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9]

Guidelines 2
(AIDAA)
All India Difficult Airway Association 2016 guidelines
for the management of unanticipated difficult
tracheal intubation in obstetrics

Address for correspondence: Venkateswaran Ramkumar, Ekambaram Dinesh, Sumalatha Radhakrishna Shetty1,

Dr. Ekambaram Dinesh,
Department of
Amit Shah 2,3, Pankaj Kundra 4, Sabyasachi Das 5, Sheila Nainan Myatra 6,
Anaesthesiology, Kasturba Syed Moied Ahmed 7, Jigeeshu Vasishtha Divatia 6, Apeksh Patwa 2,3,
Medical College, Manipal Rakesh Garg 8, Ubaradka S Raveendra1, Jeson Rajan Doctor 6, Dilip K Pawar 9,
576 104, Karnataka, India.
Singaravelu Ramesh10
E‑mail: [email protected]
Department of Anaesthesiology, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal, 1Department of Anaesthesiology
and Critical Care, K S Hegde Medical Academy, Nitte University, Mangalore, Karnataka, 2Kailash Cancer
Hospital and Research Centre, Muni Seva Ashram, 3Department of Anaesthesiology and Critical Care,
Vadodara Institute of Neurological Sciences, Vadodara, Gujarat, 4Department of Anaesthesiology and Critical
Care, JIPMER, Puducherry, 5Department of Anaesthesiology, North Bengal Medical College, Darjeeling,
West Bengal, 6Department of Anaesthesiology, Critical Care and Pain, Tata Memorial Hospital, Mumbai,
Maharashtra, 7Department of Anaesthesiology and Critical Care, J N Medical College and Hospital, AMU,
Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, 8Department of Onco‑Anaesthesiology and Palliative Medicine, Dr BRAIRCH, All
India Institute of Medical Sciences, 9Former Professor, Department of Anaesthesiology, All India Institute
of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, 10Department of Paediatric Anaesthesia, Kanchi Kamakoti CHILDS Trust
Hospital, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

ABSTRACT

The various physiological changes in pregnancy make the parturient vulnerable for early and
rapid desaturation. Severe hypoxaemia during intubation can potentially compromise two lives
(mother and foetus). Thus tracheal intubation in the pregnant patient poses unique challenges, and
necessitates meticulous planning, ready availability of equipment and expertise to ensure maternal
and foetal safety. The All India Difficult Airway Association (AIDAA) proposes a stepwise plan for
the safe management of the airway in obstetric patients. These guidelines have been developed
based on available evidence; wherever robust evidence was lacking, recommendations were
arrived at by consensus opinion of airway experts, incorporating the responses to a questionnaire
sent to members of the AIDAA and the Indian Society of Anaesthesiologists (ISA). Modified rapid
sequence induction using gentle intermittent positive pressure ventilation with pressure limited
to ≤20 cm H2O is acceptable. Partial or complete release of cricoid pressure is recommended
when face mask ventilation, placement of supraglottic airway device (SAD) or tracheal intubation
prove difficult. One should call for early expert assistance. Maternal SpO2 should be maintained
≥95%. Apnoeic oxygenation with nasal insufflation of 15 L/min oxygen during apnoea should
be performed in all patients. If tracheal intubation fails, a second- generation SAD should be
inserted. The decision to continue anaesthesia and surgery via the SAD, or perform fibreoptic-
guided intubation via the SAD or wake up the patient depends on the urgency of surgery, foeto-
maternal status and availability of resources and expertise. Emergency cricothyroidotomy must
be performed if complete ventilation failure occurs.
Access this article online

Website: www.ijaweb.org Key words: Cricoid This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
DOI: 10.4103/0019-5049.195482 pressure, difficult airway, Commons Attribution‑NonCommercial‑ShareAlike 3.0 License, which allows
others to remix, tweak, and build upon the work non‑commercially, as long as the
face mask ventilation, failed author is credited and the new creations are licensed under the identical terms.
Quick response code
intubation, high‑flow nasal
For reprints contact: [email protected]
cannula, intubation, modified
rapid sequence induction, How to cite this article: Ramkumar V, Dinesh E, Shetty SR, Shah A,
obstetrics, parturient, Kundra P, Das S, et al. All India Difficult Airway Association 2016
perimortem caesarean guidelines for the management of unanticipated difficult tracheal
delivery, preoxygenation intubation in obstetrics. Indian J Anaesth 2016;60:899-905.

