Hindawi Publishing Corporation

Advances in Preventive Medicine

Volume 2015, Article ID 614723, 10 pages
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/614723

Review Article
EEG Derived Neuronal Dynamics during Meditation:
Progress and Challenges

Chamandeep Kaur and Preeti Singh

Panjab University, Chandigarh 160036, India

Correspondence should be addressed to Chamandeep Kaur; [email protected]

Received 22 September 2015; Revised 11 November 2015; Accepted 15 November 2015

Academic Editor: Guido Dietrich

Copyright © 2015 C. Kaur and P. Singh. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Meditation advances positivity but how these behavioral and psychological changes are brought can be explained by understanding
neurophysiological effects of meditation. In this paper, a broad spectrum of neural mechanics under a variety of meditation styles
has been reviewed. The overall aim of this study is to review existing scientific studies and future challenges on meditation effects
based on changing EEG brainwave patterns. Albeit the existing researches evidenced the hold for efficacy of meditation in relieving
anxiety and depression and producing psychological well-being, more rigorous studies are required with better design, considering
client variables like personality characteristics to avoid negative effects, randomized controlled trials, and large sample sizes. A
bigger number of clinical trials that concentrate on the use of meditation are required. Also, the controversial subject of epileptiform
EEG changes and other adverse effects during meditation has been raised.

1. Introduction Metacognitive reasoning could be made by people to predict

the discrepancy between what should be thought and what
Meditation is a broad variety of practices. Meditation is being thought. In [6], various neurophysiologic changes
includes relaxation supporting techniques and various move- on cognition, hormonal, and autonomic systems have been
ments to achieve regulation and nurturing of well-being. theorized while meditating. Evidences reveal the positive
It is defined as the natural process of manipulating one’s effects of meditation as it increases the level of monoamines,
state of mind and self-regulating attention level intentionally, parasympathetic activity, and gray matter density of brain
although it is lacking a clear operational definition [1, 2].
regions (reflecting emotion regulation) and reduces oxidative
Experienced meditators show stronger regulated features.
effects. These effects result in reversal of stress mediated
Analysis of various meditation states has been done to explore
depression. Further research needs to be done in exploring
difficult neural processes. The large and complex neuronal
these changes with large samples in consideration. The
structures turn to more relaxed structures during meditation
spectral power and coherence of EEG define delta, theta, and
[3]. So meditation practitioners show distinct EEG recording
alpha frequency bands to characterize different meditation
patterns. In the beginning of each meditation style, Lutz et al.
states.
have categorized meditation as Focused Attention (FA) and
open monitoring (OM). Travis represented another category Numerous researches have been carried out to scientifi-
as automatic self-transcending according to brain pattern cally explore the principle brain neurological changes during
based EEG bands. These categories define a number of meditation. But neuroelectrophysiology of meditation based
meditation practices [4, 5]. Minimum efforts are required to states is still an open question. A very small number of clinical
reach the state of FA and a steady focus is achieved which is applications of meditation have been identified and those too
evident from less activation in the amygdala [1]. are lacking in control group and concurrent antidepressant
medication group along with shorter follow-up period [6, 7].
Physiological and Neural Correlates of Meditation Ther- Albeit some progress has been made in theorizing the neu-
apy. Meditation practices can change the way of thinking. rophysiological effects under meditation [4, 8–10], evoked
2 Advances in Preventive Medicine

