2 - Characteristics of An RF System: Additive Noise

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DETI-UA

2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Additive Noise

Noise Components in Electronic Circuits (revisions):

1 – Thermal Noise
- Due to thermal movement of charge carriers
- It is associated to all resistors or lossy components
- Uniform spectral density (white noise) highly
de-correlated
2 2
vn  4 RkTf in  4GkTf

vn
2 or in
2

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.1
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Additive Noise
• Noise Added by a Resistor
The equivalent noise power,
in
Z(f) Z(f)* Pn, of the impedance Z(f) is:
Pn
Pn   S n  f df
f2

Vn , where Sn, the


f1

power spectral density values:


4kTR  f 
S n  f   R  f .  kT or Pn  kTf invariable with Z(f) !
4 R f 
2

At the IEEE Reference Room Temperature of 290K (17ºC)


Sn=kT is -174dBm/Hz and represents the noise floor.

In general, if Sn(f) is constant (white noise), an useful


Equivalent Noise Temperature can be defined

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.2
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Additive Noise

2 – Shot Noise
- Due to the discontinuous current nature in a junction (potential barrier)
- It is associated to all semiconductor junctions and to the thermionic
emission in electronic tubes
- Uniform power spectral density (white noise)

 2qI DC f
2
in

3 – Flicker Noise, 1/f (or Pink Noise)


- Origin not fully understood
- As its origins in semiconductors but also in resistors
- Power spectral density is 1/f, (1/f2,…)

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.3
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Equivalent Noise Bandwidth
• Equivalent Noise Bandwidth
R

  4kTR H  f  df 
2 2
2 V0
H(f) V0 0

 4kTR  H  f  Max  Bn
2

4kTRdf
1 
 H  f  df
2
The Equivalent Noise Bandwidth is given by: Bn 
H  f  Max
2 0

0 L ( Q   0 RC )
Simple RLC resonator: Q 
R

f  f0
Bw  0 and Bn  
Q 2 Q

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.4
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Equivalent Noise Bandwidth
Useful Signal Average Power
• Signal-to-Noise Ratio SNR 
Noise Average Power

• Selectivity

Ps
SNR 
S n  Bn

If Bw  f ; SNR  if Bn 

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.5
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Noise Factor
• Noise Factor (or Noise Figure)
RS
Na
NS Nso+Nao

Output Available Noise Power / Hz


NF 
Output Available Noise Power Only Due to Input Noise / Hz

N so  N ao kTo  kTe T
NF  1 or NF   1 e
N so kTo To

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.6
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Noise Factor
• Noise Factor and Signal-to-Noise Ratio
NS
RS
Na
SS
+
G So= G.SS
-

No = Nso + Nao = G.Ns + Nao

N so  N ao N o G  S s SNRi
NF     1
N so G  N s So SNRo

then SNRo  SNRi

Note: If So=G.Ss and No=G.Ns we are assuming infinite selectivity

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.7
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Noise Factor
• Noise Factor of an Attenuator

As an example of the application of the Noise Factor definition, it


can be demonstrated that the noise factor of a matched attenuator
at room temperature is numerically equal to its attenuation,
NF=Att=1/G.

NS
RS
Na
+
SS -
G No = Nso + Nao = G.Ns + Nao=Ns

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.8
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Noise Factor
• Noise Factor of a Network Cascade (Friis Formula)
RS
Na1 Na2
NS G1 G2 No=Nso+Nao
NF1 NF2

G1  N s  N a1 G2  N s  N a 2
NF1  NF2 
G1  N s G2  N s

G2 G1  N s  N a1   N a 2 NF2  1
NF   NF1 
G1  G2  N s G1

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.9
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Noise Factor
• Noise Factor of a Network Cascade (Friis Formula) (cont.)

In general:

NF2  1 NF3  1 NFn  1


NF  NF1   L
G1 G1  G2 G1 L Gn 1

The 1st Stage determines the Noise Factor if its Gain is Sufficiently High !

1st Stage : Low-Noise Amplifier (LNA)

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.10
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Noise Factor
Four Noise Parameters:

NF min , Rn , sopt 


Noise Factor of a Terminated (Linear) Two-Port:

NFmin 2
Γ S  Γ opt
IS YS Rn YL NF  NFmin  4 rn
2 2
Ysopt (1  Γ S ) 1  Γ opt

Only depends on the Two-Port, [NFmin, Rn, Sopt], and on the Source Termination, S
It is invariant with the Load Termination !

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.11
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Oscillator Phase-Noise
• Phase-Noise in the RF System’s Oscillators

The existence of Local Oscillator Phase-Noise enables the


Conversion to IF of Undesired Signals.

