Summary

Introduction
Every day, in our work and in our leisure time, we come in contact with variety of modern
communication systems and communication media, the most common being the telephone, radio,
television, and the Internet. Through these media we are able to communicate (nearly)
instantaneously with people on different continents, transact our daily business, and receive
information, events that occur all around the world. Can you imagine a world without telephones,
radio, and TV? Yet, when you think about it, most of these modern-day communication systems
were invented and developed during the past century.

Electrical communication systems are designed to send messages or information from a source
that generates the messages to one or more destinations. In general, a communication system can
be represented by the functional block diagram shown in Figure 1.1. The information generated
by the source may be of the form of voice (speech source), a picture (image source), or plain text
in some particular language. A transducer is usually required to convert the output of a source into
an electrical signal that is suitable for transmission. For example, a microphone serves as the
transducer that converts an acoustic speech signal into an electrical signal, and a video camera
converts an image into an electrical signal. At the destination, a similar transducer is required to
convert the electrical signals that are received into a form that is suitable for the user. The heart of
the communication system consists of three basic parts, namely, the transmitter, the channel, and
the receiver and we have to note that every communication channel has noises. There is no ideal
communication channel in the world. But those noises can be minimized by using some techniques
like filters.
Modulation & Demodulation
Modulation is the process of converting your information to a signal that can be transmitted over
a telecommunication channel. Thanks to modulation information can be transmit and receive form
anywhere in the world because normal information like human frequency or low frequency audio
can be only hearable in between few meters but using modulation it can be transmitted around the
world. In modulating, there are three main signals called as carrier signal, message signal (also
called as modulating signal or base band signal) and modulated signal. Whereas message signal
will be a low frequency signal while the carrier signal is being a high frequency, periodic signal.
So message signal and carrier signal both will mix a particular pattern and transmit via a proper
communication channel.

Analog modulation and Digital modulation are the two main techniques in modulation. Analog
modulation refers to the process of transmitting an analog base band signal whereas the digital
modulation is the way of modulating the digital wave. Amplitude modulation(AM), Frequency
modulation(FM) and Phase modulation(PM) are the three sub categories under Analog modulation
while Amplitude Shift Keying(ASK), Frequency Shift keying(FSK) and Phase Shift Keying(PSK)
are the sub categories of digital modulation.

Even though signals were modulated for transmit over long distances, there should be a mechanism
to recover the message signal unless we cannot get back our information because after modulation
our message signal becomes high frequency wave. So the reverse process of modulation is called
as demodulation. Simply it means extracting the original baseband signal from a carrier wave.
Demodulation Methods
Coherent method and non-coherent method

The concept of this method is the knowledge about carrier frequency. In this method, modulated
signal (transmitted signal) is again modulating by using exact carrier wave which already used in
transmitted side to extract the message signal. Simply non-coherent method is other way around.
no need of knowledge about carrier wave to recover the baseband signal. Generally low pass
filters, band pass filters, rectifier diodes and capacitors were available in non-coherent method.
CHAPTER ONE: ANALOG MODULATION

Amplitude modulation & demodulation (Conventional AM)

Objectives

To learn how to construct amplitude modulator, observed the amplitude modulated and
demodulated wave form and to see what are the benefits, drawbacks and application on
amplitude modulation.

Components

 OHM Amplitude Modulation kit

 CRO (or DSO)
 Digital multi-meter
 Set of Patch tips.

Background

Simply AM is varying the Amplitude of the carrier wave with respect to the information signal
while frequency and phase of the carrier stay in constant. AM has been use since the early 90s
mainly in radio communication. Under AM there are few sub categories named as Conventional
AM, DSB-SC, SSB-SC, VSB-SC. Here we mainly focused on conventional AM and it’s also
called as double sideband-full carrier (DSB-FC) or double sideband-with carrier (DSB-WC)
because rest of the things will explain in later parts. Carrier wave and two sidebands are the three
item that have in conventional AM.
Procedure

1. The trainer was switched on and checked the particular DC voltage levels (+12 and -12).
2. The carrier and AF waveforms were seen with the help of CRO from corresponding
generator section.
3. The trainer was fixed according to the wiring graph given by the manual book.
4. By varying the AF amplitude, AM modulation output was observed at modulation
section.
5. Modulation output was connected to the demodulator section which is a diode detector
and observed the demodulated output.
6. Demodulated output was connected to the amplifier section and observed the amplified
demodulated output.
Discussion

Modulation

In figure x shows that the modulation process of conventional AM in time domain and how the
modulated signal varying.