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Ramkumar, et al: Unanticipated difficult tracheal intubation in obstetrics

INTRODUCTION METHODS
The methodology adopted for the development of
Decision‑making during obstetric anaesthesia needs All India Difficult Airway Association (AIDAA)
to take into account the clinical condition of both guidelines including guidelines for anticipated
the mother and foetus, with maternal safety taking difficult tracheal intubation in obstetrics has been
priority over that of the infant at all times. Lessons described previously.[7] A thorough literature search
learnt from the Confidential Enquiries into Maternal was done using databases/search engine (Medline,
Deaths in the United Kingdom as well as reports of PubMed, Google Scholar, and websites of National
anaesthesia‑related maternal mortality in the USA Societies for airway guidelines) till September
have clearly indicated that neuraxial anaesthesia 2016. The articles were manually searched from
is a safer alternative to general anaesthesia (GA) in cross referencing. All manuscripts and abstracts
obstetrics.[1,2] Incorporation of this knowledge into published in English were searched. The key words
anaesthetic management strategies has resulted in a used included ‘cricoid pressure; difficult airway;
dramatic improvement in maternal (as well as foetal) face mask ventilation; failed intubation; high‑flow
safety. Despite this, airway misadventures still occur nasal cannula; intubation; modified rapid sequence
resulting in maternal morbidity and mortality during induction; obstetrics; parturient; perimortem
caesarean delivery. The incidence of failed intubation caesarean delivery; preoxygenation’. For areas that
in the obstetric population is quoted as one in 224 did not have robust evidence, opinions of experts and
anaesthetics in the United Kingdom.[3] This is eight members of the societies were taken regarding issues
times higher than the incidence of failed intubation related to tracheal intubation in obstetrics.
in the general population. Such statistical data are not
available in the Indian context due to lack of similar PREOPERATIVE PATIENT EVALUATION
studies in this patient population.
A detailed medical examination including airway
Pregnancy‑related changes in maternal anatomy assessment is ideally done in the third trimester
such as airway oedema and breast enlargement of pregnancy. One may need to reassess airway
predispose to this higher incidence, especially so anatomy as the parturient approaches term or goes
in the obese parturient. Physiological changes that into labour. It is prudent to examine the neck of the
accompany pregnancy such as decrease in functional parturient scheduled for caesarean delivery to palpate
residual capacity and increased oxygen demand and identify the cricothyroid membrane, should
result in a very narrow margin of safety for the the need arise for emergency cricothyroidotomy.
development of hypoxaemia in the event of failure Obstetric indications for operative delivery and the
to secure the airway. Delayed gastric emptying and foetal condition should be noted. The obstetrician,
decreased lower oesophageal sphincter tone that neonatologist and anaesthesiologist should carefully
accompany pregnancy further add to risks during assess the clinical situation as this can impact the
airway management as a result of regurgitation and decision to continue with surgery to deliver the infant
aspiration of gastric contents. Onset of labour and vis‑à‑vis awakening the mother when faced with a
straining at vaginal delivery can worsen airway situation of failed intubation or oxygenation.
oedema rendering a potentially difficult airway even
more difficult.[4] Coexistence of eclampsia can pose PREOPERATIVE FASTING
additional airway‑related issues. It is also believed
that with fewer general anaesthetics being given for The increased gastric emptying time and increased
caesarean delivery, trainees in anaesthesiology may be intra‑abdominal pressure due to a gravid uterus
getting less clinical exposure to airway management enhance the risk of pulmonary aspiration in obstetric
in obstetrics, making them less familiar and therefore patients. Thus, adequacy of preoperative fasting
more prone to encountering airway management should be determined in any parturient who is
difficulties while managing obstetric patients.[5,6] These scheduled to undergo caesarean delivery. While clear
guidelines should be used in conjunction with ‘All fluids are allowed up to 2 h before surgery, solids
India Difficult Airway Association 2016 Guidelines for are best avoided for 6 h. It is suggested that women
the Management of Unanticipated Difficult Tracheal in active labour or having requested opioid analgesia
Intubation in Adults’.[7] should refrain from solids or semisolids.