SNRo can be significantly degraded in presence of a high Local-Oscillator Phase-Noise !


Moreover, the Phase-Noise constitutes a direct perturbation to the FM/PM Modulation.

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.12
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
System’s Sensitivity
• System’s Sensitivity

The System’s Sensitivity is the Minimum Detectable Signal Level


(for a predefined signal-to-noise ratio)

Si

SNRo
Noi = NF kTB

Si  NF  k  To  B  SNRo Si dBm  NFdB  kTdBm / Hz  BdBHz  SNRodB

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.13
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
System’s Sensitivity Calculation
GSM BTS Receiver Example
- Antenna-Receiver Coaxial Cable with Gc  1.5dB  0.71  NFc  1.5dB  1.41

- Pre-Selection Filter with GF  1.0dB 0.79   NFF  1.0dB  1.26 

- Pre-Amplifier with G A  15dB 31.6 and NFA  2.5dB  1.78

- RF-to-IF Convertor with GM  7 dB  0.20  and NFM  7.5dB  5.62 


 Bw  200 kHz  53 dB Hz  and SNRo  11 dB  12.6

NFF  1 NFA  1 NFM  1


Noise Factor : NFT  NFc     3.43  5.4 dB
Gc Gc GF Gc GF G A
1.41 0.37 1.39 0.26

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.14
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
System’s Sensitivity Calculation
GSM BTS Receiver Example
- Antenna-Receiver Coaxial Cable with Gc  1.5dB 0.71  NFc  1.5dB  1.41

- Pre-Selection Filter with GF  1.0dB 0.79   NFF  1.0dB  1.26 

- Pre-Amplifier with G A  15dB 31.6 and NFA  2.5dB  1.78

- RF-to-IF Convertor with GM  7 dB  0.20  and NFM  7.5dB  5.62 


 Bw  200 kHz  53 dB Hz  and SNRo  11 dB  12.6

Noise Factor : NF = 5.4 dB

System’s Sensitivity : S idBm  NFdB  kTdBm / Hz  Bw dBHz  SNR o dB  105dBm


5.4dB -174dBm/Hz 53dBHz 11dB

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.15
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
System’s Sensitivity Calculation
GSM BTS Receiver Example
If,
Noise Factor : NF = 5.4 dB Sensitivity : Si = -105 dBm
MS Transmitted Power : Pt = 1 W (33 dBm)
MS Antenna Gain : GaTX = 0 dB BTS Antenna Gain : GaRX = 10 dB
MS Altitude: hMS = 1 m BTS Altitude: GaRX = 20 m

and (according to the Two-Rays’ Model)


2
  2 2h MS h BTS  ( h MS h BTS ) 2
Pr  GaTX Ga RX   Pt  GaTX Ga RX Pt
 4  rM  rM 4
 rM

which should be the Cell Radius ?


Si dBm  GaTx dB  Ga Rx dB  20 log(hMS hBTS )  40 logrM dBm 4  Pt dBm  rM  18.9 km !
dBm 4
-105dBm 0dB 10dB 26dB 30.0dBm

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.16
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Nonlinear System’s Properties

• Linearity and Nonlinearity


Linear System

X(t)
S Y(t) xt   x1 t   y t   y1 t 

xt   x2 t   y t   y2 t 

Homogeneity and Superposition:

If xt   K1 x1 t   K 2 x2 t   y t   K1 y1 t   K 2 y2 t 

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.17
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Nonlinear System’s Properties
• Linearity and Nonlinearity
Nonlinear System
X(t)
S Y(t) xt   x1 t   y t   y1 t 

xt   x2 t   y t   y2 t 

If xt   K1 x1 t   K 2 x2 t   y t   ??

For a certain class of nonlinear systems:


y t   K10 x1 t   K 01 x2 t   K 20 x1 t   K11 x1 t x2 t   K 02 x2 t  
2 2

 K 30 x1 t   K 21 x1 t  x2 t   K12 x1 t x2 t   K 03 x2 t   L
3 2 2 3

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.18
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Nonlinear System’s Properties
• All Active Devices are Nonlinear

Amp

Pout  G  Pin & PDC  Pin  Pout  Pdis


Pout P  Pdis P 0
G  1  DC If Pin  G  for  dis
Pin Pin  PDC  
The Gain decreases with the Input Signal Level!
The Amplifier is Nonlinear!
Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.19
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Nonlinear System’s Properties
• But also many other Passive Devices are Nonlinear
For example:
Diodes, PN, PIN or VariCap/Varactors:
- Electronic Switches
- Variable Attenuators
- Tunable Filters

Inductors with Ferromagnetic Nucleus:


- Filters
- Diplexers

Distinct Metal Junctions:


- Circuit Metal Oxidation
- Connectors
- Antenna Masts
- Oxidized BTS fences
Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.20
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Nonlinear System’s Properties
Nonlinearities Generate New Spectral Components

Nonlinearities produce Quantitative and Qualitative Spectral Transformations !