Let’s take information signal as m(t), Carrier signal as c(t) and modulated signal as y(t). Then
according to figure we can clearly identify as s(t)=m(t).c(t) simply the multiplication of m(t) and
c(t).
Demodulation

Here we used special demodulation method called as Envelope detection. Simply envelope
detector is a combinations of a diode, a capacitor, a resistor. In other words, half wave rectifier
followed by a low pass filter.

As in figure x, the input signal contains both the original message signal and high frequency
carrier wave and when it passed through the diode, it eliminates negative portion. After that the
input signal will passed through low pass filter. Due to low pass filter, high frequency carrier will
eliminate. Finally, original message signal can be extracted by using this whole circuit.

In this experiment, a carrier signal and an audio signals are applied to the IC MC146 and the
produced waveform is observed and using digital CRO, have the advantage of saving
photographs of particular graphs which is very important to further analysis.
Conclusion

In amplitude modulation, phase and frequency of the carrier signal is constant and values of the
carrier amplitude changes according to the message signal so in this experiment, the basic
principle of amplitude modulation is learned through procedures carried out. Inputs of the carrier
and information signal are applied to the modulator, and the effect of changing several
parameters such as signals’ amplitude and frequency of the produced AM signal wave form is
observed. There are some benefits as well as drawback from the conventional AM and list of
advantages and disadvantages are given below.

Advantages of Conventional AM

 Transmitting and receiving circuitries are less complex.

 Since they are less complex circuit components are cost efficient.
 Can use envelop detection method to recover the original signal.
 Therefore, receiving process is easy.

Disadvantages of Conventional AM

 Power Waste is high. since the carrier of AM contain most of the transmitted power
which contain no information.
 Conventional AM system is bandwidth inefficient system.
 AM wave gets affected from noise
 AM broadcast operate range in MF – HF.
Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier. (DSB-SC)
Introduction.

As mention in earlier section DSB-SC is kind of amplitude modulation. As clear by its own
name, carrier is not available after modulated and only two sidebands while conventional AM
has carrier wave along with the two sidebands. This is the main difference between conventional
AM and DSB-SC.

Objectives

To learn how to construct a carrier wave generator and the balance modulator, observed the
DSB-SC output and demodulated wave form and to see what are the benefits, drawbacks and
application on amplitude modulation.

Components

 DSB modulator kit.

 C.R.O.
 Set of patching wires.
 A.F.O
 Digital mutimeter

Procedure

1. Switch on the trainer and check the power supply to be +15V.

2. Observe the carrier wave 100 KHz at the second pin of XR2206, with the help of C.R.O.
3. Connect the audio frequency oscillator in the AF input terminal.
4. From RF generator connect RF sine wave to the RF input terminal.
5. Patch the circuit as shown in wiring diagram.
6. Keep the amplitude and frequency of the carrier wave in the maximum state then output
will be very clear.
7. Observe the output with the help of C.R.O and vary the AF frequency until we get the
modulated output.
Background.

Modulation

In figure x shows that the modulation process of DSB-SC both time domain and frequency
domain how the modulated signal varying and its quite similar to conventional AM.
Let’s take information signal as m(t), Carrier signal as c(t) and modulated signal as (t). Then
according to figure we can clearly identify as s(t)=m(t).c(t) simply the multiplication of m(t) and
c(t).