potential, and event related potential research in meditation Time Wavelet Transform. This nonlinear independence anal-
[11], still rationale to quantitatively represent the neural effects ysis identified the dominant alpha epochs in right and left
is not clear. temporal regions.
This review is a noteworthy contribution to review exist-
ing scientific studies and future challenges on meditation 2.1.3. Mindfulness Meditation (MM). Meditators have re-
effects based on changing EEG brainwave patterns. A debate duced physiological arousal and distraction from vague
on the EEG changes during meditation, controversial adverse thoughts. It can be used for treating ADHD [19]. MM can
effects of meditation, and signal processing challenges with induce neuroplasticity from earlier stages in self-referential
future direction has been given below. processing and increased attention to internal and exter-
nal stimulus. Self-referential processing is related to DMN
2. EEG during Meditation (Default Mode Network) [20–24].
This study theorized various state and trait effects of MM
A detailed quantitative analysis of neural effects under the on self-referential processing. Cahn et al. have measured the
effect of various meditation states has been discussed below. effect of Vipassana in terms of decreased delta and relative
Other studies on the EEG effects of meditation could be found increase in theta over the frontal regions, though other usual
in Table 1. changes over alpha, beta, and theta bands have not been
observed. The main limitation of the study was unspecific
effect of meditation practice on different frequencies, which
2.1. Buddhist Meditation. Based on open monitoring, Bud-
should be well understood [24].
dhist meditators are characterized by high amplitude gamma
Ahani et al. [25] advanced the meditation research on
oscillations [1]. A study about the impact of Buddhist med-
MM. They supported the evidence of alpha and theta rise by
itation on emotional processing was presented [12]. There
observing the spectral analysis of recorded EEG. Although
was no difference in psychological testing in experimental
this randomized controlled trial was analyzed using the CG,
and control group (CG). Also, randomized design should be
the study was limited to novice meditators only [25]. Other
incorporated in the study design.
MM techniques of IBMT (Integrative Body-Mind Training)
and TBRT (Triarchic Body Pathway Relaxation) have been
2.1.1. Zen Meditation. Zen meditation, a type of Buddhist explored but still very little information is available and
meditation, is characterized by increase in slow alpha power, large scale considerations of these techniques are required for
reflecting more internalized attention, and fast theta power, expert meditators [26, 27].
reflecting enhanced mindfulness in frontal area [9, 13]. Long-
term practitioners show alpha1 rise in frontal region and beta 2.2. Transcending Meditation (TM). Various physiological
rise over occipital regions [14]. and neural effects in long-term Jacobson’s Progressive Relax-
ation (PR) meditators (a classical method of relaxation), TM
Investigations on FmTheta. During a mental effort, EEG shows meditators, and group of beginners in PR were recorded
a decrease in alpha and this strength goes on decreasing as [28]. Rare theta activity (5–7 Hz) was observed in all the
the task becomes more tedious. However, frontal midline three. Then, a detailed research on TM explained its effects
theta (FmTheta) increases during mental task. FmTheta that could be used for various clinical applications [29].
involves attention levels that appear during mental task and Comparing TM-Sidhi with TM program revealed higher
meditation. It is an indicator of more demonstrative, more frontal alpha1 and beta1 amplitudes and no change in
active, and less phobic activities [15]. It is defined on EEG coherence. Higher alpha1 and beta1 reflect automatic self-
as distinctive theta activity in frontal midline area. A study transcending and open monitoring, respectively. This analy-
was performed on theta signal during concentrative task sis was conducted for frontal and parietal areas. For temporal
(meditation) and consecutive mental task [16]. It refers to amplitude averages, no significant changes were observed
attention maintenance during mental effort. Enhanced theta [30]. Limitation was no CG. It has also been made evident
and constant occipital alpha were observed between FmTheta that TM could be used for stress reduction and improving
conditions and control. Further investigations on FmTheta the symptoms of ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity
can add to the underlying mechanisms of mind and body. Disorder) [31, 32]. In a study, individual and group meditation
effects were analyzed [33]. During individual meditation with
2.1.2. CHAN Meditation. Researchers correlated occipital closed eyes, strong delta coherence and theta coherence and
alpha wave rise during eye closed relaxation and frontal alpha no alpha coherence were observed. Distinct changes in alpha
wave (representing mindfulness) during CHAN meditation. and theta coherence during group meditation show more
A method explored spatial temporal properties of different relaxation reflected by subjects and less delta activity.
alpha maps using microstate analysis in [17]. It reflected In another study, effects of TM on EEG alpha phase
more inward attention than the CG. Another study showed synchrony have been studied [34]. An increase in synchrony
that better cortical interactions are possessed during CHAN was observed around frontal and occipitoparietal lobes by
meditation and Chakra focusing practice than the CG [18]. In a time domain method. It accounts for use of this style of
this study, interactions among various brain networks under meditation for better concentrated neural processes. Event
alpha oscillations have been explored because of Continuous related spectral perturbation (ERSP) analysis of EEG signal
 Table 1: Meditation induced changes in EEG brainwaves.
Author Meditation style Subjects Signal processing Results
Sobolewski et al. [12] Buddhist 26 — ↑ ERP1
Chang and Lo [13] Zen 41 Wavelet Alpha suppression (though more alpha than nonmeditators)
Huang and Lo [14] Zen 23 — ↑ frontal alpha2 and occipital beta3
Kubota et al. [16] So-Soku 25 Spectral analysis ↑ FmTheta (reflecting continuous attention)
Advances in Preventive Medicine