Intermodulation Distortion : Adjacent-Channel Interference - ACPR , IMR


Co-Channel Interference - CCPR , NPR

Harmonic Distortion : Ex.: 2 x 900MHz (GSM) = 1800MHz (DCS 1800)

Blocking : B - B + S = S but Psoa Psi - Psi . PB2

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.21
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Nonlinear System’s Properties
• 1st Order or Linear Response

Mixing Vector Response Response Response Type


m-2 m-1 m1 m2 Frequency - m Amplitude
1 0 0 0 -2 1/2. A2*. H1(-2) Linear Response

0 1 0 0 -1 1/2.A1*. H1(-1) "

0 0 1 0 1 1/2.A1 . H1(1) "

0 0 0 1 2 1/2. A2 . H1(2) Linear Response

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.22
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Nonlinear System’s Properties

• 2nd Order Response

Mixing Vector Response Response


m-2 m-1 m1 m2 Frequency - Amplitude Response Type
m
2 0 0 0 -22 1/4. A2*2. H2(-2,-2)

2nd Order
0 2 0 0 -21 1/4.A1*2. H2(-1,-1)

Harmonic
0 0 2 0 1 1/4.A12 . H2(1,1)
Distortion
0 0 0 2 2 1/4. A22 . H2(2,2)

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.23
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Nonlinear System’s Properties

• 2nd Order Response (cont.)


Mixing Vector Response Response Response
m-2 m-1 m1 m2 Frequency - Amplitude Type
m
1 0 1 0 1-2 1/2.A1.A2* . H2(1,-2)

1/2.A1*.A2 . H2(-1,2) 2nd Order


0 1 0 1 2-1
Intermodulation
0 0 1 1 12 1/2.A1.A2 . H2(1,2)
Distortion
1 1 0 0 -1-2 1/2.A1*.A2* . H2(-1,-2)

0 1 1 0 1-1 1/2.|A1|2 . H2(-1,1) Bias Point

1/2.|A2|2 . H2(-2,2) Shift


1 0 0 1 2-2

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.24
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Nonlinear System’s Properties
• 3rd Order Response

Mixing Vector Response Response Response Type


m-2 m-1 m1 m2 Frequency - m Amplitude
3 0 0 0 -32 1/8. A2*3. H3(-2,-2,-2)

0 3 0 0 -31 1/8. A1*3. H3(-1,-1,-1) 3rd Order

0 0 3 0 1 1/8. A13. H3(1,1,1) Harmonic Distortion

0 0 0 3 2 1/8. A23. H3(2,2,2)

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.25
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Nonlinear System’s Properties
• 3rd Order Response (cont.)
Mixing Vector Response
m-2 m-1 m1 m2 Frequency - Response Amplitude Response Type
m
2 1 0 0 2-1
- 3/8.A1*. A2*2. H3(-2,-2,-1)

0 0 1 2 21 3/8.A1. A22. H3(1,2,2)

0 0 2 1 12 3/8.A12. A2. H3(1,1,2)


3rd Order

1 2 0 0 1-2
- 3/8.A1*2. A2*. H3(-2,-1,-1) Intermodulation

2 0 1 0 21
- 2,-
3/8.A1. A2*2. H3(- 2,
1) Distortion

0 2 0 1 12
- 3/8.A1*2. A2. H3(-1,-1,-2)

1 0 2 0 1-2 3/8.A12. A2*. H3(-2,1,1)

0 1 0 2 2-1 3/8.A1*. A22. H3(-1,2,2)

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.26
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Nonlinear System’s Properties
• 3rd Order Response (cont.)