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Ramkumar, et al: Unanticipated difficult tracheal intubation in obstetrics

The hormonal imbalance in pregnancy decreases the adequate space between the chin and the upper
tone of the upper oesophageal sphincter, and therefore chest to facilitate the unhindered introduction of
there is always a risk of aspiration in these patients in the laryngoscope blade. A ramped position can
spite of adequate fasting which necessitates the use of be obtained by supporting the back and head of
rapid sequence induction (RSI) in these patients. the patient on pillows and folded sheets such that
the external auditory meatus is at the level of the
PREMEDICATION suprasternal notch. This is particularly important
in the obese parturient.[10] A 20°–30° head‑up tilt
Pregnant women are at risk of acid regurgitation and can provide additional advantage for performing
aspiration (Mendelson’s syndrome) and measures to intubation.[11] Time spent in positioning the parturient
prevent this are essential. The risk of developing acid can facilitate the unhindered introduction of the
aspiration syndrome is related to the pH and volume laryngoscope blade either directly or at a 90° angle
of aspirate, and thus measures must be taken to with the handle facing the shoulder before rotating it
modulate these factors which in turn reduce the risk. into the anatomical position.
Premedication should aim to reduce acidity of gastric
contents, decrease the volume of gastric contents and PREOXYGENATION AND ANAESTHETIC INDUCTION
increase gastric motility.
A thorough airway examination and optimal patient
Intravenous histamine‑2 receptor antagonists positioning should precede the initiation of modified
(ranitidine 50 mg) or proton pump inhibitors RSI. As mentioned earlier, a competent assistant
(pantoprazole 40 mg) help to reduce gastric acidity. who is familiar with the equipment available in the
A gastric prokinetic agent (metoclopramide 10 mg) airway cart should be in attendance and the drugs
enhances gastric emptying and increases lower needed for RSI should be drawn up. The assistant
oesophageal sphincter tone.[8,9] Measures to reduce should also be familiar with the proper technique
gastric acidity should be considered in all parturients of applying cricoid pressure (an initial force of 10
undergoing caesarean delivery as surgery started under Newtons when the patient is awake which is increased
neuraxial anaesthesia may require conversion to GA. to 30 Newtons as the patient becomes unconscious).
Intravenous access should be established and baseline
PREPARATION monitoring including a 5‑electrode electrocardiogram,
noninvasive blood pressure, pulse oximetry and
The operating suite should be made ready for performing capnography initiated.
a caesarean delivery, and a reliable assistant should be
available. The checklist should ensure a functioning Preoxygenation is mandatory and is performed by
anaesthesia machine and suction equipment, a administering oxygen at flows of at least 10 L/min
tilting table, and anaesthetic and emergency drugs for 3–5 min using a well‑fitting mask. A fraction
drawn up in appropriate dilutions in clearly labelled of end‑tidal oxygen of >0.9 is considered to be
syringes. Airway equipment that should be available indicative of adequate preoxygenation.[12,13] As an
includes a range of anaesthesia masks, oropharyngeal additional precaution, the anaesthesiologist should
and nasopharyngeal airways, conventional direct start administering oxygen at 15 L/min through a nasal
laryngoscopes (including short‑handle laryngoscope) cannula and continue doing so till a definitive airway
with Macintosh/McCoy blades, videolaryngoscopes, has been secured.
range of endotracheal tubes, second‑generation
supraglottic airway devices (SADs) and equipment Anaesthesia should be induced using a titrated dose
for emergency cricothyroidotomy. It is reassuring to of an induction agent till the loss of consciousness.
have a difficult airway cart available nearby and a While thiopentone sodium 3–5 mg/kg or propofol
senior anaesthesiologist identified should assistance 2 mg/kg are acceptable induction agents in
be needed. haemodynamically stable patients, etomidate in
a dose of 0.2–0.3 mg/kg may be appropriate in
PATIENT POSITION haemodynamically unstable patients. Neuromuscular
blockade is achieved using succinylcholine
The side profile of a pregnant patient in whom GA hydrochloride 1.5 mg/kg (or rocuronium 1.2 mg/kg in
is to be induced should indicate the presence of situations where succinylcholine is contraindicated).

