llMICRQFlCHE

REFERENCE
LIBRARY
A project of Volunteers in Asia

By: C.I. Speirs and H.C. Coote

Published by: IL0

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International Labour Office Geneva
foodpres

Prepared with the financial support of the United Nations Financing System
on Science and Technology for Development (UNFSSTD)

International Labour Office Geneva

Copyright 8 International Labour Organisation 1986
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 PREFACE

The lack of technical and socicz-economic information on alternative or

improved food processing technologies available to people living in rural
areas of developing countries means that much food gets wasted. Excess
production in the villages is rarely preserved for times when fresh food is
not available. Emphasis is more often placed on large-scale food processing
complexes which frequently require only a few skilled operators, use imported
equipment and packaging, and produce foods which are expensive and have a low
nutritional content.

Sun drying of foods is a technique that has been in use for centuries,
with little change in the methods employed. This frequently results in poorly
dried, infested products. The use of improved sun drying techniques and the
introduction of solar drying, by which means foods can be dried even in humid,
cloudy climates, can greatly improve both the quality and quantity of goods
produced and be of great benefit to people living in rural areas.

This manual, which is an outcome of an ILC-executed project in four-least

developed arab countries ( Sudan, Somalia, Democratic Yemen and the Yemen Arab
Republic) to promote the choice, development and application of appropriate
food processing technologies, aims to explain in easily understood terms how
food drying techniques can be introduced or improved. In this way, surplus
food can be preserved which can be used later to make nutritious meals. All
th$ equipment or materials necessary can be obtained locally. The project was
financed by the United Nations Financing System for Science and Technology for
Development (UNFSSTD).

During the project it became apparent that there was a need to give
extension workers basic technical informat ion ah ich could be readily
assimilated and which could be directly applicable. In the case of solar
drying most of the work is, at present, carried out at an academic level in
research institutes, and little attention is paid to the application of the
information in rural areas.
 - vi -

It is hoped that this manual will supply agronomists, engineers and food
technologists working in this field with the. basic theory and practice of sun

and solar drying. With an understanding of national needs and priorities

they should then be able to advise extension workers of appropriate
applications of these techniques. Some general guidance is also provided on
the type of information extension workers might need and the methods they
could use to obtain this. I5 remains up to the English-speaking reader to
translate these into a locally comprehensible form for,local use.

The manual includes a step-by-step guide to building different types of

dryers using locally-obtainable raw msterials. Fish drying, vegetable and
fruit drying and grain drying are all covered, and appropriate processing
methods discussed. The necessity of good packaging is stressed. It is very
important to ensure an adequate “shelf-life” of the product and to prevent its
untimely deterioration.

Some references are given as sources of more detailed, supplementary

information. Access to technical literature can be difficult but the reader
is reminded that solar drying is of world-wide interest and there may be a
national or regional institute working in this field, from which informat ion
can be obtained.

Each chapter can be interpreted et two levels. Most of the technical

information supplied will be of interest to the technologist. A summary of
the pertinent points which should be passed on, in a suitable form, to the
extension worker is given at the end of each chapter.

Chapter 1 provides an introduction to the type of information which is

required and the approach which should be adopted to establish the feasibility
of a solar drying exercise.

Chapter 2 describes the basic drying theory and expl,ains how the sun’s
energy can be harnessed to dry foods. Some basic solar dryers are described
with some guidance on their methods of construction.

Chapter 3 discusses how the technologist can work with the extension
worker to encourage the adoption of improved technologies by the rural people
in developing countries.
i - vii -

Chapter 4 provides isforrmatton on simple methods exitable for drying

fish. Vegetable drying is discussed in Chapter 5. The preservwcion of fruit
by drying is covered in Chapter 6 and grain drying is discussed in Chapter 7.

This msnual was prepared by Dr. C.I. Speirs of the Tropical Development
and Research Institute, London, in collaboration with Ms. H.C. Coote, staff
member of the Technology and Employment Branch of the ILO.

A.S. Bhalla,
Chief,
Technology and Employment Branch
 CONTRNTS

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .."....................................~... v

Acknowledgements ~..~.~~~.~~~~~~~..........................................xiii
./

CHAPTER 1. ELEMENTS IN THE CHOICE OF SOLAR DRYING OF FOOD PRODUCTS.....

I. EVALUATION OF SOLAR DRYING PCCENIIAL ........................

II.1 Estimation of commodity production ..........................

II.2 Present drying practices ....................................
II.3 Product quality considerations ..............................

II.4 Markets for the dried commodity .............................

II.5 Project viability ...........................................

CHAPTER2. DRYING THEORY AND PRACTIZE ..................................

I. THE MECHANISMS OF DRYING ....................................

I.1 Surface evaporation ......................................... i

I.2 Moisture migration .......................................... 8
I.3 Drying rates ................................................ 9

II. SOLAR RADIATION - THE AVAILABLE ENERGY...................... 10

11.1 Direction of beam radiation ................................. 12

II.2 Solar collectors ............................................ 13
II.3 Absorber performance ........................................ 14

III. CLASSIFICATION OF SOLAR DRYERS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..*............. 17

III.1 Exposure to insolation ...................................... 17

III.2 Means of air flow ........................................... 18
 III.3 Circulated air temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..*......*...... 18

IV. GROUPONE DRYERS............................................. 19

IV.1 Type one - cabinet dryers .................................... 19

IV.2 Type two - tent dryer ........................................ 24

v. GROUPTWODRYERS............................................. 24

VI. GROUPTdREE DRYERS............................................ 27

VII. HYBRID DRYERS................................................ 31

CHAPTER3. DEVELOPMENTAND EXTENSION OF SOLAR CROP DRYING TECHNOLOGIES. . 33

I. DRYER SELECTION AND DESIGN.................................... 33

I.1 Construction methods and materials ........................... 34

II. EXTENSION TECHNIQUES......................................... 38

II.1 Prerequisites to successful dissemination of engineering

technologies in agriculture .................................. 39
II.2 Extension work outlets ....................................... 41
II.3 Extension techniques ......................................... 43

CHAPTER4. FISH DRYING.................................................. 47

I. TYPES OF FISH ................................................ 47

1.1 Small pelagic species ........................................ 48
I.2 Large pelagic species ........................................ 49
I.3 Small demersal species ....................................... 49

I.4 Large demersal species ....................................... 50

II. .........................................
PRE-PROCESSING STAGEC 50

III. PROCESSINGTECHNIQUES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..*.............*..... 52

111.1 Fish preparation ............................................. 52

III.2 Gutting and splitting ........................................ 52
III.3 Salting ...................................................... 53
III.4 Drying ....................................................... 57
 - xi -

IV ti* PACKAGING.................................................... 62
v. ALTERNATIVE PROCESSES ........................................ 63
G . EXTENSI% WORKACTIVITIES FOR FISH DRYING.................... 64
VI.1 Location ..................................................... 64
VI.2 Current practices ............................................ 64
VI.3 Demonstration units .......................................... 65
VI.4 Involvement of extension workers ............................. 66

CHAPTER5. VEGETABLE DRYING............................................. 69

I. PRE-PZOCESSING TECHNIQUES.................................... 69
I.1 Hygiene ...................................................... 70
1.2 Cleaning ..................................................... '0
I.3 Grading and sortitq .......................................... 70
I A Peeling ...................................................... 71
I.5 Coring, pitting and trimming ................................. 73
I.6 Cutting and sliciug .......................................... 73
I.7 Blanching .................................................... 73
I.8 Colour retention ............................................. 77
I.9 Sulphuring and sulphiting .................................... 77
1.10 Quality advantages ........................................... 78
I.11 Quality changes during drying ................................ 80

II. CHOICE OF DRYING TECHNIQUE................................... 8I)

II.1 Sun drying ................................................... 80
II.2 Solar drying ................................................. 81

III. SPECIFIC VEGETABLE DRYING TECHNIQDES......................... 83

111.1 General method - green legumes ............................... 83
III.2 Specific methods ............................................. 83
III.3 General method - green leafy vegetables ...................... 85
III.4 Specific methods ............................................. 85
III.5 Roots and tubers ............................................. 86
1II.G Other vegetables ............................................. 87

IV. PACKAGING OF DRIED VEGETABLES................................ 88

IV.1 Reasons for packaging ........................................ 88
IV.2 Types of packaging ........................................... 90
IV.3 Alternative processes ........................................ 91

V. EXTENSION WORKACTIVITIES FOR VEGETABLE DRYING...........*.* . 91

CHAPTER 6. FRUIT DRYING. . . . . . . . . ..*..............*....*..s............ 93
I. PRE-PROCESSING TECHNIQUES. . . . . . . . . . . . . ..C.................. 93

II. PRE-PROCESSING METHODSSPECIFIC TO FRUIT................... 94

,II.l Checking ................................................... 94
II.2 Sugaring ................................................... 95

III. DRYING METHODS............................................. 97

III.1 Some specific fruit drying methods ......................... 98

IV. PACKAGING*.................*...........*................... 100

v. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..~.................~...
ALTERNATIVE PROCESSES 100

Vl. EXTENSION WORKACTIVITIES FOR FRUIT AND VEGETABLE DRYING... 100

VI.1 Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..~... 100
VI.2 Current practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..*......*......... LOO
VI.3 Demonstration units . . . . . . . . . . ..*........................... 101
VI.4 Involvement of extension workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

DISSEMINATION OF SOLAR DRYING TECHN(X,OGYIN THE SUDAN

- A CASE STUDY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...*.... 103
DISSEMINATION OF SUN DRYING TECHNOLOGYIN SOMALIA
- A CASE STUDY............................................. 105

CHAPTER 7. GRAIN DRYING............................................... 107

I. SUN DRYING................................................. 107

I.1 Millet and sorghum ......................................... 107
I.2 Rice ....................................................... 107
I.3 Maize ...................................................... 108

II. SOLAR DRYING METHODS. . . . ..*..*..................*..*...... 110

III. PACKAGING AND STORAGE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..*........ 116

IV. EXTENSION WORKACTIVITIES FOR GRAIN DRYING................. 119

IV.1 Location ................................................... 119
IV.2 Current practices .......................................... 120
IV.3 Demonstration units ........................................ 120
IV.4 Involvement of extension workers ........................... 121
APPENDIX 1 BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................... 123
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The publication of this training manual on solar drying

was made possible by a grant from the United Nations
Financing System for Science and Technology for Development.
The International Labour Office acknowledges this generous support.
 CHAPTER I

ELEMENTS IN THE CHOICE OF SOLAR DRYING OF FOOD PRODUCTS

I. Evaluation of solar drying potential

The preservation of foodstuffs by drying is believed to be one of the

first food processing techniques used by man, developing in conjunct ion with
the cultivation of food grains, in the Middle East. The traditional method
of crop drying practised over the centuries throughout the world is sun
dry@3 s where the foodstuff is spread on a flat surface in the open air and
exposed to the drying‘ action of the sun. Variations on this technique
include hanging the foodstuff from the eaves of buildings or from trees or
gathering the harvest in bundles in the fields. Today, sun drying still
remains the most widespread method of food preservation.

The success of the technique can be attributed to its simplicity and low
cost. Under favourable climatic conditions good quality products can be
obtained. However in an unreliable climate, losses due to spoilage can be
excessive. In wet or humid weather moisture loss from the food can be
intermittent and irregular and the rate of drying slows down. This increases
the risk of spoilage and reduces the quality of the product. It is likely
that some of the foodstuff will be overdried, while a portion may bfi
unacceptably moist, depending on its location within the batch. Contamination
by dust and infestation by insects is unavoidable. Birds and animals will
consume some of the crop and also constitute another source of
contamination. This creates an extra task: to remain vigilant in order to
cover ‘the crop in the event of rain or dust storms, and also to scare away
potential predators in an attempt to control sun drying losses.

In the industrialised countries, the food processing sector is typified

by high labour costs and increasingly stringent quality standards. One
response to the problems associated with sun drying has been the development
and use of high capacity, artificial drying plants capable of giving a high
quality product irrespective of weather conditions. These plants are usually
 -2-

energy-, capital- and technology-intensive, and have a low labour requirement

using mainly skilled process and maintenance personnel. The dehydration
units atie relatively inflexible and are typically geared towards a large
throughput of a single product. Such processes are .not generally suitable for
the needs of the small-scale farmer in developing countries who produces small
‘p f
quantities of’foodstuffs to be dried for short periods throughout the year.