Mixing Vector Response


m-2 m-1 m1 m2 frequency - m Response Amplitude Response Type
2 0 0 1 -2 3/8.A2*. |A2|2. H3(-2,-2,2)
AM/AM Conversion

1 0 0 2 2 3/8.A2. |A2|2. H3(-2,2,2) (Gain Compression)

0 1 2 0 1 3/8.A1. |A1|2. H3(-1,1,1) and AM/PM Conversion

(Phase Shift)
0 2 1 0 -1 3/8.A1*. |A1|2. H3(-1,-1,1)

1 0 1 1 12-2 3/4.A1. |A2|2. H3(-2,1,2)


Resposne
1 1 0 1 -12-2 3/4.A1*. |A2|2. H3(-2,-1,2)
Sensitivity
1 1 1 0 -21-1 *.
3/4.A2 |A1 |2. H3(-2,-1,1)
Loss
0 1 1 1 21-1 3/4.A2. |A1|2. H3(-1,1,2)

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.27
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Nonlinear System Characterization
CW Characterization

ATT HPA
CW Generator DUT Spectrum and
Network Analyzers

AM/AM AM/PM
GainT

Phase

AM-AM Conversion AM-PM Conversion

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.28
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Nonlinear System Characterization
Two-Tone Characterization

3dB

ATT HPA
DUT
Spectrum Analyzer

2 CW Generators

Some mixing products appear in spectral positions that are separated from the fundamentals
improving the characterization’s accuracy.

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.29
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Intermodulation Distortion
Two-Tone Characterization

Small-Signal Zone
Poutsinal rises at 1dB/dB
PoutDist rises at 3db/dB

The 3rd Order Intercept Point, IP3, is


the level at which the small-signal
straight-line extrapolations of PS and
PIMD intercept each other.

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.30
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Intermodulation Distortion
Multi-Tone Characterization
To assess the Interference on the Adjacent-Channel we measure the
Adjacent-Channel Power Ratio, ACPR :
0  Bw / 2 0  Bw / 2

Integrated Channel Signal Power


 S ( ) d
o
0  Bw / 2
 S ( ) d
o
0  Bw / 2
ACPRI , S   0  3 Bw / 2
,  0  Bw / 2
Integrated Adjacent  Channel PowerI , S
S d
0  Bw / 2
( ) d S d
0 3 Bw / 2
( ) d

-5

-15
Potência Normalizada [dB]

-25

-35

-45
Sinal
-55
In the small-signal zone: ACPRI,S  ¾ IMR2
-65

-75
ACPI ACPS
-85
1.85 1.87 1.89 1.91 1.93 1.96 1.98 2.00 2.02 2.04 2.06 2.08 2.10 2.12 2.14
Frequência [GHz]

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.31
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Intermodulation Distortion
Multi-Tone Characterization
An alternative ACPR definition, popular in wireless systems, is:

Signal Power in the Channel


ACPRI , S  
Adjacent  ChannelI , S Integrated Power in RBw @ f from 0  Bw / 2

 0  Bw / 2  0  Bw / 2
 So ( ) d  So ( ) d
5
 0  Bw / 2  0  Bw / 2
 , 
 0  Bw / 2  f  RBw / 2  0  Bw / 2  f  RBw / 2
-5

 Sd ( ) d  Sd ( ) d
-15
Normalized Power [dB]

-25 RBw RBw


-35
Sinal  0  Bw / 2  f  RBw / 2  0  Bw / 2  f  RBw / 2
-45

-55
f f
-65

-75
ACPI ACPS An RBw typical value is RBw = 30kHz
-85
1.85 1.87 1.89 1.91 1.93 1.96 1.98 2.00 2.02 2.04 2.06 2.08 2.10 2.12 2.14

Frequency [GHz]

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.32
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Intermodulation Distortion
Multi-Tone Characterization

HPA ATT
Arbitrary Waveform DUT
Spectrum
Generator
Analyzer
5

-5

-15
Normalized Power [dB]

-25

-35

-45

-55
Co-Channel Distortion
-65
Uncorrelated Distortion
-75 Correlated Distortion (Signal)
Normalized Output Power
-85
1.85 1.87 1.89 1.91 1.93 1.96 1.98 2.00 2.02 2.04 2.06 2.08 2.10 2.12 2.14
Frequency [GHz]

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.33
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Intermodulation Distortion
Multi-Tone Characterization
To assess Co-Channel we can use a test of Noise Power Ratio, NPR :

Signal Power Spectral Density S o ( )


NPR  
Co  Channel Distortion Power Spectral Density S D ( )

-5

-15
In the Small-Signal Zone:
NPR
Normalized Power [dB]

-25
NPR(0)  1/6 IMR2
-35

-45
and
-55 NPR(0  Bw/2)  1/4 IMR2
-65

-75

-85
1.85 1.87 1.89 1.91 1.93 1.96 1.98 2.00 2.02 2.04 2.06 2.08 2.10 2.12 2.14

Frequency [GHz]

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.34
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Intermodulation Distortion
1dB de Compression Point

Large-Signal Zone
Poutsignal manifests obvious
Gain Compression (or Gain Expansion)

Since P1dB is a measure of the signal distortion, it is determined by the linear components. It
has, therefore, little value in mobile communication systems where very large Signal-to-
IMD ratios are required.