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Ramkumar, et al: Unanticipated difficult tracheal intubation in obstetrics

While the classical RSI does not allow for active management of the difficult airway recommend that
ventilation, gentle mask ventilation with application of a patient should be notified of their difficult airway
full cricoid pressure (adjustable pressure limiting valve by a written report or letter including a summary
set to ≤20 cm H2O) using small tidal volume breaths of the airway difficulty and airway management,
until complete muscle paralysis occurs can be useful plus a review of the outcome of that management.
to prolong the time to desaturation in parturients. The Canadian Airway Focus Group provides similar
This manoeuvre also provides crucial information guidance. Although the mode of communication may
regarding the ability to mask ventilate should the need differ in each country, AIDAA recommends handing
arise later. Laryngoscopy should be performed using over a summary of the airway difficulty encountered
a conventional laryngoscope or a videolaryngoscope and the subsequent management and outcome to the
as dictated by local practice. If laryngoscopic view parturient and her relatives (airway alert card).
is suboptimal, cricoid pressure should be released
in a graded manner with the laryngoscope in place STEPWISE APPROACH TO MANAGEMENT OF
and external laryngeal manipulation performed with UNANTICIPATED DIFFICULT INTUBATION IN
the idea of improving laryngoscopic view. A good OBSTETRICS
working suction should be available at all times to
deal with regurgitation of gastric contents. Alternate The Algorithm for Management of Unanticipated
laryngoscope blades such as McCoy or Miller blades Difficult Tracheal Intubation in Obstetrics
should also be available. developed by AIDAA is a comprehensive guideline
for the management of failed tracheal intubation
Successful tracheal intubation is confirmed by the in obstetrics, keeping in mind its relevance in
presence of six consistent waveforms on capnography. the Indian context. AIDAA proposes a stepwise
Once correct tracheal intubation has been confirmed approach for the management of tracheal intubation
and the cuff inflated, the assistant can release the in obstetrics [Figure 1]. It is important to remember
cricoid pressure and the tube taped in place before the that while following any step in the algorithm, if the
surgery begins. oxygen saturation is not maintained or starts rapidly
falling or bradycardia develops, one can bypass one
Gentle intermittent positive pressure breaths with or more steps and proceed to rescue ventilation and
the APL valve closed down to  ≤20  cm H2O may be even emergency cricothyroidotomy. This article
permitted for obstetric patients keeping in mind the should be considered as mandatory reading for Indian
low oxygen reserves that are seen in this population. anaesthesiologists whose practice includes obstetrics.
Although the routine use of cricoid pressure during The algorithm is broadly divided into four steps.
RSI for non‑obstetric patients is currently being
questioned, its use in the obstetric subset of patients Step 1
is still considered appropriate. One must remember When intubation is successful at first laryngoscopy,
that application of cricoid pressure can distort the the obstetrician proceeds to deliver the infant.
pharynx and hinder mask ventilation, placement of However, if the first attempt at intubation fails, the
a SAD, laryngoscopy and tracheal intubation.[14] The anaesthesiologist should ‘Call for help’ immediately
anaesthetic assistant should, therefore, be prepared and focus on reoxygenation. Bag‑mask ventilation with
to release the cricoid pressure either partially or the APL valve set to ≤20 cm H2O should be resumed,
completely to facilitate mask ventilation, proper preferably a two‑handed two‑person technique with
placement of SAD and tracheal intubation. Inability use of airway adjuncts such as an oropharyngeal or
to generate adequate tidal volumes should raise the nasopharyngeal airway as deemed appropriate. The
suspicion of overenthusiastic application of cricoid anaesthetic assistant should be instructed to release
pressure. Reduction of cricoid pressure under these the cricoid pressure in a graded manner while the
circumstances usually improves tidal volumes.[15] first anaesthesiologist constantly checks the ability
to ventilate. Should bag‑mask ventilation prove
The communication of information concerning successful, the anaesthesiologist should attempt a
patients with difficult airways is recognised as second laryngoscopy after optimising head/neck
a vital component in avoiding future airway position and releasing the cricoid pressure in a graded
management difficulties.[16] The 2013 American manner. The second attempt at laryngoscopy should
Society of Anesthesiologists practice guidelines for the be performed using a videolaryngoscope, alternate