Artificial or fueled mechanical dryers are used in humid tropical

regions, largely in the equatorial rain forest belt where daily downpours are
predictable and the skies are usually overcast. In these conditions, the
potential for sun drying is limited. Such dryers are typically associated
with the so-called plantation crops such as cocoa, coffee and copra, where the
cost of the drying operation can be justified by the foreign exchange
generated by the product. A source of energy is required and the usual fuels
available are wood or charcoal. This requirement restricts the use of such
dryers to forested areas where such fuel is abundant and the ecological damage
caused by cutting the wood is minimal. In some cases it may be possible to
supplement or replace the fuel with by-products from the process such as
bagasse in the case of sugar or coconut shells in the case of copra,

In arid or semi-arid regions where wood stocks are low and may already be
insufficient to meet the cooking needs of the rural sector, the most suitable
solution to processing problems may be to improve existing sun drying methods
or to introduce solar drying techniques.

Solar drying, where the principal source of energy is derived from the
enhancement of the sun’s radiation, can be an improved alternative to sun
drying. Compared with sun drying, solar drying provides higher air
temperatures and consequent ial lower relative humid it ies which are conducive
to improved drying rates and a lower final moisture content of the dried
crop. As a result, the risk of spoilage during the actual drying process and
in subsequent storage is reduced. The higher temperatures attained inhibit
insect and microbial growth. Drying in an enclosed structure has the
additional benefit of providing protection against rain, dust, insects,
animals, and birds. All these factors contribute to improved and more
consistent product quality.

On first impression, solar drying may appear to be the ideal solution to

many food drying problems. The devices are of simple design and can be
constructed using a high local material content. The energy source is freely
available and poses no waste disposa 1 problems. However, it should be
emphasised that the process is not always technically feasible, economically
attractive, or socially desirable. Strenuous efforts must be made, in
co-operation with extension agencies and other interested organisations, to
determine as accurately as possible the nature and quantity of commodities

that could be dried. The reasons for drying the selected foods and the
required quality for the market outlets should be clear. An extension worker
may be enthusiastic about introducing, say, solar pepper drying in his or her
region, but without clear-cut reasons for doing so the project may be doomed
to failure.

The extension worker should be aware that some building and maintenance
costs will be involved, and it is obviously advantageous that the solar dryer
be used for as long a period during the year as practically possible. It may
be more cost-effective and socially desirable in some locations to use the
dryer on a communal basis.

In the planning stage, therefore, the technologist should establish some

of the facts listed below. Not all of the questions will be relevant to any
one project, and time and manpower constraints may render a detailed
investigation impractical. However, any information will be useful.

II.1 Estimation of commodity production

It is appreciated that it may be difficult to obtain detailed information

on the quantity of the cormnodity that is harvested, particularly where the
food is consumed by the producer or the producer’s family and where there is
no formal or centralised form of purchase or market. However, where
possible, information should be collected on:

(a) the quantity of fresh material produced in the growing season by:
- each farmer/fisherman
- the crganisation (e.g. cooperative) in which the farmer/
fisherman participates
- each district
- the country;
 -4-

(b) the duration of the harvest season:

- for a farm/fishery
- within a district;

(c) the amount of the commodity harvested in a day;

(d) the likely increase or decrease in the production of the commodity

in the near future.

II .2 Present drying practices

It should be established whether the food stuffs are currently dried, and
if so, by what means. Traditional techniques such as sun drying or even
artificial drying may already be used.

If alternative drying practices are being carried out then the following
facts shouid be established;

- the amount of an individual farmer’s crop which is dried;

- the nature of any processing carried out after harvest and prior to
drying;
- the moisture content of the commodity before and after drying;
or alternatively, the wet to dry ratio, i.e. the weight of the
commodity prepared for drying compared to its weight when dried;
- the size, shape and other important features of the commodity prior to
drying;
- the actual techniques used to dry the commodity. Every effort should be
made to obtain this information as precisely as possible. If possible,
the cost of this operation should be established;
- .the problems experienced with these techniques, e.g. high capital or
operating costs, high labour requirement, pOOr product quality etc.;
- post-drying processing operations carried out prior to sale or storage;
- the means of storage of the dried commodity before further processing,
sale or consumption.

II .3 Product quality considerations

The quality of the dried product is of considerable import ante. For

dried fruit and vegetables sold to the local consumer, the main quality factor
 -5-

i8 the general appearance of the dried material whereas for commodities such
a8 spices or pyrethrum, the content of extractable constituent is the main
aspect of quality. For dried grain the moisture content is of particular
importance. The importance of quality can be gauged from the following:

- the feature8 of the dried product that determine it8 celling price, e.g.
appearance, colour, size, shape, moisture content, purity, extractable
constituent, degree of contamination, microbiological quality;
- the method8 by which the quality factor8 are evaluated, e.g. by visual
examination or laboratory analysis;
- variation of standards of quality for different markets;
- the relationship between product quality and selling price.

II.4 Market8 for the dried commodity

A8 with any development of a new or improved prodrtct, knowledge must be

gained at an early stage of the present market for the traditional product or
the potential market for an improved product. Though such information may
well be difficult to obtain in certain area 8, particularly from rural
communities, it is important that an attempt be made in order to determine the
level of technology and the economic boundaries for the subsequent technical
development of a solar dryer.

Information mu8 t be sought concerning the following:

- the (envisaged) outlet8 or market8 for the dried commodity:

(i) self-consumption;
(ii) local sale;
(iii) sale to large towns at some distance from the producer,
either by the producer or via a third party;
(iv) export;
(v) further processing.

- consumer acceptability of the product, This is of particular importance

when no dried product is currently available or is known to the potential
market ;

- marketing mechanisms or organisat ions for bringing producer and

buyer/consumer together;
 -6-

- the price currently obtainable for the fresh (or unprocessed)

commodity. This may vary widely from season to sea8on or from district
to district;

- the price that can be obtained for the dried product.

There may be a possible alternative u8e for the freeh commodity.

Surpluses of the commodity may be sold to a local entrepreneur for sale
elsewhere, or another preservation operation carried out, e.g. pickling of
vegetables, jam-making from fruit8 and 80 on. If this is the case, a8 much
information a8 pO88ible should be obtained on drying processes particularly
with regard to their economic viability.

II.5 Project viability

By collecting the above information the technologist will be able to

reach 8ome pre 1 iminary conclusions about the potential viability of
introducing solar drying, It may also be possible to draw conclizsi.?ns about
the attractiveness of solar drying relative to other processing operations.

The extension wcrker may be able to assist in the collection of more

basic information, i.e. whether there is a glut of fresh produce or
insufficient drying capacity at a particular location, and so on. This
identification of a local need may in mO8t ca8e8 justify developing a project.

At this stage it should be determined whether any applied research ha8

been carried out, either nationally or in other countries, on the method for
drying the commodity. Solar drying methods which have been tried and tested
elsewhere ma+ be directly applicable. It may be possible to modify
technique8 described for other commodities, or to adapt recommended artificial
technique8 to 80 lar mean8. An existing sun-drying method could also be
improved. A COntinUOU8 interface between the technical organisat-on and the
extension services should ensure against any unnecessary duplication of effort.
 CHAPTER 2

DRYING THEORY AND PRACTICE

I. The mechanisms of drying

With the possible exception of grains, a complete understanding of the

mechanism of drying of food8 ha8 not yet been developed. What information is
available ha8 often been obtained under isolated laboratory condition8 using a
single layer of the conrnodity a8 a test sample. Such sample drying behaviour
will differ from bulk drying because the drying pattern in one portion of the
batch will be affected by that in another portion of the batch. At it8
simplest this might-mean that moisture removed from one grain will be absorbed
by a second grain from which it will then be released to be absorbed by a
third grain and 80 on before eventually being expelled into the air.

However it is generally accepted that there are two basic phenomena

involved in the drying process: the evaporation of moisture from the surface,
and the migration of moisture from the interior of a particle to the surface.

I.1 Surface evaporation

Moisture evaporate8 from a free surface on food in the same way as it

evaporate8 from any free water 8urface, such a8 a lake. So long a8 the
surface remain8 completely wet the rate of evaporation is constant. The
principal factor8 affecting the rate of evaporation from a free water surface
are the degree of movement of air over the surface and the temperature and
humidity of the air.

Humidity is a measure of the moisture content of the air. Very dry air
(i.e. low humidity) will have a greater capacity to evaporate water from a
free surface than moist humid air. This concept of air having different
capacities to evaporate moisture can be difficult to put across to a layman.
0~ method of illustrating this point is to draw attention to the relative
personal comfort of an arid inland area compared with a coastal strip at the
same temperature . This is largely due to the dry inland air removing
moisture produced by perspiration freely from the skin.
 -a-

An increase in the air temperature will reduce the humidity, thereby

increasing the driving force of the air to evaporate free moisture. While
this brief description should suffice to outline the fundamental principle
behind air drying the interested reader is referred to any star drd text on
psychrometry for a more detailed and exacting treatise.

The degree of movement of air over the particle surface 3lso of great
importance. As moisture leaves the surface it passes to >e ;iir imnediately
adjacent to it. This increases the humidity of the F ounding air, thus
reducing its capacity to evaporate more moisture. Therefore, unless the air
surrounding the particle is replaced by fresh, comparatively dry air, an
equilibrium will be reached between the particle and the air and no further
evaporation will occur. In practice, this is rarely the case since even with
very low natural convection currents there is sufficient movement of air.
Increasing the air velocity (e.g. by the use of a fan) will markedly increase
the rate of evaporation as the surface of the commodity will be in contact
with relatively dry air at all times.

Most of the heat necessary for the evaporation of moisture from a food
surface is supplied from the air by convection. However the transfer of heat
to the food by conduction and radiation can also be important. Foods placed
in solar dryers may be exposed to the radiation of the sun and if the food is
placed on metal trays they will receive heat via conduction through the tray
bottom.

I .2 Moisture migration

It is generally accepted that there are two principal mechanisms

governing the migration of moisture from the internal structure of the food to
the surf ace. These are diffusion and capillary flow. The most import ant
factors affecting the rate of moisture migration are the temperature of the
food particle , its moisture content, and the size of the piece. The higher
the temperature of the food, the greater will be the rate of moisture
migration. As the moisture content of the foodstuff decreases, tht rate of
migration ulll also decrease (since there is less moisture to migrate). The
rate Of migration will increase with decrease in particle size.
 -9 -

I .3 Drying rates

The drying rates of a foodstuff alter during the drying cycle reflecting
the changes which are occurring in the corGosition of the food. This is to
be expected when one considers the complex nature of foods. Water is an
integral component of all organic materials. It is chemically and
biochemically associated with the other foodstuff components, i.e. it is not
present in a simply passive role. Moisture removal will also modify the cell
structure thereby affecting the residual moisture content. By comparison, a
mixture of an inert material, such as sand, and water can be dried in a
predictable manner.

In the initial stage of drying of a food, the rate of moisture migration

from the interior of the particle to the surface is sufficiently high to cover
the surface in moisture. Under these circumstances the rate of drying of the
particle is controlled by the rate of evaporation from the surface. As
outlined above, this is controlled by the condition of the air adjacent to
the surface. At this stage the food will dry as rapidly as the air can remove
the moisture. This period of drying is known as the constant rate period. A
critical moisture content will be reached when the moisture can no longer be
drawn to the surface fast enough to maintain a completely wet surface. This
can be attributed to physical and chemical changes occurring within the
food. Once this critical moisture content has been reached, the rate of
drying decreases. This second phase of the drying cycle is termed the
falling rate period. Eventually the moisture content of the food will drop
to a level where there is no driving force between the air and the surface,
and drying will cease. The food is said to have reached its equilibrium
moisture content.

It will be appreciated that, again, some broad generalisations have been

made to give a general insight into drying mechanisms. In practical terms,
two important points should be made which would benefit any drying extension
work:

(i) for the initial drying of a commodity, the combination of high air
velocity and moderate temperature will optimise the use of energy for
drying;
 - 10 -

(ii) in the latter stages of drying, low air flow combined with high air
temperature will provide more rapid drying than a high air flow with a
low temperature.