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.35
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Intermodulation Distortion
3rd Order Intercept Point

Small-Signal Zone
Poutsignal rises at 1dB/dB
PoutDist rises at 3db/dB

PS dB  GdB  Pin dB

PIMDdB  PIMD 0 dB  3  PS dB  PS 0 dB 


3PS 0 dB  PIMD 0 dB IMR3dB
IP3odB  or IP3odB   PS 0 dB
2 2

PIMDdB  3PS dB  2 IP3odB


C I dBc  IMR2  2  IP3dB  PS dB 

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.36
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Intermodulation Distortion
3rd Order Intercept Point of a Weakly Nonlinear Two-Port Cascade
RS

G1 Gm GM
VS
IP3,1 IP3,m IP3,M

Contrary to additive noise, the distortion of any stage is correlated with the one generated in
all other stages. Therefore, it should be added in phase (voltage not power).

However, because the exact determination of this phase relationship requires complex
nonlinear analysis techniques, we will assume an average situation where all distortion
components are uncorrelated, and thus added in power.

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.37
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Intermodulation Distortion
3rd Order Intercept Point of a Weakly Nonlinear Two-Port Cascade
So, as we did for noise, we will start by the simplest case of a cascade of 2 two-ports.
According to the definition of the 3rd order Intercept Point, the IMD power at the output of
the first network is:
PS3 G1 Pin3
PIMDdB  3PS dB  2 IP3,1odB or PIMD  
IP32o,1 IP32i ,1

and so its distortion contribution to the output of the 2 two-port cascade is:

G1 Pin3 G2 G1 Pin 3


PIMD,1  G2 while the contribution of the second stage must be: PIMD, 2 
IP32i ,1 IP32i , 2

This shows that, contrary to what happened to the noise contributions, nonlinear distortion
of the last stages (where signal level is higher) is more important.

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.38
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Intermodulation Distortion
3rd Order Intercept Point of a Weakly Nonlinear Two-Port Cascade
Adding up these two contributions, leads to a total output IMD power of:

G1 Pin3 G2 G1 Pin 3


PIMD  PIMD,1  PIMD, 2  G2 
IP32i ,1 IP32i , 2

Since the output signal power is PS = G1G2Pin , the IP3i can be calculated from

G1 IP33i G2 G1 IP3i 3


IP3o  G1G2 IP3i  G2 
IP32i ,1 IP32i , 2
G1G2 1
as: IP3i  
G1G2 G13G2 1 G12
2
  2
IP3i ,1 IP32i , 2 2
IP3i ,1 IP3i , 2

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.39
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Intermodulation Distortion
3rd Order Intercept Point of a Weakly Nonlinear Two-Port Cascade
RS

G1 Gm GM
VS
IP3,1 IP3,m IP3,M

The desired generalization of this result to a cascade of M two-port networks is now obvious,
leading to:

1
IP3i 
1 G12
 2  ... 
G1...Gm 1 2
 ... 
G1...GM 1 2
2 2
IP3i ,1 IP3i , 2 IP3i , m IP32i , M

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.40
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Dynamic Range

It is the Ratio between the Maximum and Minimum Detectable Signal Levels:
DRdB  PinMax dB  Pinmin dB

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.41
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
Dynamic range Calculation as a Function of IP3, Si and SNRo

Minimum Detectable Signal Level:


Is SNRo abve the Noise Level: Pinmin

Máximum Detectable Signal Level:


Generates an IMD still guaranteeing SNRo: PinMax

DRdB  PinMax dB  Pinmin dB

2 1 
DRdB   IP3idBm  SidBm  SNRodB 
3 2 

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.42
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
The Dynamic-Range and the System’s Architecture
The block-diagram of a RF Tx/Rx is determined by the dynamic-range
maximization:
- High Gain and High Selectivity  maximize SNR
- Small-Signal Level  minimizes IMD

The Selectivity is determined by the limited Filter Quality-Factor, Q, whereas


the Gain of each stage is limited by the Amplifier’s Stability. This led to the
Super-Heterodyne Receiver and Transmitter Architectures.

0 L ( Q   0 RC )
FPB - RLC: Q
R
f0  f0
Bw  Bn  
Q 2 Q

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.43
DETI-UA
2 – Characteristics of an RF System
The Dynamic-Range and the System’s Architecture
The Wireless Super-Heterodyne Tx/Rx I/Q Architecture:

Profs. José Carlos Pedro and Pedro Miguel Cabral Electronics for Telecommunications - 2018/2019 2.44

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