Demodulation

Here we used coherent detection as mention in page noxxx The concept of this method is the
knowledge about carrier frequency. So modulated signal (transmitted signal) is again modulating
by using exact carrier wave which already used in transmitted side to extract the message signal.
According to figure xx we can clearly identify the modulated signal is again modulated by exact
carrier wave.
Example for coherent demodulation, assume that v(t) is the output of multiplier.
witch contain multiplication of modulated signal s(t) and again carrier signal c(t)
Discussion

Advantages of DSB-SC

 Since the carrier is not transmitting the amount of power waste is eliminated.
 Since the two sidebands were transmitted, more efficiency method.
 Therefore, low power is enough to transmit.

Disadvantages of DSB-SC

 For demodulation we have to use coherent detection whereas we need to ask from the
transmitted-end about the carrier wave information.
 Also demodulation process is complex and expensive.

According to above points if we focused on power consumption rather than complexity, DSB-SC
is better solution. Because roughly 2/3 of power can be reduced from conventional AM.
Normally these DSB-SC used to point to point transmission while conventional AM used to
broadcast.
Frequency Modulation(FM) and Demodulation.

Introduction

Simply FM is varying the frequency of the carrier wave with respect to the information signal
while amplitude and phase of the carrier stay in constant. FM has been use since in 1933 and
invented by American engineer Edvin Amstrong, mainly used in radio communication. Since
amplitude stay in constant, any ıncıdent disturbance such as atmospherıc disturbance or man-
made statıc dısturbance may eliminated in frequency modulation.

Background

In figure x shows that the modulation process both FM and AM in time domain and how the
modulated signal varying.
Objectives

To learn how to construct frequency modulator, observed the frequency modulated and
demodulated wave form and to see what are the benefits, drawbacks and application on
frequency modulation.

Components

 OHM Frequency Modulation kit

 CRO (or DSO)
 Digital multi-meter
 Set of Patch tips.
Procedure

1. The trainer was switched on and checked the particular DC voltage levels (+12 and -12).
2. The AF output were seen with the help of CRO at the TL084 IC.
3. The FM output was observed by without connecting AF input.
4. Then observed the carrier output.
5. connected the AF output to the FM ınput and observed the FM output.
6. Here the modulation index can be varied by changing the AF amplitude.
7. Then connected the FM output to the Demodulator input area of PLL IC 565.
8. Finally observed the demod output (else tune the pot and see).

Discussion.
The modulation process is bit of complex. The modulated FM signal is described by,

𝑡
 y(t) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 [𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑓 ∫0 𝑚(𝑡)𝑑𝑡]

 𝑘𝑓 is a constant which is related to corresponding frequency relative to the maximum

frequency deviation Δf

Below example describes the formula for a complex wave after modulation is complicated.
assuming that the message signal is a sinusoidal.

 m(t) = cos (ωmt) ; where ωm = 2πfm which is the modulating frequency.

𝑡 𝑡
 y(t) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 [𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑓 ∫0 𝑚(𝑡)𝑑𝑡] = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 [𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑓 ∫0 cos (ωmt) 𝑑𝑡]

= 𝑐𝑜𝑠[𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝛽 sin(𝜔𝑐 𝑡)] ; where β = Δf / fm is known as the deviation ratio

 y(t) can be expressed as a Bessel series

y(t) = ∑∞
𝑛=−∞ 𝐽𝑛 (𝛽) cos(𝜔𝑐 + 𝑛𝜔𝑚 ) 𝑡

𝐽𝑛 (𝛽) is known as the Bessel function

 y(t) =J0(β) cos(ωc)t + J1(β) cos(ωc+ωm)t + J-1(β) cos(ωc-ωm)t + J2(β) cos(ωc+2ωm)t + J-2(β)
cos(ωc-2ωm)t + ….
Advantages of FM

 All transmitted power is useful no wastage of power unlike conventional AM.

 Therefore, FM is much efficient.
 Noise is lesser than AM.
 Broadcasting range is VHF-UHF.

Disadvantages of FM

 Bandwidth is much higher

 Receiving process is complex
Digital modulation
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Introduction.

ASK plays the role in digital modulation witch similar to AM in analog modulation. With respect
to digital message signal, (1s and 0s) analog carrier wave change its amplitude while keeping the
phase and frequency constant. The simplest and most common form of ASK is called as on-off
keying (OOK) or binary ASK (BASK). In OOK, if the digital signal value is 1 then the carrier
signal will be transmitted otherwise a signal value of 0 will be transmitted.