II. Solar radiation - the available energy

For practical purposes the 8un’8 radiation to earth may be regarded as a

beam of uniform intensity; just 0utsid.e the earth’s atmosphere that intensity
is 1.3-1.4 kW/m* depending on the distance between the 8un and the earth.
This amount of radiation is in fact reduced to value8 of less than 1 kW/m*
at the earth’8 surface by the presence of cloud8, dust particles, and gase8.
The magnitude of the available radiation also depend8 on the location, time of
year and time of day. The effect of absorption, mainly by ozone, water and
carbon dioxide molecules, and scattering by dust particles, air molecule8 and
water vapour is to both lessen the total amount of radiation per unit area and
also to alter the proportion of the different wavelengths present in the
radiation. The result of this is to decrease greatly the amount of
ultra-violet radiation due to absorption by ozone, and also to decrease the
amount of inf ra-red radiation reaching the earth’ 8 surface. The annual mean
global irradiance is shown in figure 1.

Radiation scattered in the atmosphere is not entirely lost to the earth;

about half of it reaches the earth’8 surface in a diffuse scattered form.
Solar radiation can therefore be Seen to consist of two components: diffuse
and beam radiation. Each component ha8 different characteriat its which
affect solar drying.

Diffuse radiation cannot be concentrated by means of focusing devices.

On a cloudless day, with a clear atmosphere, about a fifth of the solar
radiation available to a horizontal surface consists of 8cattered radiation
coming from the whole sky. On an overcast day the proportiolz may reach
100 per cent. Humid coastal strips will experience high level8 of diffuse
radiation due to the moisture held in the air. Arid areas may also have
higher level8 of diffuse insolation than expected, due to dust in the
atmosphere.

For the purpose of solar drying it might be thought that the positioning
of the collector should be horizontal to optimise absorption of diffuse
insolation. However to maximise the effect of beam or directional radiation.
the collector surface should be tilted at right angles to the incident beam.
 Figure 1
Annual mean global irradiance on a horizontal plane at the
surface of the earth (W/m2 averaged over 24 hours
Source: Budyko (1958)
 - 12 -

An inclined surface, moreover, may receive a significant proportion of its

irradiance through reflection from the ground adjacent to it.

Beam radiation comes in a beam directly from the sun. Its presence can
be easily recognised by its ability to cast shadows. The sharp{ 2 the shadow,
the greater the amount of direct radiation that is present.

While the extension worker need not concern him/herself with the theory
of ins0 lat ion mechanisms, he /she should be aware of the two main
characteristics described. In practice, diffuse radiation will always be
present and is useful for drying, However , the solar dryer should be
orientated to make maximum use of the beam radiation component.

11.1 Direction of beam radiation

The relative movement of the sun and earth must also be taken into
account in designing solar dryers and collectors.

The position of the sun in the sky is, for a given location, dependent
upon the time of day and year. The daily movement of the sun - rising in the
East in the morning to its highest point at mid-bay and then setting in the

West - is due to the rotation of the earth about its own axis.

The change in climate with the seasons is a result of the tilt of the
earth’s axis and its orbit ahout the sun. The period taken to complete one
orbit is a year. The angle of tilt of the axis to the plane of the orbit is
approximately 23.5’. The hemisphere (north or south) which is angled towards
the sun at a particular time during the orbit around the sun will be receiving
sunlight more directly and for a greater time each day than the other
hemisphere.

The changes in the sun’s position with time of year can be described from
the point of view of an observer on the earth’s surface. On June 22 the sun
is at its most northerly point and appears directly overhead at mid-day on the
Tropic oi’ Cancer (23.5’~). As a result z the northern hemisphere receives a
relatively large amount of sunlight at this time of year. As the year
progresses the sun appears to move south giving longer periods of daylight in
the southern hemisphere, but less in the northern hemisphere. On September
22 the sun is directly overhead at the equator and both hemispheres receive
 - 13 -

similar amounts of ins0 lat ion. The sun continues to move south until
December 22, when it is directly overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn
(23.5’5) . On this date, the northern hemisphere has its shortest period of
daylight and the southern hemisphere its longest. Having reached its most
southerly point, the sun then moves northwards, crossing the equator again on
March 21, and is again overhead at the Tropic of Cancer on June 22 to complete
its yearly cycle.

An example of a practical application of this information can be found in

Kenya, a country located on the equator, where solar assisted coffee dryers
are being put into operation. The dryers are built and operated at two
different locations with different harvesting seasons. At one location the
major crop is picked in November and December. From our knowledge of the
movement of the sun, it is clear that at this time of year the sun is directly
overhead near the Tropic of Capricorn. Thus, to maximiae the level of
insolation on the collector, the collector must face south. At the other
location the main crop is picked in April and May when the sun is in the
northern hemisphere. For this dryer the solar collector faces north, again
to maximise the level of insolation upon it.

The important point to note here is that the solar collector is designed
such that it is perpendicular to the sun at solar noon on the day selected as
representing the peak of the harvest.

II, 2 Solar collectors

Solar collectors are employed to gain useful heat energy from the sun’ a
radiation. They are almost invariably used to heat either air or water. For
the purpose of food drying, simple flat plate air-heating collectors can
provide the desired ,temperature increase. These consist of an absorbing
surface which heats up and warms the ambient air nearest to the surface.
Clear covers may be placed above the absorber to reduce heat loss, and the
collector unit may be insulated. Where a relatively high air flow is
required a fan can be used to blow air through the collector. However ,
natural convection systems are widely used and may be more appropriate to the
needs of the small-scale farmer.

There are therefore two stages in which the energy of the sun’s radiation
is transformed to thermal energy in the drying air. Firstly the radiation
 - 14 -

must be absorbed on the absorber surface, thus heating the absorber plate.
This heat is then transferred to the air by contact between air and the
absorber plate.

11.3 Absorber performance

Ractors affecting the amount of energy absorbed by the absorber plate are:

1. The level of insolation. Clearly, the higher the insolation, the greater
the energy absorbed. It should always be borne in mind that insolation
levels vary considerably from place to place and at different times of
the year;

2. The angle between incident insolation and the absorber plate surface.
As previously discussed, the slope of the collector should be determined
by considering the position of the sun -the declination angle - at the
peak harvest time. The movement of the sun over the year is illustrated
graphically in figure 2. To determine the correct slope for the
collector the angle of declination at peak harvest time should be added
or subtracted - depending on the harvest season - from the latitude of
the dryer. In all cases, the collector should be positioned parallel to
the equator. An example of this calculation is shown in table 1. To
discover the latitude for a given location, one should consult an atlas.
In most cases, the absolute angle used is not critical and if necessary a
near eat imate will usually suffice. It should be noted that the angle
subtended by the transparent cover is not important;

3. The absorptivity of the absorber surface. The greater the absorptivity

of the absorber surface, the higher the proportion of incident radiation
that will be absorbed; in collectors where the absorbing medium is of a
porous nature, it is also desirable that the absorber give little
resistance to the passage of air. One of the more commonly used
absorbers is black-painted metal sheets; frequently these are
corrugated galvanised iron. This has the advantage in most places of
being readily available, relatively cheap, and easy to use. Other
suitable absorbers are black plastic sheet a, painted rocks, ash and
charcoal. These materials are suitable because they exhibit the
following properties:
 - 15 -

+ 38’

26

lo’

0’
4
lo’
7 \

20’
;f
/

1,
- 30’ -
Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Ott Nov Dee

Finure 2
Variation of declination angle, with time of year

Time of peak
Location Latitude harvest Declination Slope Facing
Khartoum + 15 Mid April + 10 + 5 South

Mid October - 10 + 25 South

Lusaka - 15 Mid April + 10 - 25 North

Mid October - 10 - 5 North

Table 1
Examples of the determination of slope angle
 - 16 -

(il high absorptivity of incident radiation;

(ii) low emissivity;
(iii) good thermal conductivity in cases where the air flow is
below the absorber;
(iv) stability at the temperatures encountered during operation
and under stagnation conditions;
(VI durability;
(vi) low cost;
(vii) low weight per unit area.

These properties should be explained in suitable terms to an extension

worker.

4. The transmissivity of the cover material. The ideal cover will permit
the passage of sunlight, but not the longer infra-red (heat) radiations
which are emitted by the absorber surface. For most food drying
operations, where temperature rises of up to 35OC are sufficient,
single cover collectors are adequate.

Glass is traditionally used as glazing. It has good transmissivity for

visible radiation and is virtually opaque to infrs-red radiation. Glass
is also stable at the temperatures encountered and durable. The
disadvantages of glass are its low shatter resistance, high Cost, and a
large weight which increases the cost of the supporting structure.

The use of plastic sheets has in the past been limited by the poor
weatherability and stability of plastics in the conditions found in solar
collectors. However, plastics have recently been developed which
overcome these problems. Examples of these are polyvinylfluoride films
(PV’i. ] such as Tedlar; fibre-reinforced polyester (Kalwall, Sun Lite
Premium) ; and acrylic and po lycarbonate sheets which are either
intrinsically stable to IJV radiation or have been made stable by use of
additives. Plastic covers weigh as little as 10 per cent of the weight
of glass covers, {for example, a 1 m x 1 m PVF sheet 1 mm thick weighs 3
kg compared to over 30 kg for a 5 mm glass sheet of the same area).
Other materials such as acrylic and polycarbonate sheet of the same
thickness as glass sheet weigh about half as much as glass for the same
area. Plast its also have the advantage of easier handling and
installation. On many locations, the choice of which plastic to use will
 - 17 -

be limited to what is locally available. Heavy-duty polyethylene film may be

manufactured locally by a packaging materials factory. Polyethylene has
comparatively poor cover properties, since it transmits 77 per cent of the
infra-red radiation generated and can become opaque with exposure to
sunlight. It is also more likely to tear than some other plastics. However,
it has the advantages of cheapness and relative ease of availability. one
interesting source of transparent, heavy duty plastic is the material used to
protect car seat covers. Such material can be found in many developing
countries.

When considering cover materials the important points to consider are:

(i) high transmissivity on the visible range of the spectrum;

(ii) low transmissivity of infra-red radiation;
(iii) stability at the operating temperature. All materials used must be
able to withstand the temperature5 attained under stagnation
conditions, i.e. on a hot sunny day when no air is flowing through
the collector;
(iv) durability or weatherability;
(VI strength and resistance to breakage;
(vi) low cost;
(vii) low weight per unit area.

In most cases, plastic covers will be most suitable. The reason for
using these should be explained in appropriate terms to the extension worker.

III. Classification of solar dryers

Solar dryers can be classified using the following characteristics:

1. Whether or not the drying commodity is exposed directly to insolation;

2. The means of air flow through the dryer;
3. The temperature of the air circulated to the drying chamber.

111.1 Exposure to insolation

Based upon this criterion, solar dryers can be termed either direct or
indirect. Direct dryers are those in which the crop is exposed to the sun,
and indirect dryers, those in which the crop is placed in an enclosed drying
 - 18 -

chamber and thereby shielded from insolation. In direct dryers, heat is

transferred to the drying crop by convection and radiation, and therefore the
rate of drying can be greater than for indirect dryers. For some
commodit ies , (e.g. certain varieties of grapes and dates), exposure to
sunlight is considered essential for the required colour development in the
dried product . For arabica coffee in Kenya a period of exposure to sunlight
is thought necessary for the development of full flavour in the roasted
bean. On the other hand, with some fruits the ascorbic acid (vitamin C)
content of the dried product is considerably reduced by exposure to sunlight.
Colour retention in some highly pigmented commodities, such as green legumes,
can also be adversely affected if they are exposed directly to sunlight.

III .2 Means of air flow

There are two possible types of air flow, natural convection and forced
convection. The former is reliant upon thermally-induced density gradients
for the flow of air through the dryer, whereas for forced convection dryers,
the air flow is dependent upon pres.sure differentials generated by a fan. A
fan is obviously capable of providing a much greater air flow and is therefore
suitable, if not essential, for dryers with large throughputs. Another
advantage of forced convection dryers is that the air flow is independent of
ambient climatic conditions and is easily and accurately controllable for most
applications. Forced convection is essential for the drying of deep beds of
grain wherein the relatively high pressure-drops through the depth of grain
would preclude the use of natural convection,

However, one fundamental disadvantage of forced convection dryers lies in

thei: requirement of a source of motive power for the operation of the fan.
The capital cost of equipment necessary to provide forced convection is high
compared with the minimal costs of natural convection dryers. It may prove
necessary to import the fans and the generator required to drive them. In
addition the running costs of forced convection drying (power, mechanical
maintenance, and repair) are high. These are disadvantages which indicate
that forced convection solar dryers are probably not appropriate for use in
rural areas by small-scale’ farmers.