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Ramkumar, et al: Unanticipated difficult tracheal intubation in obstetrics

Figure 1: All India Difficult Airway Association 2016 guidelines for the management of unanticipated difficult tracheal intubation in obstetrics

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Ramkumar, et al: Unanticipated difficult tracheal intubation in obstetrics

blades and use of a bougie as dictated by availability Step 4

of equipment and expertise. A videolaryngoscope This situation of complete ventilation failure is serious
provides an additional advantage to the assistant and demands emergent management. The team
who can now release the cricoid pressure in a graded should ‘Call for additional help’ and start positioning
manner while observing the impact on laryngoscopic the patient for emergency cricothyroidotomy. Based
view.[17] Should the second attempt at intubation be on the availability of equipment and expertise, the
successful, the obstetrician proceeds to deliver the team can opt for one of the following three options ‑ a
infant. However, should this attempt also fail, this is surgical cricothyroidotomy, wide bore cannula
now a ‘failed intubation’ and one should proceed to cricothyroidotomy or needle cricothyroidotomy (with
Step 2. concomitant use of pressure‑regulated jet ventilation
while maintaining patency of the upper airway). As
Step 2 outlined before, the maternal and foetal condition will
While nasal oxygen continues to be administered determine whether the team proceeds to deliver the
at 15 L/min, the anaesthesiology team now focuses infant or awaken the mother.
attention on placing a SAD to facilitate anaesthesia
and oxygenation. A maximum of two attempts may Failure of emergency cricothyroidotomy can
be allowed in placing a second generation SAD with potentially deteriorate into a maternal cardiac arrest.
graded release of cricoid pressure as described earlier. In the unfortunate event of a maternal cardiac arrest,
Once the SAD is properly placed, the team proceeds cardiopulmonary resuscitation in the form of chest
depending on the foetal and maternal condition. If the compressions is continued with another team member
indication for caesarean delivery was a nonreassuring providing left uterine displacement. Perimortem
foetal status, the obstetrician proceeds to deliver the caesarean delivery performed within 4 minutes of cardiac
infant with anaesthesia being continued through the arrest could enhance chances of foetal survival.[18]
SAD despite a definite albeit low risk of pulmonary
Although a number of guidelines from various countries
aspiration. Once the foetus is delivered, the
exist, AIDAA has embarked on this endeavour to
anaesthesiologist may consider intubating through
formulate guidelines of our own keeping in mind the
the SAD should maternal haemorrhage, imminent
infrastructure and varying standard of care at different
seizures and high risk for aspiration exist. Intubation
healthcare set‑ups in our country.
through the SAD should be done only using fibreoptic
bronchoscopy provided expertise is available. Indian guidelines specially emphasise:
• SpO2 of equal to or more than 95% as a cut‑off
On the other hand, if foetal and maternal conditions for escalating airway interventions
are stable (not warranting immediate delivery of the • Limiting the number of intubation attempts to
infant), the team is advised to awaken the mother. two before proceeding to the next step
The anaesthesiologist can then consider performing • Continuous administration of nasal oxygenation
caesarean delivery under central neuraxial block through nasal cannula to prolong apnoea time
or GA following awake fibreoptic‑aided intubation.
Should placement of a SAD fail after 2 attempts, this is We also aim to enforce a minimum standard of care
now a ‘failed ventilation through supraglottic airway through these guidelines (such as, for instance,
device’ and one should proceed to Step 3. confirmation of tracheal intubation by ETCO2
monitoring).
Step 3
While nasal oxygen continues to be administered at Extubation
15 L/min, one final attempt is made at rescue face Every extubation should be considered as a potential
mask ventilation using optimal technique and airway reintubation, and this is especially true when
adjuncts as deemed appropriate. The anaesthesiologist extubating a difficult airway. A planned extubation
should ensure that neuromuscular blockade is strategy should be ready before extubating a difficult
adequate before making this final attempt at face airway. AIDAA guidelines for extubation deal with
mask ventilation. Should this also fail, the situation strategising extubation and other advance methods
is now that of a ‘complete ventilation failure’ and the of extubation which can be applied in the obstetric
anaesthesiologist should seek urgent expert assistance. scenario as well.

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Ramkumar, et al: Unanticipated difficult tracheal intubation in obstetrics

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