Background

Modulation

In figure show the modulation process of ASK. Similar to other modulations, multiplication of
carrier and message signal.
Demodulation

In digital modulation, to demodulate we can use either coherent or non-coherent method.

In figure xxx shows the modulation process by using coherent detection and we can clearly
identify the re-modulate using carrier wave while figure xxx shows the modulation process by
using non-coherent detection.

Objectives

Observe the process of modulation and demodulation process of ASK. Studying the advantages,
disadvantages and applications of ASK.

Components

 ASK transmitting kit

 Set of patch tips
 Digital multi-meter
 C.R.O.

Procedure

1. Switch on the trainer and checked the particular DC voltage levels (+5 and -5).
2. Connect the CRO to the output of the carrier signal generator and keep in mind the
frequency.
3. Connect the CRO to the data signal output.
4. Connect the carrier input of the modulator to the carrier signal and data input of the
modulator
5. Then connect the CRO to the output of the ASK modulator after that we can observe the
modulated output at the output terminal.
6. Connect the ASK modulator output to the input of the ASK demodulator and connect the
CRO to output of the ASK demodulator section as well.
7. Finally, we can observe the data signal at the ASK receiver and we can compare the
signal with original signal.
8. And we can try for different frequencies.
Discussions

When we consider about ASK, there are some benefits as well as drawbacks in ASK.

Advantages

 No need large bandwidth.

 Simple recover process.
 To demodulate, can use either coherent method or non-coherent method.
 Use in fiber optics.

Disadvantages
 Not a good format for noise system.
 Not a good format for longer distance communication.
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Introduction

FSK plays the role in digital modulation witch similar to FM in analog modulation. With respect
to digital message signal, (1s and 0s) analog carrier wave change its frequency while keeping the
phase and amplitude constant. The simplest and most common form of FSK is called as binary
FSK (BFSK) where a pair of discrete frequencies are used to transmit binary (1s and 0s)
information. In BFSK, the 1 is called as mark frequency and the 0 is called as space frequency.
Finally, FSK means vary the frequency according to the binary signal.

Objectives
Observe the operations of ASK, modulation and demodulation. Identify the advantages
disadvantages and their applications.

Components
 FSK Trainer kit
 Set of patch tips
 Digital multi-meter
 C.R.O.
Background

Modulation

Figure xxx shows the whole process of FSK modulation. Here two different carrier frequencies
have been made by adding and subtracting Λωc amount of frequency component to the cos(ωt)
original carrier wave. After that original information signal and its inverted version will be
multiplied by particular carrier signal.
Demodulation

As ASK demodulation, both coherent and non-coherent methods can apply in FSK
demodulation.
Procedure
1. Switch on the trainer check whether the power supplies are in correct voltage (+12, -12,
+5)
2. Clock generator output and different data outputs can be observed by the 3rd pin of 555
IC and 7490 pins respectively.
3. then connect as the wıring dıagram and observe the FSK output for different data ınputs.
4. Connect the FSK modulator output to the demodulator section and observe the
demodulator output
5. Vary the FSK demod potentıometer to obtain FSK demod output.

Discussion
Advantages

 Good structure for nosy system.

 Lower probability of error.
 Good for long distance communication.

Disadvantages

 Required lager bandwidth.

Phase shift keying (PSK).
Introduction

Phase shift keying is quite similar to phase modulation (PM) in analog domain. Even though PM
is not used widely in analog communication, PSK is recently using in digital communication.
With respect to digital message signal, (1s and 0s) analog carrier wave change its phase while
keeping the frequency and amplitude constant. BPSK (binary PSK) is the simplest and most
common form of PSK that have two phase types where carrier signal varies within 0 and 180-
degree phase shifts according to 0s and 1s in binary message.

Objectives
Observe the operations of PSK, modulation and demodulation. Identify the advantages
disadvantages and their applications.

Components
 FSK Trainer kit
 Set of patch tips
 Digital multi-meter
 C.R.O.
Background

Modulation.