III .3 Circulated air temperature

The air entering the drying chamber of a solay dryer can either be at the
ambient temperature or at some higher temperature; the elevation in
 - 19 -

temperature of the air‘being achieved by its passage through a solar collector

prior to the drying chamber. Dryers that employ a separate solar collector
and drying chamber are usually more efficient, as both units can be designed
for optimum efficiency of their respective functions, whereas dryers in which
the collector and the drying chamber are combined are invariably less
efficient. However, a dryer with a separate collector and drying chamber can
be a relatively elaborate structure while the combined collector and drying
chamber is much simpler and more compact. In practical terms, the advantage
of simplicity may over-ride other design considerations, and the combined unit
would certainly be the easiest type of solar dryer to introduce in an ares
unfamiliar with complex construction techniques.

Based on the above classification, three major groups of solar dryer

development have been identified.

1. Group one: Direct dryers employing 'natural convection with a combined

solar collector and drying chamber.

2. Group two: Direct dryers employing natural convection with separate

collector and drying chamber.

3. Group three: Indirect dryers employing forced convection with separate

a---.
collector and drying chamber.

IV. Group one dryers

IV.1 Type one - cabinet dryers

Within this subclassification several variations have been developed.

Essentially, the basic design (figure 3) consists of a rectangular container,
preferably insulated, and covered with a roof of glass or clear plastic.
There are holes in the base and the upper parts of the cabinet and rear
panels. The interior of the cabinet is blackened to act as a solar
absorber. Perforated drying trays are positioned within the cabinet. Access
to the trsys is through doors which form the bottom part of the rear of the
cabinet.

The operating principle of the cabinet dryers is that insolation passes

through the clear cover and is absorbed on the blackened interior surfaces
t v
\/JIvd' /4
Figure
Cabinet dryer (Brace Research Institute, 1965)
 - 21 -

which are thereby heated and which subsequently warm the air within the
cabinet. The warmed air rises by natural convection and passes up through
the drying trays and out of the cabinet via the upper holes, whilst fresh air
enters through the holes in the base.

The construction of a cabinet dryer is demonstrated in plates 2.1 - 2.4.

It is recommended that the length of the cabinet be three times its width
to minimise the shading effect of the sides. In any situation the roof
should be angled sufficiently to allow water to run off in rainy periods. For
portable models the cabinet may be CORStNCted of wood, board or metal for the
more sophisticated units, and material such as wicker or basket work for more
rudimentary models. For permanent (and larger) structures mud, brick, stone,
or even concrete could be used. The insulation for the base and sides can be
wood shavings, sawdust, bagasse, coconut fibre or dried grass or leaves. It
is recos5nended that the insulating layer be at least 50 mm thick for maximum
efficiency and effectively sealed in place to prevent the ingress of moisture
and insects and the like. Where insect infestation is troublesome, all air
holes in in the cabinet can be covered with gauze or mosquito netting if these
are cheaply available. The drying trays can be constructed of plastic mesh
or netting, or even of wicker and basket work, but preferably not of metal
since this may adversely react with the juices from fruit or vegetable
slices. The temperature within the cabinet is regulated by the inlet or
outlet holes and by t le degree of opening of the access doors.

A considerable amount of investigatory work has been carried out in

Jamaica on the development of cabinet dryers for a large number of tropical
crops. In this cas? dryers were constructed from clay bricks, wattle and
daub or locally prodc!_ed compressed blocks made of earth and cement. Plastic
sheet was used as a cover material. A length of barnboG placed at the bottom
of the cabinet with regularly spaced holes was used as the air inlet pipe.
Air outlet ports were made by leaving gaps in the top layer of bricks.
Charcoal fines mixed with clay were used as an alternative to paint for
blackening the interior of the cabinet.

One method of extending the drying time of a solar cabinet in periods of

inclement weather or at the end of the day is the inclusion of a heat store.
This can be brought about by placing a layer of dark coloured or black painted
atones in the bottom of the dryer. However it should be appreciated that
 - 22 -

Construction of a cabinet dryer

Plate 2.1
The outer box, in this example, is made from seasoned timber

Plate 2.2
A lining of sawdust provides insulation between the two layers
 - 23 -

Plate 2.3
A,pplying the inner floor. Note that the batten positions should
be marked to allow air holes to be dril’.ed through both thiclmesses

Plate 2.4
The completed dryer with trays and lid awaiting
painting and the plastic cover
 - 24 -

this prac t ice will increase the thermal inertia of the system, which means
that the dryer will take longer to heat up in the beginning. In some cases
this controlling action may be desirable if it prevents the cabinet from
overheating and cooking the product.

It is worth mentioning the conversion of a cabinet to indirect use within

this subgroup. A black cover can be placed under the clear cover to reduce
loss of colour and nutrients as a result of direct exposure to sunlight. This
modification would be suitable for drying green leafy vegetables.

Cabinet dryers have the most widespread use and as such have been tested
with a range of conomodities including fish, fruit, vegetables, root crops, and
oilneeds.

IV.2 Type two - tent dryer

The second popular type within this group of dryers was originally
developed for use with fish. The dryer (figure 4) consists of a ridge tent
framework, covered with clear plastic sheet on the ends and on the side facing
the sun, and black plastic sheet on the side in the shade and on the ground
within the tent. A drying rack is positioned centrally along the full length
of the tent. The plastic sheet at one end is arranged so as to allow access
to the rack as required, but otherwise is fastened shut. The bottom edge of
the side of clear plastic is rolled around a bamboo pole which, when raised or
lowered, forms a method of controlling the air flow through and the
temperature within the tent. Holes in the apex of both ends of the tent
permit the venting of the exhaust air.

The advantages of the tent dryer are its simplicity of construction and
operation, and its low cost. However it has the disadvantages of a high
plastic content in relation to the otner construction materials. It is
1 ightweight and susceptible to damage in windy conditions.

V. Group two dryers

Development of this type of dryer has been largely carried out at the
Asian Institute of Technology in Thailand. The dryer (figure 5) consists of
two separate units, the collector and the drying chamber. The solar
collector uses a layer of burnt rice husks or black plastic sheet for the
 - 25 -

-- Air flow

Air outlet

Bamboo poles

s-- ' Air inlet

Drying rack

Figure 4
Solar tent (Doe, 1979)
 - 26 -

--t Air flow

Black plastic raQf .

Air outlet

Clear plastic sheet

Mosquito netting
over wooden lattice
Burnt rice

Air inlet

Figure 5
Solar paddy dryer
(Exe11 and Kornsackoo, 1978)
 - 27 -

absorber surf ace. This is covered by clear plastic sheet on an inclined

bamboo framework. The collector warms the ambient air which is then passed
to the base of the drying chamber. The drying chamber can be a simple
shallow vooden box with the base made of either perforated metal, plastic
mesh, or bamboo matting. The dryer is loaded through removable panels at the
back of the drying chamber. The foodstuff to be dried is placed on top of
the perforated base. Since this type of dryer was designed to dry rice, the
use of a metal base is quite acceptable. The heated air passes through the
drying chamber and is exhausted through the top of the unit. At this point a
chimney can be placed on top of the drying chamber to provide a column of warm
air to increase the draught and hence the flow of air through the dryer. At
its simplest, the chimney can be a bamboo frame covered with black plastic
sheet acting as an absorber. The air inside the chimney will heat up, rise
and thereby pull air from the collector through the dryer.

The drying chamber can also be constructed (figure 6) using a wooden

frame covered in plastic. Black plastic, similar to wood painted black, will
increase heat absorption in the drying chamber. Where the sides of the
drying chamber are made from clear plastic, overall insolation will be
increased. However, where rice is being dried using this arrangement, it is
recommended that the roof be made from black plastic to avoid overheating the
uppermost layers of paddy in order to reduce the cracking. The construe tion
of a modified paddy dryer is shown in plates 2.5 - 2.8.

The reader will appreciate that the chimney type dryer is a more
sophisticated device than the cabinet dryers previously described. As such
its construction will be more demanding on the artisanal skills available, and
the principles of its operation more difficult to comprehend by the end user.

Other potential shortcomings of this type of dryer are its relatively

high prof il.e , which can pose stability problems in windy conditions, and the
fact that extensive areas of the dryer surface are composed of plastic sheet,
the replacement of which can be a relatively expensive undertaking.

VI. Group three dryers

This group of dryers can be considered as devices consisting of a solar

collector (usually of a flat plate type) and a drying chamber with a fan
moving air from the collector to the drying chamber. Dryers within this
 - 28 -

Rear (black PVC sheer), II

:.:I.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:..
.:.:.:...:.:.....-...‘...‘.‘.

Access flaps ( 2 i

T-
RackIblack plastlr

iii-

O-O

Air flow Notes: Bamboo frame covered wtth clear polyethylerle

Sheer unless otherwlse Stated
Dlmenslons in metres
Not to scale

Figure 6
Group two dryer
 - 29 -

Construction of a modified solar Daddv drver

Plate 2.5
The basic framewcrk

Plate 2.6

Lnstead of black plastic, thin painted plywood was used

for addit iona 1 strength
 _LL--^ _& ._L..L ,--. _
-^^w^. ,“-_^^ ,._ _^_.. ,^_^.._^__ LL^

- 30 -

Plate
-- 2.7
Careful aoDlication of the polyethylene cover

Plate 2.6

The completed dryer

 I_--.-.

- 31 -

group have been used primarily for the drying of grain, particularly in the
cool, but dry autumns of the grain-growing areas in North America, but also in
the warm, but humid climate of Asia. Compared with the more basic natural
convection systems, this type of dryer is more capital-intensive due to costs
attributable to the fan, and tends to be more suitable for larger outputs.
Because of the high construction, maintenance, and running costs, such systems
are usually carefully engineered to give the most efficient operating
conditions. The construction materials required are of a higher
specification than found in many rural locations, and the construction and
operating tolerances are controlled to ensure optimum output from the dryer.
The applicabiiity of this type of dryer in the rural sector of developing
countries is inevitably very limited.

VII. Hybrid dryers

This term is used to denote those dryers in which another form of heating
the drying air is used in conjunction with solar heating. Such a system can
be used in two ways. Firstly, solar heating can be the principal source of
energy during sunny daylight hours with additional heat, supplied by
electricity, solid fuel, etc. being used during inclement weather or, in some
cases, at night to maintain continuous drying. Secondly, convent iona 1 energy
sources are used as the main means of heating the drying air, and solar energy
is used as a supplement to reduce fuel costs. The latter system has been
extensively researched , particularly in the grain-growing areas of the United
States. In some instances, storage silos have been modified by the
incorporation of solar collectors into the walls and/or roof.
 CHAPTER 3

DEVELOPMENT AND EXTENSION OF SOLAR CROP DRYING TECRNOLOGIES

I. Dryer selection and design

Raving established that solar drying of a particular commodity may be

potentially viable and having gained an appreciation of the different types of
solar dryers and their respective advantages and disadvantages, the next step
is the selection and design of the most suitable type of dryer.

In order to be able to choose the appropriate size of solar dryer it is

important to be fully aware of the quantity of crop to be dried over the
season, the pattern of harvesting, the relationship between batch size and
drying time, and the effect of varying drying time on product quality. It is
on these that the dryer size, the number of dryers required, the batch size,
and expected drying time can be determined. It should be noted that a
reduc t ion in drying time in itself may not necessarily benefit the user
financially. For example, a farmer who picks a crop once a week has little
to gain by reducing the drying time for the crop from four days to three days,
unless there is a recognisable improvement in quality from more rapid drying.

It may not always be necessary or desirable that a dryer be designed to

handle all of a farmer’s or cooperative’s production. This is particularly
so in the case of simple natural convection dryers for use at the rural
leve 1. The dryer design should be based on what the true drying load is
estimated to be and not on the total crop harvested.

The dryer should be easily constructed from materials readily and cheaply
available to the end-user using locally available skills.

When considering the size of the dryer it should be borne in mind that
larger dryers may require stronger and, hence, more expensive cons t rut tion
materials than smaller dryers. The dimensions and the strength of the plastic
sheet available should be taken into consideration. For a large unit, the
cover may be made up from individual, ‘smaller plastic sheets. Joining one
sheet to another can be difficult and may give rise to problems such as tears
 -34-

and air leaks. For these reasons it may be more appropriate, in the case of
simple natural convection dryers, to build and operate a number of small
units. Multiplicity allows diversity, for more than one crop can be dried at
a time. A further advantage is that if one dryer is out of function due to
damage, drying can still continue, at reduced capacity, using the other dryers.

