Conference Proceedings, San Jose, CA, pp.
Frequencies, Second HFPC Conference 128-134.
Proceedings, Washington DC, 1987.
[10] Richard Farrington, EMI Characteristics,
[5] Bruce Carsten, H-Field Probes Spot SynQor Application Note 00-08-02, SynQor
Switchmode Supply EMI, PCIM Magazine, Power Supplies, Hudson, MA, January,
September 2001, pp. 24-36. 2001.

[6] David Williams, A Tutorial on EMI

Characterization of Switching Regulators,
IEEE APEC’96 Conference Proceedings,
San Jose, CA, pp. 333-339.

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Texas Instruments 17 SLUP202
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