In phase modulation we have to make sure that we are using bipolar type message signal. If we
have unipolar type message signal, we need to make it as bipolar by adding -1/2 like in figure
eeee. Then only it can use to modulation process. After modulated with the carrier wave the
modulated signal is become as 0.5Acos(ωct) when m(t)=1 and -0.5Acos(ωct). But we can rewrite
it with a 180 phase shift as 0.5Acos(ωct+π).
Demodulation.

Unlike in other digital modulations, there is no non-coherent demodulation method in PSK. Only
way is coherent method. Always we have to use exact replica of carrier signal which already
used in modulation process.

Discussion
In PSK, there are more benefits rather than drawbacks. Like FSK, PSK is also good for noisy
systems and bandwidth is also like ASK. Therefore no need larger bandwidth. But since we need
to use coherent detection for demodulation. Recover process is more complex and not a cost
effective method.
Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK)

Objective
In this project our aim is to identify the process of DPSK modulation and demodulation by
constructing the trainer Kit and observe the output wave form with all inbuilt signals.

Components

 DPSK trainer kit

 AFO (Automatic frequency controller)
 Pitch tips
 Digital multi-meter
 CRO

Procedure

1. Trainer was switched on and check the power supply (+5V, -5V).
2. Patch the cırcuıt as below shown wring dıagram.
3. At the carrier generator section check carrier output from the pin 6 of TL084 IC.
4. And observe the bit-clock output at the pin TL084 IC as well as the data output from D1
to D4.
5. Patch the bitclock, data carrier input to the modulator section.
6. At the pin 3 of 4051 IC, observe the DPSK wave output.
7. By connecting both DPSK output and carrier input to the demodulator section,
demodulated output observed from the 11th pin of 7486 IC.
8. By changing data inputs from D1 to D4, corresponding demodulated output was
observed.
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)

Objective
In this experiment our aim is to observe the behaver of QPSK wave form and identify the
modulation and demodulation process of QPSK and studying the application, advantages and
disadvantages

Component
 QPSK trainer kit
 Digital multi-meter
 CRO
 Set of patch tips

Procedure
1. Trainer was switched on and checked the power supply (+5V, -5V)
2. With the help of Oscilloscope observed the carrier signal at the CLK o/p terminal.
3. Similarly observed the carrier signal with phase difference of 180⁰,90⁰ and 270⁰ with
respect to 0⁰.
4. Then measured the data CLK wave approximately 700Hz at the output of Data CLK
terminal.
5. After that kept the DIP switch as 11110000 and pressed the load switch, then
arround100Hz data output was observed.
6. After, Connected the data CLK to data CLK terminal in the modulator section, observed
mono pulse at the pin 3 of 555 in data generator section.
7. Patch the circuit as shown in wiring diagram 1(refer the Operating Manual).
8. Then we have observed the square wave at the QPSK O/P terminal.
9. Observe QPSK O/P with reference to 180⁰ carrier generator O/P by using following
values in the table. (Connecting DATA 1 to DATA O/P is a high or 1 and connecting
DATA 1 to ground is a low or 0).
DATA 1 DATA 2 QPSK O/P[Reference TO 180⁰]
0 0 0⁰
0 1 180⁰
1 0 90⁰
1 1 270⁰

10. patched the circuit as shown in wiring diagram 2 (refer the Operating Manual). We have
connected modulation output to phase and bit pair detector section and demodulation
section.
11. Observed the phase discriminator output at T5 and pulses at T1 to T4. After that observed
the demodulation output at the DEMOD O/P terminal with respect to data output. By the
way we have to make sure that whenever the trainer is restarted we need to press the load
switch to get data output.
CHAPTER 3: SAMPLING AND RECONSTRUCTION

Pulse Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation

Introduction

In pulse modulation the signal is transmitted by pulses using pulse technique. There are mainly
two pulse modulations classified as Analog pulse modulation and Digital pulse modulation.
Again analog pulse modulation is again classified as,

• Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM)

• Pulse width modulation (PWM)
• Pulse position modulation (PPM)

and the digital pulse modulation is classified as,

• Pulse code modulation (PCM)

• Delta modulation (DM)

Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

This is the basic form of desecrate modulation where the signals modulated by varying the
amplitude of pulses while the width and positions of the pulses are stay constant. Then again
PAM is divided to two categories as natural PAM and flat top PAM. Even though the natural
PAM signal is passed through an low pass filter, it is not easy to recover the signal without
distortion. Therefore to avoid this noise, flat-top PAM is used. In flat top PAM, tops of
amplitude remain flat and this process simplifies the circuit design too.
Objective
To construct the sampling and reconstruction circuit, observe the signals waveforms, and their
applications.