On the other hand, more sophisticated dryers, such as forced convection

solar dryers, benefit from economies of scale due to the investment tied up in
the fan and source of motive power. Generally speaking, one large dryer will
be more cost-effective than two smaller units. However it should be taken
into consideration that an oversized unit will be operating at less than full
capacity negating any cost advantage. The drying area required will depend on
local conditions and the commodity, but as a rule of thumb, one square metre
will accomodate approximately 10 kg of fresh produce.

I.1 Construction methods and materials

Construction methods and available materials may vary considerably from

location to location. It is not within the scope of this manual to discuss
individual, loca 1 circumstances. Some general guidelines regarding factors
which must be considered can, however, be given:

(i) dimensions of standard materials. Where possible, designs should

take account of the sizes of material locally available. For
example, it would be poor design to specify the width of a
corrugated iron collector aa 1.1 m if the standard width of
corrugated iron sheet is 1 m. Before finalising a design, the
commercial availability of materials must be ascertained.

(ii) use of rural materials. The cost of building a solar dryer can be
minimised if the producer is able to use wood cut straight from the
forest rather than prepared timber. Careful design in the
development stage of a dryer can often facilitate the use of cheaper
materials. Difficulties caused by these materials are in joining
pieces of the structure, in sealing the structures against air
leaks, and in attaching the plastic sheet to the (wooden) frame.
There is obvious scope for designs which use prepared timber at
strategic points and unprepared at others. Where the use of wood
is necessary, remember to take environmental factors into
 - 35 -

consideration. For example, determine what the effect of flash

flooding or termite8 might be and take the appropriate preventive
action.

(iii) use of plastic sheet. For many solar dryer=, the clear plaetic
sheet used ie the major capital coat to the fanner; therefore, the
type of plastic chosen is important. A choice must be made between
a relatively cheap plastic swh as ordinary polyethylene which will
last. at beat, for one season due to photo-degradation and wear and
tear; and a more expensive, better quality plastic lesa prone to
photo-degradation; or even glass or a rigid plastic.

Attaching plastic sheet to the framework structure, 80 aa eo minimise the

likalihaod of the plastic being earn is, perhapr, the moat difficult part of
building a dryer. Listed below are acme gen-ral points which should be
fallowed to prolong tha useful Lifetime of plastic sheet on a solar dryer:

Ci) when attaching plastic sheet to the framevork, care should be taken
not to stretch the plastic at the points of attachment, but the
plastic should not be 80 loose that it will flap about in the wind.

(ii) ra:ber than merely stapling or nailing the plastic directly to the
framework, it is preferable to sandwich the plastic between the
framework and a batten. Thia may not be practical vhen unprepared
wood or other materials are being used;

(iii) no aharp edgaa clhould come in contwt vith the plastic sheet since
them will initiate tears;

(iv) fold over the plastic at the point of attachment to the frame, 80
that there are tvo or more layera of plastic. This will help
prevent tears;

(VI when fixing the sheet over ehe framework, sags and hollows in which
water can collect should be avoided wherever possible;

(vi) the dryer should be handled as carefully and 88 seldom as possible

during operation and when not in me.
 -36-

The comperative merita of natural convection and forced convection

syatema have already been described. It has been indicated that simple
natural convection dryers vi11 probably have the more wideapread application
in the rural aectora of developing countries. The information contained in
the manual should be sufficient to eneble simple dryers to be constructed and
operated for a range of cmmditiea. Where the reader feels that a forced
eonvectim dryer would be appropriate, he/she is advised to obtain more
detailed information before attempting the construction. The reader will
need to know about fan delivery mechaniama to ensure the correct air flow
rates through the dryer. Efficiencies at various stages of the drying
process will have to be measured, including collector efficiency and overall
dryins efficiency. Furthermore, the performance of the dryer in its working
location vill have to be routinely monitored to ensure continuous performance
at maximmu efficiency. This implies ehat 6 continuing input to euch a
developlaent would be neceesarg by an individual well versed in solar drying
theory md praceice. The reader may find that such ekilla are available to
him/her locally at national institutes. There are, to the author’5
kboufedge, solar research and development projects where the required
apecialiat knowledge ia available in many countries in South and South Eaat
Asia and in moat of the Afrirdn Commonwealth notiona. The reader is alao
referred tQ the list of references at the back of this manual for fureher
information.

To aummariae, the technologist will need to obtain a range of technical

and aoci~economic information to allow the selection of the moat appropriate
dryer. The technologist ehouLd then preaent a complete package to the
extension worker. This ahould invlude a working dryer with informatitin in a
suitable form on ire construction and use. Details of drying technique8 can
be found in the individual commodity chapters together with suggestions on how
to put the information acroaa.

1. Technical criteria

The following design factors must be established:

- the throughput of the dryer over the productive season;
- the aiae of batch to be dried;
- the drying period(s) under seated conditions;
- the initial and desired final moiature content of the commodity (if
known);
 - 37 -

- the drying characteristics of the cone&icy, such as maximum drying

temperature, effect of sunlight upon the product quality, etc.;
- climatic conditions during the drying reason, i.e. insolation intensity
and duratiou; air temperature and humidity; windspeed; (such data may
be available from local meteorological stations);
- availability and reliability of electrical power;
- the availability, quality, durability and price of potential construction
materials such as:
glaaing materials: glass, plastic sheet or film;
wood (prepared or unprepared),
nails, screws, bolts etc.;
metal sheet, flat or corrugated angle iron;
bricks (burne or mud), concrete blocks, atones, cemene, sand etc.;
roofing thatch;
metal mesh. wire netting stn.;
mosquito netting, muslin etc.;
bamboo or fibre weave;
black paint, other blackening materials;
insulation material; sawdust etc.;
foaail fuels (to power engines to drive fens if electricity is not
available);
- the type of Labour aveileble to build and operate ehe dryer;
- the availsb,ility of clean water at the site for preparation of the
commodity prior to drying.

En any one situation there may well be other technical factors that need
to be considered.

2. Socio-economic criteria

From the initial considerations, estimates of the capital costs of the

dryer, the price of the conrsodity to be dried , and the likely selling price of
the dried product will have been made. Other questions that need eo be
considered sre the following:

- who will own the dryer?

- is the dryer to be constructed by the end-user (with or without advice
from extension agencies), local contractors, or other organisationa?
- who will operate and maintain it?
 -38-

- how can the drying operation be incorporated into current practices?

- are sourcea of finirnce from local authorities or evtemiou agencies
available, etc.?

Obviously there are asny other socio-economic factors, particularly thore

of a local nuture, which muat be taken into account. It cannot be etreseed
too highly that if such factors are not taken into account and evaluated, then
there is every chance that an inappropriate dryer design may result. Equal
emphasis must be placed on both technical and socio-economic factors.

(1) Situationa where solsr dryers may be useful:

- where the coat of conventional merSy ir prohibitive and/or the eupply io

erratic, CD supplement exi&ng artifical dryinS eyeterm and reduce fuel
co.sts;
- where land in in short eupply or expensive;
- where the quality of existing bun dried products can be improved upon;
- where labour is in ehort supply;
- where there is plenty of sunshine, but high humidity.

(2) Situations where solar dryer6 may not be useful:

- where conventional energy sources are abundant and cheap;

- &ere large amounts of combustible by-products or waste msteriale are
freely available;
- where there ia ineufficient eunehine;
- where there in plenty of runehine and arid conditions (sun drying may
suffice);
- where the quality of sun dried products already made cannot bc improved
upon;
- where local operator8 are ineufficiently trained;
- where the ramifications of introducing a solar dryer have not been
caapletely thought out.

II. Extension techniques

The nom1 route for the introduction of e new technology such es csolar
drying ia research, development, and then extension. The three eteps are
 - 39 -

inter-related. A technology which has been tried and tested and found to be
good is the one uhich is moat likely to be widely adopted irrespective of
whether there is large extension effort. It can be argued that the greater
the effort which is spent enauring that the correct technology and level of
application have been identified, the easier will be the job of the extension
worker. The converse is also the case in that no amount of well-implemented
extension work will result in the succeacrful introduction of an inappropriate
or ill-conceived technology. Bxtension cannot therefore be discussed in
iaolation from research and development.

In this section some of the problems likely to be encountered in efforts

to prwote the solar drying technology to the rural population will be
coneidered. Suggestions wilt alro be made on methods of overewing theae
problema. A note of cautian needa to be added here: the axemplea cited may be
pextiasnc only to disseminebion of engineering technology to agriculture, and
are not neceaaerily typical of general extension practices.

II.1 Prerequisite6 to successful dissemination of

engineering technologies in agriculture

Many extension experts agree that engineering technologies ore among the
meet difficult technologies to disseminate to farmers, particularly to
smellholder farmers. Bngineering teChnOlOgie8 include improved and modern
cultivation implemsnts and machines, a8 well a8 post-harvest processing
techniques such as solar drying. Ey comparison, the extension of
.agricultural improvements may be relatively eimple. An example often quoted
is the succerrful adoption of hybrid maize eeeda by #mall-scale farmere in
gaet Africa. By contreat, modern fermi,ng toole such as oxen-powered
cultivators and tractor6 have not been edopted to any great extent by the same
sector, where about 80 ‘per cent of the cultivated land is still being worked
with hand tools.

In many caaee engineering technologies have the objective of optimising

the uee of labour as well a8 elimineting drudgery. Several reasona have been
given for the limited adoption of engineering technologies in agriculture:

(i) engineers have tended to design expensive and complicseed equipment

or iPlplemente which are beyond the financial and technological
capabilities of the farmers er\d even of the extension workers;
 -4o-

(ii) these technologies have often aimed at optimising labour use and
hence they are perceived as leading to increased unemployment,
especially in rural areas;

(iii) these technologies have relied on imported inputs which are

difficult to obtain locally1

(iv) research and development by engineers have often been done in

laboratories without any regard to the situation in the field.

It is often forgotten that engineering technologies demand that the user

have a level of technical knowladge higher than that required for the adoption
of agricultural impravements. The introduction of a new hybrid maize may
result from years of aophirticatad intense research, but what is eventually
offered to the farmer ia seedr uhic,h ha/&he has to plant in .s particular
way. It is not neceeerry that the farmer be eware of the genetic changes io
the hybrid atock. However, in order to appreciate the advantages of a new
implement such 88 a solar dryer, a higher level of technical apprecistion is
required. It is therefore of great importance that the front-line extension
worker be technically well-informed.

For successful extension of solar drying technologies there ie therefore

a need for:

(i) proper evaluation 8nd experimentation before extension. The whole

system in which the farmer and extension agent are working ehould be
understood, and the technology should be developed to auit the local
rcene rather than expecting that the local ecene will adapt to the
technology;

(ii) the front-line extenaicm worker should be well trained end

conversant with the new technology. If the extension agent does
not understand the new teChnOlOgy it is unlikely that he/she will
extend it effectively, and likewise, it is unlikely that the farmer
will understand and adopt it;

(iii) the technology met aim at solving an iesue which both the farmer
and extension agent see a8 a problem end which the farmer regards es
a priority problem among his many others. There ia no point, for
 - 41 -

example, of concentrating on a solar maize dryer when the farmer’s

principal probl,em is organising land preparation, planting and
weeding to exploit the short rainy season coreson in his locality.
He will certainly no: invest in a dryer if he is not even sure of
harveating the maize to be dried;

(iv) the technology mu8t aim at solving the problem by optimising the use
of labour at a reduced level of human energy expenditure, i.e. the
technology mued not increase drudgery;

(~1 the technology will have most chance of success if the need has been
recognised b,y the main decision maker of the farm or cooperative
organisation. The decision maker will be more enthusiastic if the
advantages of the improved technique benefit him directly;

(vi) there must be a financial or other obvious incentive to adopt the

new technology;

(vii) the technology must be within the financial resources of the farmer
and must be easily and inexpensively repaired if there is any
breakdown.

The important thing to note is that the solar drying will not be operated
in isolation from the envirowent; sll the external and internal factors which
affect the system need to be considered.

11.2 Extension vork outlets

The solar drying technologist must decide which extension service, if

there is more than one, will be the moat suitable to be responsible for
CSrrying out extension uork in improving sun and solar drying technologies.
There may be several different extension networks in the country each having
irs own priorities and areas of operation.

Examples of the possibilities, which are by no means representative of

any one country, are discussed betow.