Wavelet decomposition and Mahalanobis

Lo and Zhu [17] CHAN 16 Time period of frontal alpha more than occipital alpha (reflecting calm mind)
fuzzy C-means
Higher lateral interaction of dominant alpha epochs in right and left temporal regions (reflecting more
Lo and Chang [18] CHAN and Chakra focusing 20 Continuous Time Wavelet Transform
inward attention)
(i) State effect: ↑ prefrontal gamma
Berkovich-Ohana et al. [23] MM 12 Spectral analysis
(ii) Trait effect: ↓ gamma over frontal and midline areas
(i) ↓ frontal alpha
Cahn et al. [24] MM 16 ICA
(ii) ↑ frontal theta and gamma (reflecting better synchronized function)
(i) ↑ frontal theta (enhancement of attentional and working memory process)
Ahani et al. [25] MMI 34 Spectral, phase analysis (ii) Minor ↑ in right temporal and occipital alpha
(iii) ↑ beta and EEG synchrony4
Xue et al. [26] IBMT 45 Network analysis ↑ FmTheta
(i) ↑ alpha asymmetry index (measure of positive emotions)
Chan et al. [27] TBRT 19 FFT
(ii) ↑ FmTheta
Warrenburg et al. [28] PR and TM 6 — Rare theta activity (5–7 Hz)
During TM-Sidhi
Travis [30] TM and TM-Sidhi 26 Spectral analysis and coherence analysis (i) ↑ frontal alpha1 and beta1
(ii) No change in coherence
Individual study
(1) Open eyes
(i) Strong coherence in delta and theta5
(ii) ↓ alpha coherence
(2) Closed eyes
slight delta, almost no theta, and significant alpha coherence
Newande and Reisman [33] TM (individual and group study) 10 Time frequency analysis (3) Experienced meditators reflect strong alpha coherence and shift to theta coherence
Group meditation
(1) Open eyes
↑ alpha being strongest, slight more delta and theta coherence than individual study
(2) Closed eyes6
(i) ↑ alpha coherence and theta coherence
(ii) ↓ delta activity
Hebert et al. [34] TM 27 Time domain method ↑ alpha synchrony
(i) Alpha ERS and beta ERS during imagination of hand movement
Eskandari and Erfanian [35] TM 10 Wavelet decomposition
(ii) Alpha ERD during rest
3
 4

Table 1: Continued.
Author Meditation style Subjects Signal processing Results
(i) ↑ theta power
Kjaer et al. [36] Yoga Nidra meditation 8 Spectral analysis
(ii) ↓ alpha power
(i) ↑ theta1, theta2, and alpha1 powers
Aftanas and Golocheikine [37] Sahaja Yoga 20 Nonlinear system theory: DCx
(ii) ↓ beta3 (signifies problem solving and thinking)
(i) Long-Term Meditators: ↑ theta and alpha1 power
Aftanas and Golocheikine [38] Sahaja Yoga 58 FFT
(ii) Short-Term Meditators: alpha2 desynchronization
(i) ↑ frontal theta during deep meditation
Baijal and Srinivasan [39] Sahaja Samadhi 20 Spectral and coherence analysis (ii) ↑ theta coherence
(iii) ↓ theta in parietal
Arambula et al. [40] Kundalini 1 Spectral analysis ↑ alpha on entering meditation
(i) ↑ theta
Elson et al. [44] Ananda Marga 11 —
(ii) Stable alpha-theta band
Ghista et al. [42] Ananda Marga 4 — ↑ alpha
Khare and Nigam [43] Ananda Marga 30 Spectral analysis ↑ alpha and beta
(i) ↑ alpha1
Y.-J. Park and Y.-B. Park [45] PB 58 FFT
(ii) ↓ theta
Tsai et al. [46] Advanced breathing 1 Single time series analysis ↑ bilateral alpha and theta
13
15
Tibetan Buddhists, QiGong, Sahaja
Lehmann et al. [47] 14 Lagged intracortical coherence Lowered interdependence between different functions as shown by delta and beta2 band activities
Yoga, Ananda Marga, and Zen
14
15
Mindfulness breathing and loving 8
Barnhofer et al. [49] FFT Strong left prefrontal activation (reflects strong tendency for motivation and positivity)
kindness 7
Complex Morlet wavelets and Fourier
Vialatte et al. [58] Bhramari Pranayama 8 ↑ frequencies in beta (15–35) and gamma (>35) and increased theta activity
analysis
1: stability towards negative stimuli, 2: more internalized attention, 3: open monitoring, 4: improved functional integration, 5: due to awake, alert, and open eyes, and 6: relaxed and deeper level of meditation.
Advances in Preventive Medicine
Advances in Preventive Medicine 5