 Components
 sampling and reconstruction trainer kit
 CRO
 Digital multi-meter
 Set of patch tips
Sampling and Reconstruction
Objective
Our aim is to construct sample and reconstruct circuit. Then observe the output waveform and
the applications.

Component
 Sampling and reconstruction trainer kit.
 CRO
 Digital multi-meter
 Set of patch tips

Background

As we all know nowadays modern world is becoming more and more digitalized. So they can
only deal with discrete time signals (DT signals) but most of real world signals are continuous
time signals (CT signals), then we have to make those continuous time signals to discrete time
signals. So discrete time signals are constructed by sampling the continuous time signal whereas
the CT signal is reconstructed by interpolating a DT signal.

Procedure
1. Switch on the circuit and check the power supply (+15V, -15V, +5V[internal]).
2. Patch the circuit as per the wiring diagram.
3. Check the AF signal at the AF generator section with the help of CRO.
4. Using the potentiometer, AF frequency and amplitude can vary.
5. Like wise check the output of the sampling clock pulse and the gate pulse.
6. Similarly, we can change the frequency and the width of the gate pulse.
7. Connect the AF output, sampling clock pulse and the GATE pulse to the input of the
modulator section.
8. Then after connecting P1 we can observe natural sampling output.
9. Like that, by connecting the P2 and P3, flat top sampling can be observed.
10. By connecting the P2, sample and hold output can be observed.
11. Connect he modulation output to the demodulation input and observe the AF sine wave
signal at the output terminal.

Observations
Discussion
Pulse code modulation
Objectives
Study the operations of pulse code modulation (PCM) & demodulation and to identify
applications as well as advantages and disadvantages.

Component
 PCM trainer kit
 Digital multi-meter
 Dual channel oscilloscope
 Set of patch tips

Background
Procedure
1. Checked the power supply of the PCM trainer kit. (+5V, -5V, +12V)
2. Then AF output at the AF output terminal was observed.
3. The AF output was connected to the sample section and corresponding output wave form
was observed.
4. CLK 1 to CLK 3 were observed for further operation
5. Then it was connected as the wring diagram given below.
6. A to D output was observed with the help LED.
7. The PCM output of the terminal was observed with the help of oscilloscope.
8. The D to A output was observed via the LED.
9. Then the DC output was connected like the wring diagram.
10. Above 6-8 steps were repeated with the DC input
11. For DC input, the demodulated output was observed before amplifier.
Principle of modulation to the real signal

Components and Apparatus

 OHM CN7 trainer kits.
 Function generator.
 Digital Multimeter.
 Sets of patch tips.
 Oscilloscope.

Procedure
1. Switch on the OHM CN7 trainer kit and check the power supply (+5 V).
2. Connect a pulse input of 300 Hz from a function generator to the pin 01 of 7404
inverter section.
3. Observe its corresponding output at the pin 2 and 4 of 7404. Furthermore, compare the
output at pin 2 and 4 with the input pulse.
4. Referring to the wiring diagram Connect as per wiring diagram 1 for pulse modulator.
5. Observe the output at the Q1 and Q2. and compare the output at Q1 and Q2 with the
input pulse.
6. Observe the output of the pulse modulator and compare with the input pulse.
7. By referring the wiring diagram 2, connect for analog modulator.
8. Connect a pulse input of 300 Hz from a function generator to the pin 01 of 7404
inverter section.
9. Connect a sinusoidal input of 2.5 kHz from a function generator to the AF input pin.
10. Observe the output of the analog modulator and compare with the input pulse.