1. front-line extension workers; These are normelly government employees

Working for the various ministries responsible for egriculturo,
 - 42 -

fisheries, livestock etc. It is likely that these employees will be

trained to certificate or diploma level at a national college. In some
ca.ses the extension staff will have received all their training on the
job and will hold their current positions due to long working experience
in the sector. hrtension uorkers at this level have the advantage of
local knowledge and close working relations with the rural population.
IKowever, the front-line extension worker’s knowledge of engineering
principlea ia usually quite low. At a management level above this, the
extenaion coordinator for a region or district, while not actively
involved in the field, may have some specialist knowledge or have other
specialists reporting to him who would be capable of implementing the
proposed programme. The responsibility for translating the operating
requirements accurately into locally comprehensible terms may however
remain with the reader.

2. crop authority exteneion agents; Xn some countries extension networks may

be developed for a specific comodity, particularly where the national
importance of a crop has been recognised. Foodstuffa covered in this
way may include coffee and fish where production may be controlled by a
quasi-autonomoue produce board within the appropriate ministry. These
specielised agencies can be effectively used to extend new technologies
such aa Solar dryiog since they will be aware of the problems specific to
the crop and may also be aware of the techniques required to overcome
these problems.

3. extension departmenta in academic inatitutea; Many reeearch institutes

and university faculties have their own extension departments which carry
out mote axtension work. They are normally steffed by highly trained
axtenaion experts, u~uslly educated to at least first degree level. One
limitation is that, in ame instanceo, the department ’8 primary
consideration is the theory of different extension techniques and
socio-economic studies of extension impact rather than practical
extension work.

4. rura? development agencies; These bodies are often set up by minietries

responsible for education or social welfare. They often have the brief
of improving the lives of the rural people by introducing elementary
health care, nutritional education, etc. Project area0 include
small-scale eulttidation and simple preservation techniques. Extension
 - A3 -

workers in these egenciea might prove suitable contacts to promote the

uae of simple drying techniques. Again it should be emphaaiaed that the
information should be presented in a suitable .forau

5. appropriate technology or rural technology centrea; IU recent years many

eppropriate techuology centrea have been established with differing
mandates but essentially for the development and adaptation of
technologies to local cooditiona. These centres may prove to be
suitable vehicles for the transfer of solar drying technology.

6. coxmuercial companies; Where there is au obvious need for a particular

item of equipment, commercial companies can purchase the patent of a
particular technology or else manufacture it under licence. The
marketing departmenta of these ccmpaniea then carry out the extension
work. Since the companies are profit motivated, the initial evaluation
of the process tends Co be thorough. Once a cwnercial orgsnisation
enter8 into such an enterprise it can be assumed that the technology
stands a good chance of being extensively adopted.

In addition to the above, there are other organisationa such as religious

orgenisatione, women’s groups, local cultural groups and schools which may be
used to popularise the technology and lead to its wider adoption. The route
uhich is moat effective in propagation and hence widespread adoption of the
technology is beat determined by careful examination of the local situation.

II .3 Extension techniques

In addition to the route through which the technology reaches the farmer
or target group, there me aleo different methods through wh,ich the technology
can be demonstrated to farmers. Many of these techniques have been developed
for agricultural. teChnolOgy - e.g. crop husbandry, livestock husbandry etc.
and how effective they may be for engineering technologies is difficult to
ascertain. The main techniques are:

(i) demonstration at market places/meeting places; In this case the extension

officer takes the technology to a place where the people in that
particular area gather in large numbers. This may be at a market
place. He/she then exhibits the solar dryer (or any other technology)
to the people providing as much information es possible;
 -44-

This technique is more appropriate to the introduction of simple

improvements such as a hybrid seed variety or small portable implements,
where either the risk to the farmer is low or the improvement is
obvious. It is preferable to have a permanent demonstration site for
solar dryers where continuing drying practices can be demonstrated.
Since drying takes several days to complete, it is not practical to
demonstrate it in the market place. liowever, poster-displays in the
local language and samples of the dried foods could be exhibited.
Interested farmers could then be taken to the pilot-plant demonstration
unit at the local extension office or rural technology centre;

(ii) progressive farmer technique; In this case a progressive farmer in a

particular locality is selected and encouraged to use the new technology
(either on loan or at a aubsidioed price) and if he/she is satisfied
with its periormence heiaahe can, through the demonstration effect,
encourage other farmers to follow his example. These progressive
farmers are usually the more educated and richer members of the
cowauni ty and quite inf luent is 1. Due to their financial position, they
are better able to take risks, which may not be the case for the less
progressive and poorer fanners. However if a technology has been well
evaluated and the benefits csn clearly be seen, then the chances of
wide-scale adoption through this extension technique are great;

(iii) focus and concentrate technique; In this case farmers are selected using
criteria established by the extension officer WCording t0 the
teChnOlogy which is being extended, and they are given the technology
(usually free of charge). The extension officers focus all their
efforts on these farmers until the technology is adopted. If it is
adopted then neighbouring farmers are likely to copy it. It is an
expensive method of extension and in many cases the selection criteria
result in the selection of only the progressive and influential
farmers. Another disadvantage is that those farmers who are supposed
to copy the technology later on will also expect s free initial input;

(iv) training and visit technique; This technique involves grouping farmers
in groups of say lo-15 people with a group leader. These farmers then
meet in a speci.fied place and are given training on the new
technology. This is followed by programmed visits to the fanners at
specified intervals throughout the season when further training is
 - 45 -

given. It is an expensive method and it requires significant input in

trained manpower resources as well as transport facilities.

Any of the above four techniques could be used to propagate the use of
solar crop dryers. There may well be other methods which are more suitable.
Again, the method to be aelected will depend oa local conditions as well 8s
resources available to the extension officer.

One major problem to overcame is the coat of the dryer to the

sma’il-scale farmer. Zen if the interested farmer could teat the unit before
buying it to satisfy him/herself of its usefulness, the purchase of a dryer or
the construttion costs involved still represent a major financial outlay for
the poorest in the rural sector. This problem can be alleviated by
encouraging co-operative owwrship of the equipment where this is possible.
A pricing mechanism baaed on the quality of the dried produce will also help
t,o recoup the costs.

h
 CHAPTER 4

FISR DRYING

Unless fish are preserved or proceased in scme way to retard spoilage

they will start to decay within a few hours of being caught at the h:gh
ambient temperatures in tropical countries. Spoilage ia caused by the action
of enaymee (autolyais) and bacteria in the fish, and also by chemical
xidation of the fat which causes rancddity.

Salting and drying,, used on their own or in conjunction with each other,
are traditional methods of preserving fish which have been wad for
ceaturiea. Dried salted product@ are still very poplIar in parts of Africa,
South and South East A&I, and Latin America. Reducing the moisture content
of fresh fish by drying to around 25 per cent will atop bacterial growth and
reduce autolytic activity, but the moisture content mat be reduced to 15 per
cent to prevent mould growth. Salt retards bacterial action and aids the
removal of water by osmosis. When fish are salted prior to drying, a final
moirturc content of between 35 per cent and 45 per cent in the flesh,
depending on the ealt concentration, is often sufficient to inhibit bacteria.

I. Types of fish

In tropical waters the catch is typically mixed and may include 300 or
more species all of which can be coneumed fresh or in processed forms. Each
6f these epecies will have different characteristics which will affect their
handling properties. The fish preserver working in the tropics may therefore
have to be prepared to presente a range of specie0 of different size and fat
content. Some of the species will be delicate and require careful handling
while others are more robust and less subject to damage.

The mo8t important factors which affect the handling properties of a fish
are:

1. size. Very small fish may be dried whole, whereas larger fish must
always be cut open so as to increase the surface area available for salt
penetration and/or moisture loss. Small fish may therefore be preserved
 - 48 -

with the gut COntent intact, while this ia almost always removed in
larger species.

2. oil content. Fish oils oridise readily and became rancid giving a bitter
flavour to the product. Swe cormsunities show a preference for slightly
rancid f iah although rancidity is usually considered objet tiouable.
Fish with a high oil content are difficult to convert into good salted
and/or dried products since the oil acts as a barrier to aalt penetration
and moisture loss.

3. flesh texture. Fish with firm or moderately firm flesh are relatively
easy to handle. They can be cut without falling apart and the dried
product can be transported without breaking up. Fish which have a very
aoft flesh tend to tear when attempts a. made to cut the+ and the dried
producta are very fragile and tend to break up during transport.

I.1 Small pelagic species

Small pelagic species include fish less than 35 cm long. Such fist, form
characteristic schools or shoals, hence a catch containing these species will
be comparatively homogeneous in corsposi,tion. The group includes the
herring-like and sardine-like fish which are slender and have relatively small
scales and delicate flesh. Many species have a high oil content. These
fish are sometimes dried whole without salting, but the products are then
fragile and break easily. Rancidity is difficult to control, and unless the
products can be marketed soon after drying, they will become progressively
undesirable and unmarketable.

The small mackerels, such a6 the Indian chub mackerel, are also included
in this group. These are sold fresh wherever poesible, but may also be
salted and dried. This group also includes anchovies and anchovy-like
species of fresh waters. In Africa, near inland waters these are often sun
dried without salting.

I.2 Large pelagic species

The most important fish in this group are the tunas which can attain
weights in excess of 500 kg. Many other species reach a weight of 100 kg
while some seldom reach 10 kg. The flesh is generally very firm and contains
 - 49 -

moderete amounts of oil. In some species the fiesh is very dark and many of
theae bleed heavily when cut. The skin of moat species is thin.

Host of the world tuna catch is canned but substantial amounts ara aold
fresh. Fresh tuoa is often highly priced and is not commonly wed to make
dried salted products.

The large mackerels and horse mackerels, or jacks, have moderately firm
flesh sad a medium oil content. These are best sold fresh when possible, but
good quality dried salted products can be made.

I.3 Small demeraal species

Small demersal fish include Bottom-living fish leas than 25 cm long.

They constitute a very diverse graup including fish of very different ehapea,
but ganarally of deeper form than pelagic fish. Moat have quite large, hard
scalee and moderately firm flesh. Some, such a8 the catfish, are scaleless
and beve soft fleeh. The oil content ia variable and is generally less than
5 per cent. There is less annual variation in oil content than is found in
pelagic species.

The group includes many different types of sea-fish such a8 small

mullets. anappers, sea-breams, croakers, jew fiah and silver bellies, and
small freshwater fish such as carps and breams.

Salted and dried products of good quality can be made from many small
demersal fish bu: the products fetch gonerally lov pricee. However these
products are useful in that they provide lover-income groups with a source of
animal protein food.

I.4 Large demersal species

Large damersal fish also constitute a divrrse group. They include the
sharks and rays. as well as bony fish such as mullets, snappers, groupers, jew
fish, breams and threadf ins. Many of these bony fish are sold most
profitably when fresh. However they cau also be processed into excellent.
dried salted products wheu demand for the fresh product is not sufficient.
Good salted dried product8 can also be made from ehbrks and raya.
 - so -

The freshwater fish in thin group incude tilapia, carp and catfish.
Thha~t rpeciee are saetimee split or cut into pieces and dried in the eun
vithout aalting.

II. Pre-proeeaaiog stage0

Fish spoil very quickly and smell-scale fish-proceasiag enterprises can

eaaily loae produce and, hence, iecae through avoidable wantage. A great
deal. of spoilage mey occur before the fish is proceaeed. The bacterial and
chemical changes which cease rpoilaga proceed rapidly at tropical
temperatures. In general, the lover the fish temperature, the lower the
smouat of rpoilage. It may also be reduced if fieh are handlsd properly and
good hygienic measures are adopted. A few measurea for avoiding or
minimiring apoilage are briefly described balow.

(i) Improvement of landing facilities and distribution

Vary often whenever large catches are taken, landing facilities and the
diatribution ryatem are inadequate to handle the eurplus. In these
circumstances a long period of time may elapse before the fish can be
pmcesoed, with the consequence that a high percentage of the fish may be
aooi led. The ideal solution to this problem would be to increase the amount
of cold storage facilities. one eimple method of reducing such a bottleneck
ie to develop tb@ drying facilities as close to the landing nreae as possible
to reduce traneport time and coet.

(ii) Maintaining the fish at low temperatures

If tropical fish are wall chilled with eufficient ice, they may remain in
an edible form for up to three weeka, depending on the apeciae. In many
locations ice may not be available to the small processor, in which case the
fish can be kept cool by other means including:

keeping the fish in the coolest spot available, such as in the shade;

- placing damp sacking over the fish. As the water evaporates from the
cloth it helps to keep the temperature of the fish down. The sacking
must be kept wet and the fish must be well ventilated;
 - 51 -

- mixing the fish with wet grass or water weeds in an open-sided box so
that the water can evaporate and cool the fish. With this method, the
fish should be kept continuously wet.