during TM practice has been presented for analyzing mind Comparisons to rest group showed useful state effects of both
controllability of brain-computer interaction systems [35]. the styles of meditation. It accounts for their clinical use for
No CG was used for analysis. previously depressed patients, although various limitations
like unspecific factors, small sample size, and novice subjects
2.3. Yoga Meditation. Evidences showed heightened theta were observed in the study [49].
EEG activity during Yoga Nidra and Sahaja Yoga but more
control group designed study is needed [36, 37]. During 3. Controversial Studies
Sahaja Yoga, LTM (Long-Term Meditators) showed higher
theta and alpha1 power and STM (Short-Term Meditators) It has also been reported that meditation has an adverse effect
showed alpha2 desynchronization [38]. EEG mechanisms of predisposing to epileptogenesis panic attacks, overex-
during Sahaja Samadhi (concentrative) meditation reflect cited central nervous system, paradoxical rise in anxiety,
increase in theta power and theta coherence in frontal area becoming more hypercritical, disorientation, and high BP
during deep meditation [39]. Again comparison with CG is [10]. Regarding the use of meditation for high BP, more
required. randomized clinical trials are required that could provide
EEG pattern of a Kundalini Yoga master and Ananda certain results [50]. Some positive effects might become
Marga have been theorized as reflecting more alpha and theta negative if overexpressed in those with individual consti-
band [40–44]. Still very few studies have been conducted for tutional neurophysiological properties [EEG guided med.].
Yoga meditation considering the proficiency levels. Deep meditation gives rise to high frequency gamma band
bursts [51]. The patients with general epilepsy show increased
2.4. Other Meditation Practices. Paced Breathing (PB), which gamma band activity especially 30–50 Hz in resting interictal
is a type of Su-Soku meditation, is a method of voluntary EEG [52, 53]. Epileptiform EEG changes have been theorized
breathing [45]. It causes change in EEG parameters (increase in TM meditators. So some studies accounted for meditation
in low frequency and high frequency alpha power and resulting in epilepsy but some have rejected such claims [51–
decrease in theta power). PB is advantageous compared to 57]. Meditation predisposing to epilepsy is a controversial
other meditative states [45]. subject that requires scientific study.
An oscillatory mechanism of EEG during advanced During Bhramari Pranayama (BhPr), paroxysmal gamma
breathing meditation, a new area to explore, has been studied (PGW) has been observed [58]. Using complex Morlet
in [46]. This finding supported the fact that the internal- wavelets and Fourier analysis, features were extracted as high
ized attention is continuously enhanced and is noteworthy frequencies in beta (15–35) and gamma (>35) and increased
as reported by rise in theta activities, while relaxation is theta activity. BhPr can represent epileptic activity since
prominent only after deep phase of meditation as reported higher frequency epilepsy also exhibits such spiky shape and
by changes in alpha activities [46]. activity in temporal lobe as seen in BhPr [58]. Another study
has brought light to TM as aggravating or treating epilepsy
[59].
2.5. Other Combined Studies. It has been revealed in a study
that electric function connectivity differs in five traditions of
meditation [47]. These are Tibetan Buddhists (TB), Qigong, 4. Signal Processing Challenges
Sahaja Yoga (SY), Ananda Marga Yoga (AY), and Zen [47].
The results have been taken for delta and beta2 bands because Signal processing can add to this field of study [60]. The
all five meditations showed significant changes in these two scalp electrodes, which contain the brain activity in terms
bands. In delta band of TB group, moving out of meditation of electric potentials, give signals which can be processed
showed left to right posterior connection while it showed using SP algorithms to measure different mental activities
anterior left to right posterior connectivity in AY group and to reveal cognitive tasks. The internal language of the
[47]. Such types of guesses evidently become impossible, mind can be understood using different EEG patterns from
for example, Qigong, since it includes a large number of electromagnetic field activity [61, 62]. EEG includes signals
connections. This research shows the common features in five that are associated with awareness, encouragement, and
traditions of meditation but with no CG and it did not explore cognitive load and affecting state of load [63–65].
the difference. Analysis of principal functional connectivities EEG data is characterized by delta, theta, alpha, beta, and
during delta band reflected that interdependence between gamma [66]. A detailed description of assigned EEG bands
different functions is lowered with practicing meditation has been given in Table 2.
irrespective of meditation style and inhibitory and excitatory A pronounced attempt to characterize EEG signatures
(delta and beta2 band activities) brain region connectivities for different types of meditation has been contributed by
show this reduction [47, 48]. Travis and Shear [4]. They have not allocated rating but have
In another study, state effects of two meditation styles, valued the nature of meditation styles. A superior research in
mindfulness breathing and loving kindness (or metta) medi- meditation is still required to categorize the EEG signatures
tation, have been investigated [49]. Effects on prefrontal alpha corresponding to different meditation practices [4, 5].
asymmetry have been discussed. Subjects low in brooding Directly observing the nonlinear and nonstationary EEG
showed response to loving kindness meditation while the raw data in time domain is a very tedious task [67]. So
opposite was observed for subjects with high brooding. various linear and nonlinear signal processing techniques and
 6