(iii) Maintaining a hygienic environment

Fish which have been handled cleanly and carefully will be in better
condition than fish which have been handled carelessly; they can, therefore,
be wrth more money.

Before processing starts, attention should be paid to the following

points:

- keep the fish aa clean as poesible. Washing with clean water will
ramova any of the baeteria present on the fish akin, especially if it is
muddy;

- keep the fish cool, chilled in ice o+ chilled water, if possible, at all
stages before processing starts. Fish spoilage is a cant inuing
proctso: once a particular stage of spoilage has been reached no amount
of good practice or processing can reveree it;

- avoid damsging the fish by careless handling. If the skin ie broken

this will allow bacteria to enter the fleeh more quickly and epoilage
will be more rapid. This sort of damage can be caused by walking on
fish and by the uee of a shovel. xf the guts can be ranoved and the gut
cavity washed carefully this will reduce the number of bacteria; however,
in come areas, the purchaser requires whole fieh, and this practice m8y
lower the value of the catch.

111. Proceasing techniques

III.1 Fish preparation

It is important that fish for salting and drying he prepared in a way

which allows rapid salt penetration and water removal. Very small fish are
sometimes processed without any preparatory cutting with only the guts removed
whenever necessary. Fish larger than 15 cm are eplit open eo that the
eurface area is increased and the flesh thickness is reduced. With fish more
 - 52 -

than about 2S cm long, additional cute or scores should be made in the

flesh. Depending on consumer praference, the head can be left on - or
removed. It is desirable to scale fish for easy salt penetration and drying,
however agrin the preference of the consumer must be coneidered.

Fish should never be prepared at ground level since it will pick up dirt
even if placed on a board or mat. A table or bench at comfortable working
height should be used. The table can be made out of wood, metal or concrete
and should have a smooth surface which can be easily scrubbed clean. A
separate wooden cutting board should be used on this surface to cut the
fish. This will $wwent either the knives or the surface being damaged.
Good knives are essential for fish preparation.

Short knives should be used for small fish, long flexible knives for
filleting und stout kniven for eplitting big fish. Knivee wet be kept
sharp. Blunt knives tear the. fish and alow down the work. If a grind atone
is available, it should be used to shape or profile the cutting edge and to
remove nit ks . An oilstone or water-iubricated stone may then be used to
sharpen the cutting edge. A steel should be used to ramove burrs on the
edge. Proper grindstones are expensive and steels are not easily obtained in
war43 countries. In eny case, s fish processor should always have a good
sharpening atone available.

III.2 Gutting and splitting

Different techniques for opening and cleaning fish are used depending on
the location and the species. The method used should be the one which gives
a product which is recognieable and acceptable to the consumer. In all cases
the guta, gills end hearts should be removed cleanly. Any dark coloured
blood should be cleaned out using a small brush, and all black msmbranes
should be removed Erom’the inside of the fish.

III .3 Salting

Whether Or not to salt before drying depends on location, availability of

salt and, of course, consumer preference. Salting reduces the possibility of
spoilage before, during and after drying and gives a stable product of higher
moisture content then unsalted fish with a reascnnble shelf life in humid
zondii ions. Tha salt and extra moisture in a salteri dried product givea tSe
 - 53 -

producer more weight to sell than would be available from a comparable amount
of unsalted dried fish. Marine fish destined for drying are normally
salted. Salt is usually raadily available at coastal locations and the
preservative effect it supplies may be essential when sun drying fish with hot
humid air. At freshwater fisheries, salt may not be readily available or may
be relatively expensive. At these locations the preference may be for
unsalted dried fish. If the ambient air at inland tropical locations is hot
and dry, the fish can be dried to the lower moisture content and storage will
present less of a problem. Where unsalted dried fish are transported to more
humid areas care should be taken that the fish do not absorb moisture from the
air and become spoiled.

Generally only emall fish should be dried unsalted, as larger fish will
epail before the drying procrse is cornplated.

There are three main saltiq methods: kench salting, pickle curing and
brining. The first two methods yield fish with a relatively high salt
concentration, while the third method (brining) is commonly used for products
with a low salt concentration. A method used in some fisheries, whereby fish
are rubbed with salt and then hung to dry, is not recommended as it doee not
produce an even cure.

Kench saltine

Ia kench salting, tha fish are mixed with dry crystalline salt and piled
up; the brine which forms 8s the salt takes water from the fieh being allowed
to drain away. This method is aapecislly popular for lsrge lean fish
speciea. Kenching can be carried out in shallow concrete tanks fitted with a
drain, or on raised platforms or racks of approximately 1 m2 area and S-10
cm off the ground. Starting at the centre of the rack, 2 or 3 rows of
prepared fish are laid flesh side up over a bed of sslt. Salt is then
sprinkled or rubbed all over the fish, more being put on the thick parts of
the fish than on the thin psrts. Wherever mores have been made, these
should be filled with salt. A pile of fish is duilt up by moving outwards
f,rom the centre, and sprinkling each layer of fish with salt before covering
with the next layer. To ensure good drainsge, the centre nf the pile should
be about 10 cm higher than the outside edges and the pile should not be hiSher
then about 2 m.
 - 54 -

Care should be taken in making the pile in order to ensure even salting
of the fish and a good product quality. Brine should not be allowed to
accumulate as this will produce an uneven cure and may discolour the fish.
The edge6 of the kench pile should also be regularly sprinkled with salt to
prevent contamination.

In the tropics, fish are usually left in the kench pile for 24 to 48
hours after which they are dried. However, the salt may not have completely
penetrated the fish during this time, and penetration may continue during
drying. In rainy weather, the fish may be left in the kench pile for longer
periods. In this event, the pile should be broken1 down and a new pile made
up, so that the top fish from the first pile are placed at the bottom of the
new pils. In making the first kench pile, 30-35 parts by weight of salt
should be ueed for each 100 parts of fish.

The advantage of kench salting is tbnt the fluids sre drained off leaving
the flesh fairly dry. However, it also has s number tif disadvantages: oily
types of fish become rancid due to exposure to the air; insects and rodents
have ready access t,o the fish; mould and bacterial attack can take place; and
rralting may not always be even.

Pickle c’uring

In pickle curing, a barrel or tank is used to hold the brine which forms
8s the salt mixes with the water contsined in the fish. From 20 to 35 parts
by weight of salt to 100 parts by weight cf fish may be used depxding an the
cure required. Fntty fish, such 8s mackerel, sre commonly pickle-cured.

In this rslting method, a layer of dry salt ,ie sprend over the bottom cf
the tank upon which the first layer of fish is laid. There is, however, no
need to stack fish higher in the centre as drainage is not required. The
layers of selt and fish sre stocked up, care being taken to ensure that no
fish sre overlspped without a salt layer between them, since this could cause

the fish to stick together, As the pile is built up, the salt layers should
become thicker. The top layer of fish must be placed akin side uppermost. A
wooden cover ahaul< be placed on this top layer, so that weights can be used
to keep the fish below the surface of the brine which formr.

Pickle curing is recommended in preference to kench sslting e.6 it

produc+?s s more even salt penetration and provides s better protection of the
 - 55 -

fish against insects and animals, since the fish are cove,red with brine.

3. Brine salting

In brining, or brine salting, the fish are immersed in a solution of salt

and water. BY varying the strength of the brine and the curing period, it is
possible to control the salt concentration in the final product. The method
is commonly used in developed countries when a smoked product is to be made
and the salt concentration required in the final product must be lower than 3
per cent (e.g. as for hot-smoked mackerel). Brine salting may be used to
advantage in developing countries as the process is IPOIX uniform and
controllable than the dry salting techniques.

A fully ~turated brine cantaisa. about 360 g of salt to each litre of

water (3 lb 10 UE of salt per imperial gallon). A sack of salt should be
bung in the brine to ensure that the latter remains at full strength. Full
strength or saturated brine is called a 100’ brine. A 10’ brine - which
is made up by mixing 1 part of 1OOo brine with 9 parts of water - is
sometimes used to aoak fish before salting.

4. Salt quality

The salt used for curing fish (fishery salt) ia a mixture of a number of
chemicals. A good fishery salt contains from 95 to 98 per cent c-on salt,
known chemically as sodium chloride. Since fishery salt generally originates
from the sea, it contains impurities such as chlorides and sulphates of
cs lc iuEp and magnesium, and sodium sulphate and carbonates. Other types of
fianety salt include rock salt (i.e. mined salt) and sun salt or solar salt
(i.e. salt obtained through water evaporatiou from coastal lagoons or ponds).

The ty,pe and quality of salt used affect the appearance, flavour and
skelf life of cured fish. If pure sodium chloride is used for curing, the
product is pale yellow in colour end soft. A small proportion of calcium and
magnesium salts is desirable, as the latter yield a whiter, firmer cure which
is preferred by most people. Howevsr , if the proportion of these chemicals
is too high, the rate at which the sodium chloride impregnates the fioh is
rilewed dawn. Furthermore, the salt becomes damp ~8 the ch~lnicels absorb
CKYtsCii: f2~i.i tha air nsdxing tkc product taste bitter.
 - 56 -

The composition of sue or solar salt is determined by various factors

outside the control of the proceead-fisk producsr. Thsrefore, if salt fro38
one source proves unsatisfactory, another source should be sought or the curer
should consider making his/bet own salt.

Solar salt often contain8 some sand and mud, as it is ususlly scraped up
from the bottom of the ponds in which it is made. The cheapest grades
contain a large proportion of dirt and these should not be bought for fish
curing. Salt should be kept in clean bags or covered bin8 so that it does
not become dirty.

Salt may also contain both mulds and bacteria. The bacteria cause the
pink colour sometimes seen in salted fish. These bacteria also make the fish
slimy and produce an unpleasant odour. If the salt is kept in storage under
dry conditions for 6 to 12 months , the number of bacteria present will be much
reduced. Alternatively, the salt can be baked to kill the bacteria. Both
storage and baking will increase the processing costs. These may be avoided
if some consumers of traditional products prefer the strong flavours produced
in cured fish by mild attack8 of pink bacteria.

All processing equipment and surfaces must be thoroughly washed with

fresh water to help prevent pinking. bight growths can be brushed off from
the fish surface and the product redried, but severe attack leads to the
destruction of the fish.

Solar salt often contains very large piece8 which should be ground up
before use. An ideal salt for dry salting operations contain8 sone very fine
grains which will dissolve quickly and some larger ones which will dissolve
more slowly and prevent the fish from sticking together. Very fine salt is
preferred for making brines, because it dissolves quickly.

III .A Drying

Fish are subject to the basic principles of drying described previously,

i.e. water is removed from the fish by evaporation in two phases. During the
first phase, when only water on the surface of the fish or very cloee to the
surface evaporates, the ra&e of drriag in msln!y dr?pend”nt 1-1 the rxe of
passage of hot air over the fish and on the ability of that sir to absorb
moisture. The drying rate earn be raised by increasing the fish surface area
by splitting, scoring and so on.
 - 57 -

During the second phase, or falling rate period of drying, evaporation

from the fish surface will be dependent on the rate of moisture transfer from
inside the fish to the surface. noisture transfer rates will be lower for
oily fish since the oil acts as a barrier to moisture movement. In common
with all cosrsodities the second phase of fish drying will depend on piece sise
(i.e. distance from the surface), temperature and the amour& of residual water.

It should be noted that if fish are dried too rapidly a hard impermeable
outer crust will form which will prevent the passage of any more moisture.
This phenomenon is known as case hardening. Externally, case hardened fish
look well dried but the centre of the fish vi11 still be moist snd could
spoi 1. A fish which has been damaged in this way will be hard on the
outside, but msy feel soft or spongy internally when pressed.

Fish are rich in proteins which are denatured when heated. This means
that the fish might start to cook at conventional hot air drying
temperatures. Optimum drying temperatures for temperate salt-water species
can be as low as Z?‘C, whereas tropical species can generally withstand
higher temperaturss before cooking and can be dried using air at 45-50°G.

1. Convent,.cnsl sun drying

NaCural drying methods use the combined action of the sun and wind
without the use of any equipment. Since it is important to dry the fish
quickly before they spoil, all the fish surfaces should be exposed to the
drying action of the wind. Ideally the drying site should be in a breezy
location with a dry prevailing wind coming from en inland direction.