Table 2: EEG brainwave frequency bands [4, 70, 78–81].

∗
Frequency bands with subbands Brain regions Characteristics Pathologies
(i) Tendency to be of the highest amplitude
(ii) During deep sleep stages in adults, appear in infants up to
one year
(iii) Slowest brain rhythms (1) Focal delta activity: abnormal indicating lesions
(iv) Minimal conscious brain involved (2) Lower delta power: complex depression, continual
(i) Frontal in adults
Delta (<4 Hz) (v) FIRDA (Frontal Intermittent Rhythmic Delta): 2 to 3 Hz migraine, closed posterior head/neck damage
(ii) Posterior in children
having amplitude 50–100 mV generated frontally, in wake (3) Excess delta activity∗∗ : learning disability, Alzheimer’s
adults needing differentiation from artifacts like slow eye disease, edema
blinks
(vi) OIRDA (Occipital Intermittent Rhythmic Delta): linked
largely with seizures in children
(i) Amplitude 30–60 𝜇V (FmTheta)
(ii) In normal children and infants, in adults during
drowsiness, sleep, and meditation relaxed state
Theta (4–8 Hz)
Medial prefrontal and anterior cingulate (iii) Neural indicator of inner processes requiring In normal awaken adults, very small theta activity but a high
(i) Theta1 (4–6 Hz)
cortex self-management value accounts for pathological conditions
(ii) Theta2 (6–8 Hz)
(iv) FmTheta: theta rhythm of 6-7 Hz centered around 6.5 Hz,
a good indicator of continuous attention, linked with less
anxiety, less phobic activity
(i) Amplitude < 50 𝜇V
(ii) Dominant frequency in adults
(iii) Tasks requiring attention, semantic memory
(iv) Easily seen with closed eyes and under mental inactive
conditions
(v) Lower alpha band (alpha1, alpha2) is an index of
Alpha (8–13 Hz) (i) Posterior on each side of the head
internalized attention
(i) Alpha1 (8–8.9 Hz) with higher amplitude on leading side Alpha coma, a diffused alpha in EEG occurs in coma which
(vi) High alpha band (alpha3) is an index of engagement in
(ii) Alpha2 (9–10.9 Hz) (ii) Faster at posterior, slower at anterior does not respond to external stimuli
task demands
(iii) Alpha3 (11–12.9 Hz) recording positions
(vii) ERD: during bigger task demands, alpha is
desynchronized and theta is synchronized
(viii) Alpha blocking occurs when eyes are opened in a well lit
room. The waves are dominated by fast low amplitude beta
rhythms
(ix) Mu rhythm: alpha activity in sensorimotor cortex
(i) Usually amplitude ≤ 30 𝜇V
(ii) In all age groups in alert and anxious subjects enhanced by
Beta (13–30 Hz) (1) Decreased beta activity: focal lesions, stroke, or tumor
(i) Frontocentral expectation states
(i) Beta1 (13–18 Hz) diffused encephalopathy such as anoxia
(ii) Posterior-occipital in infants which (iii) Beta1 consists of corticothalamic feedback loop that
(ii) Beta2 (18–22 Hz) (2) Excess beta activity during alcoholism along with
shifts to frontal areas as we grow up changes attention level, beta bursts shift the system into
(iii) Beta3 (22–30 Hz) decreased alpha and theta
attention state that allow gamma synchronization
(iv) Beta2 during focused managerial processing
(i) Extremely fast frequency with lowest amplitude
(ii) Provides synaptic plasticity for long-term memory by Sometimes of no clinical interest and filtered out in EEG
Gamma (>30 Hz) Different brain regions
closely tracking the local change in blood flow recordings
(iii) Higher in focused stimuli
∗
Although most researchers use these universally accepted frequency ranges, since frequency varies with age, neurological diseases, brain volume, task requirements, and memory performance, some researchers
use their own range of boundaries.
Also, in some studies, decimal values have been used for defining frequency bands instead of whole numbers.
∗∗
Increased delta activity considered with normal adults performing calculations, reaction time tests in some studies.
Advances in Preventive Medicine
Advances in Preventive Medicine 7

their correlation to physiology have been proposed. Feature classify the restrained states of consciousness is questionable,
extraction algorithms acquire the spectral information from although a pronounced clarification has been contributed
the preprocessed raw signal. by Travis and Shear. Further investigations are required to
Time frequency analysis is beneficial in clarifying rhyth- quantitatively represent the activities during FmTheta and
mic information in EEG signals. Coherence techniques can activities concerning DMN during different styles of medi-
also be used. Spectral covariance or coherence involves tation. For EEG during DMN, the proposed approaches can
measurement of phase regularity between signal pairs in each be cross power spectra techniques, partial coherence function
frequency band. Higher alpha-theta coherence has been iden- computation techniques, and operational architectonics tech-
tified as meditation capability trait which appears intra- and niques. Further studies have been suggested to consider extra
interhemispherical in meditation [68]. As coherence cannot frequency ranges and cross-correlation between EEG signals
separate amplitude information and phase information while [75]. Very few conclusions have been derived regarding the
relating two signals, it measures roundabout phase locking expertise level of Yoga meditation. Neurobiological study
only. Synchrony technique is being used rather than having of various types of Buddhist, Yoga, and other meditations
spectral or coherence analysis. It is quantification of degree styles is still to be explored. Also, meditation predisposing
of phase locking between different narrowband signals [69]. to epileptic seizure as well as some other negative effects is
Linear methods used are ICA (Independent Component a controversial subject that requires technical discussion.
Analysis), CSP (Common Spatial Patterns), LD (Linear Dis- Signal processing can add to this field of study. EEG is the
criminator), and linear prediction method [70]. In other best diagnostic tool to provide firm information about brain
words, a wide range of algorithms extract the information in activities and temporal dynamics related to these activities
EEG signals like algorithms based on Fast Fourier Transform, within millisecond range but if analyzing technique is poor
Hilbert-Huang Transform, Wavelet Transform, rule based it could result in misinterpretation and may ignore certain
expert systems, and numerous other algorithms to define the neural correlates [67]. So it can be said that EEG is misjudged
temporal extents [70–72]. A method based on PBFT (Period highly. More processing tools and engineering approaches are
Based Frequency Tracker) has been proposed to keep track of required to be investigated for exploring EEG information
rhythmic variations of alpha frequencies [73]. Though STFT [76].
(Short Time Fourier Transform) can analyze such spectral Also meditation effects on the brain activity measured by
variations, this method proved better in terms of fairer EEG could be contaminated by the electromuscular artifacts.
frequency resolution [73]. Also, problem of asymmetrical EEG rhythms show 6 times less power in 25–30 Hz band and
periodicity of EEG has been solved reliably and efficiently. 100 times less 40–100 Hz power in paralyzed subjects [77].
The inherent inhomogeneous characteristics and multi- So muscle contamination is an important issue in defining
nature are dealt with using nonlinear signal processing tech- gamma EEG during meditation.
niques on the basis of various parameters, for example, CD
(Correlation Dimension), LLE (Largest Lyapunov Exponent),
and H (Hurst exponent) [70]. Four-channel analysis of EEG 6. Conclusion
has been given for Compressed Spectral Array (CSA), the
running fractal dimension, and running attractor dimension Nowadays, complementary therapies like meditation are
[74]. CSA yields interesting features. The running attractor is starting to be used in clinical practices. Understanding
more efficient in analyzing neural dynamics. Multiscale frac- neuroelectrical effects of meditation is an important area of
tal dimension (MSFD) technique is another area of research research, especially considering the application of meditation
to explain the multiscale temporal patterns of EEG [75]. techniques in clinical practice and therapy. Studies based
Nonlinear methods are better than time domain, frequency on EEG brainwave signals can help medical practitioners to
domain, and linear methods. check the activity level of brain and based on the health
state, different meditation practices can be applied to progress
mental fitness. In this paper, a broad spectrum of neural
5. Future Work and Challenges mechanics under a variety of meditation styles has been
reviewed. A detailed quantitative analysis of various med-
A crisp and consistent observation of a particular EEG itation states like Zen, CHAN, mindfulness, TM, Vipas-
component and its changing direction as either increasing or sana, Kundalini, Yoga, and other meditation styles has been
decreasing for different meditation practices is still required. described by means of EEG bands and coherence. It has
Numerous researches have been carried out to scientifically been concluded that increased independent brain processes
explore the underlying brain neuroelectrical effects during are observed compared to task-free resting during medita-
meditation but still neurophysiological effect of meditation is tion. More rigorous studies are required with better design,
an open question. Though it has been theorized that a typical considering client variables like personality characteristics to
EEG signature of meditation can be increase in theta, alpha avoid risks, randomized controlled trials, long-term effects,
band power, decrease in at least alpha frequency, and spread and large sample sizes. More rigorous clinical trials that
of alpha coherence across cortex, its realization needs further concentrate on the use of meditation are also required.
research [4]. Also finding a comparable nonmeditating group Investigations on further activities can add neuroanatomy to
as a control group is very difficult [11]. The main limitation is explore the mechanisms of mind and body. Signal processing
absence of control group. Whether the changes in EEG signals aspects in the field of cognitive neuroplasticity have also been
8 Advances in Preventive Medicine

discussed. A superior research is still required to categorize BioMed Research International, vol. 2015, Article ID 406261, 11
the EEG signatures corresponding to different practices. pages, 2015.
In summary, highly developed approaches to the research [12] A. Sobolewski, E. Holt, E. Kublik, and A. Wróbel, “Impact
of meditation will scientifically explore the underlying brain of meditation on emotional processing—a visual ERP Study,”
functions which may be beneficial for social well-being. A Neuroscience Research, vol. 71, no. 1, pp. 44–48, 2011.
large scale research has been done to explore the neurophys- [13] K.-M. Chang and P.-C. Lo, “F-VEP and alpha-suppressed EEG-
iologic effects of meditation but still much is to be done to physiological evidence of inner-light perception during Zen
explore this area as suggested by various studies. meditation,” Biomedical Engineering: Applications, Basis and
Communications, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 1–7, 2006.
[14] H.-Y. Huang and P.-C. Lo, “EEG dynamics of experienced Zen
Conflict of Interests meditation practitioners probed by complexity index and spec-
tral measure,” Journal of Medical Engineering and Technology,
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests vol. 33, no. 4, pp. 314–321, 2009.
regarding the publication of this review paper. [15] K. Inanaga, “Frontal midline theta rhythm and mental activity,”
Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, vol. 52, no. 6, pp. 555–566,
Acknowledgment 1998.
[16] Y. Kubota, W. Sato, M. Toichi et al., “Frontal midline theta
The authors would like to thank their faculty members who rhythm is correlated with cardiac autonomic activities during
have given them great suggestions and support. the performance of an attention demanding meditation proce-
dure,” Cognitive Brain Research, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 281–287, 2001.
[17] P.-C. Lo and Q. Zhu, “Microstate analysis of alpha-event brain
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