Traditionally, many fishermen in tropical countries spread their fish on

tLe ground, on rocks, or on besches to dry in the sun. Same fish processors
use mats or reeds laid on the ground to prevent contamination of the fish by
dirt, mud and sand. Drying fish in this manner has many disadvantages and,
in recent years, tbc we of rsised sloping drying racks has been introduced as
a simple, but often effective, improvement. The product obtained from rack
drying is cleaner since the fish do not come into contact with the ground;
they srs also less accessibl,e to domestic animals and pests, such as mice,
rLtc ddnd crsxling insects, wbicn contamnate or consume them. Protection
from rain is simply accomplished by covering the rack with a sheet of
waterproof material (e.g. plastic); if fish on the ground are covered, they
 -5s-

are protected from falling rain but not from water on the ground itself.
Drying rates are higher, because air currents are stronger at a metre or so
above the ground and air can pass under the fish as well as over them. The
use of a sloping rack allows any exudate to drain away.

Where only a few large fish are to be dried, this may be done by hangi.ng
the fish up. Split fish may be hung on hooks by tying them up with string,
or by tying the fish in pairs by the tail and hanging them across a pole or
line. Basbay duck is an example of a fish dried in India in this fashion.
The fish are hung in pairs, joined jaw to jaw, on horizontal ropes at an
optimum loading of SO-60 fish per metre.

barge quantities of fish should be dried on racks (figure 7). Suitable

msterials for drying racks include chicken wrre, old fishing nets, and thin
rode or poles, such as reeds or sections of bamboo. The eurface of the racks
should be at a height of about 1 m from the ground and should slope if split
large fish are to be dried. A flat surface is preferred for drying small
intact fish. Where large quantities of very small fish are Co be dried, a
netting rack m;y be impractical. Suitsble drying surfaces may be made
instead, with raised floors of wood, concrete, bamboo strip or, where none of
these materials are available, well-compacted clay.

At the end of the drying day the fish are usually heaped together and
stored to prevent them becwing wet by dew or rain during the night. During
overnight storage the fish should be covered by wooden boards weighted Co
apply pressure on the fish. ‘inis wiik fiatten the fish, giving them a better
appearance, and will also speed up the process by which water moves from the
inside of the fish to the outside, so that they will dry more rapidly when set
out the following morning.

Uowever, even when racks sre used, sun drying has many limitations: long
periods of sunshine wirhout rain are required; drying rates are low; and in
areas of high humidity, it is often difficult to dry the fish sufficiently.
The quality of sun-dried fish is likely to be low due to slow drying, insect
damage, and contamination from air-borne dust. Also it is difficult to obtain
a uniform product.

Thus, in the search for improved drying techniques, the use of solar
 - 59 -

I’ ’
6 I!,
0 III
-2d.J

Figure 7
Fixed drying racks with flet and slanting drying surfaces
 - (is -

dryars has been investigated as an alternative to traditional sun drying. ,As

previously discussed, solar dryers employ some means of collecting or
concentrating solar radiation with the result that elevated temperatures and,
in turn, lower relative humidities are achieved for drying. When using solar
dryers, tbe drying rate can be increased, lower moia&ure contente can be
attained, and product quality is higher. The dryers are less susceptible to
variations in weather, although drying is obviously slower during iirclsment
weather, and they do provide shelter from the rain. The high interns1
tqeratures discourage &he entry of pests into the dryer and csn be lethal Co
any which do enter.

The solar tent dryer described earlier wan first developed in Bangladesh
for fish drying. This and several furCher modifications of it have since
been teaetsd in many part.’ of the tropics. With an ambient temperature of
27oS, temperatures of around 4S*S cae be attained ineide the dryer, which
are ides1 for tropical fish drying. The fish should be losded onto recks
built inside the solar Cent in a similar fashion to sun drying.

In fine wather conditions fish can be dried within 3 days, compared with
5 days for sun drying. The quality of the solar dried fish is higher.
During the initial constant rate period of drying (dependent largely on air
movement), drying rates in the solar Cent and on sun drying racks are broadly
similar. However the second phase, or falling rste period of drying, occurs
more rapidly within tbe tent. A suitable method for fish drying might be CO
use racks, in the first instant, snd complete the process inside the solar
tent e This would have the advantage of reducing the time spent by a batch of
fish inside the dryer, allowing a greater throughput.

Solar drying reduces the effect of insect infestation on fish, In

addition to causing lasses in quality and quantity, insect pests are potential
carriers of pathogenic bacteria and thus represent a serious health hazard.
The temperatures found in salsr dryers can kill any insects or larvae present
on the fish, thereby presenting a means of disinfestation. A period of 20
hours at 45’S is recommended for a complete disinfestation of drying fish.

Flies, the major carriers of disease, lay eggs on fish during. the early
stages of drying, but become less attracted to them as the flesh dries and
hardens. The larvae tunnel into the flesh, causing putrefaction and
extensive physical damage, The moat important pests of the dried fish are
 - 61 -

beetle8 of the family Dermestidae. They invade the fish flesh from the
earliest rtagea of drying, but unlike flies, continue to be attracted to, and
breed in, the dried product.

Prevention of spoilage af fish doring processing

A mu&r of acaaurea may be adopted in arder to minimise the spoilaye of

fish during processing. These include:

- keeping all tools, fish boxes and cutting surfaces clean. Where drinking
quality uater is available, it should be used to wash the fish before end
during processing, aucb as after gutting or splitting the fish;

- pravantion af fish offal (piuts, he&s, gill*, etc. ) from coming into
cootact with eleeued fiah. In addition, the fish uoiking area should be
cleaned regularly. at laaet once a day, by removing all offal and dirt
which might contain bacteria or attract insect peata such es flies. All
offal should be removed from the working site. It may he used a8
fertiliser, or buried. Tt should r.ot be thrown into the water near the
uork aim, aa this practice fouls the wter and may attract insects;

- ensuring that high standards of person81 hygiene are mainteined. Fish

proceasora are handling food, and hand5 ahould always be weshed before
starting work and particularly after visiting the toilet. People wha
have infected wounda, etxmch complainta, or any contagious disease
should not be allowed to handle the fish;

- apeedy processing. Thz longer the time required for proceeaing, the
greater the smount of spoilage which will occur before proceeeing ie
completed;

- keeping the fish in boxes and off the ground. Work, such as cutting
fish prior to salting or dry&&, must be carried out on tables, not on
the ground where the fish will become dirty and pick up bacteria;

- protection of the fish from rain and using salt during drying in order to
avoid the spoilage of fish through bacteria, mould or ineect attack;
 - 63 -

etteek. A further disadvantage is that saae dried fish have sharp, hard
points and edges, ubich puncture 8nd rip the plastic or polythene bags,
thi;s allouiog sir. moisture, dua:, or inSact to spoil the fish.

A suitable arrangement might be to USC a polythene liner within a close

weave basket. Disinfeatation of stored dried fish can be achieved by
fwnigatioe. Sine+ the chemical8 u8ed for fumigation sre al80 toxic to
humans, extreme care is necessary vhea fumigating any products. Experienced
and trained personnel should csrry out the process. Phostoxin and methyl
bromide are effective fmigantr. Fumigation should be carried out in an
enclosed fish &ore or under gas-proof aheeta in order to ensure a complete
disinfestation cf stored fish. 24 g of metbyl bromide per cubic metre hrs
been found to disinfest dried fish successfully when applied over a 24 hour
period. Howeve r , phostoxin is considered more euiteble for use in fish
atore. at a doae of 0.2 to a.5 g phasphine per 50 kg for 2 or 3 days. Dried
fiah can alno he disinfeotad by heat treatment, which can be rupplied by 8
solar dryer es mentioned earlier.

v. Alternative pruscseee

The reader ahauld be awre that simple processing of fish ie not

restricted to drying. Other prOdUCt which can be made include a variety of
smoked and cured goods and also fermented fish products. The-ee techniques
may alao be eppropriate for use in the small-scale fisheries sector.
Information on theaa procassea C8n be found in ewe of the references listed.

VI. ExCensiOn work activities for fish drying

VI.1. Location

Fresh fish do not travel well in hot climatee. Therefore for the purpoae
of demonstrating fish drying to extension workers, it ia preferable to find a
site near fish landing arees. Any national inetitute or agency involved in
fisheries should be able to advice on a suitable location. It may be poseible
 - 44 -

to work side by side or in cooperation with an on-going project, which should

reduce the effort required to set up 8 demonstration unit and aaaist in the
procurement of the raw msterials. Any agency already working in fisheries
developlleat may also be able to recommend suitable extension worker8 and
advise oil their educational background..

VI .2 Current pract ice8

Within the chosen location, the present fish drying practices should be
established:

what species (or groups) ara dried?

are the fish salted before dqiog?
are the fish fillstad, gutted, etc.?
have any difficulties ir production been recognieed?
who driaa the fish?
what are the uses of the product?
does the market require a specific quality of product?
what ir the site of the market?
are there any shortfalls/gluts in production?
how much fish does a processor dry, and how doer thia relate to
overall production?
what route does a processor’s output take to reach the merket? (If
it is bulked with the dried fish made by other people it may be
difficult to introduce ChengeS.)

The technologist should liaton carefully to how the proteasar 8nd the
purchaaar or toe dried fish da:scribe the product. It is unlikely that either
will be totakly objactive, but it mey be possible to infer whether ao improved
process8 would Diva a better product acceptable to 811. The technologist will
be aware of any deficiencieo in product quality because of his foI?saI
training, but these caay not be km&Lately obvious to the layman.

VI.3 Demonstration units

In order to demonstrate the techniques to the fishermen it is essentiel

that the extension workers become fully conversant with the methods the
t&urologist is ret-euding. This is equally true whether you are attempting
to introduce fish drying as a new technique or tryiog to improve on existing
techniques. A demonstration unit should be constructed where all the
processes associated with good fish drying can be carried out. Samples of
dried fish produced in this fashion will illustrate the efficiency of the
process to extension workers who will then be able to transfer the information
to fiahewee at a later date.

For the purpose of daaonstration, a process line of about lo-20 kg

cspacity is sufficient. A smell unit will help reduce costs and by keeping
the time spent at each unit operation (gutting, salting, etc.) to a minimum,
ensure that the demonstration does not beccme tedious.

Prepare s lis& a,f all treining materials required:

work surfaces, knives, fish boxes, clean water, etc. for cleaning
the fish;

salt and any containers necassary to salt the fish;

wood (prepared or orherwiea), carpenery toois, netting, wire mesh,

nails, etc. needed to construct solar dryers and drying racks;

plastic shest to cover the solar dryer. The best way to obtain this
will vsry from location to location. Plastics manufacturers might
not wsnt to sell you s small amount, in which case you msy either be
given the amount you require or be sold a lsrger smount. If the
letter is the csse, you might be able to recover costn by acting as
a central plastics store for any subsequent solar drying extension
work. Polyethylene is slso useful for forming into plsstic bags fur
pSCkSgiSg;

paint end preservatives Cc treat the wood;

instruments to monitor drying. The number of these you have will

depend on local availability and the extent of your budget. Spring
or two-pan balances, end thermometers (wet and dry bulb) should be
svsilsble in most principal cities;

packaging materiels: bags, boxes, baskets, end cartons;

s lockable tool box. Useful items such 8s balances, knives,

hslaners, etc. have s tendency to be damaged or on occssion borrowed
snd not returned. In order to conserve your stock it ie necessary
to keep thsm under lock and key, for use only with your authority.
 - 66 -

Security in also important when deciding on the location of the

demonetration unit. The preparation techniques such a~) cleaning and gutting,
and poacribly even salting, may be best carried out indoors. Ihe construction
of drying racka and solar dryer8 will be done in the open. A secure aim
where :he drying work will be seen aad also protected from theft or damage
vill be needed. The drying 8it6 should of coume be adjacent to the fish
preparatioa *rea. It is esseatial to establi6h who will bc responsible for
maintaining the site and aay drying material built on it. Where practical,
the flat roof of any suitable building would be an ideal location.

Coaetruct drying racks and solar dryer8 of an appropriate scale, making

careful notes of the construction techniquea and raw materials used. If any
method seema impractical or uanecesaarily complicated, improve upon the design.

IMing the equipment available;, carry out finh drying exercirer, until you
ere familiar with method8 of gutting, salting, drying, etc.. Prepare dried
fish at a level of quality you conaider appropriata for the market, and obtain
aem6 opiniona on your product from the trade. Having eaeablished that your
d8vclopment ia acceptable, you era nou iu a poaieioa to make recommendations
to extension workero.

VI.4 Involv6mant of extension workers

If poaaible, arrange for suitable exteneion vorkers eo vieit your

damomtration unit8 for training progrsmer lasting 1-2 w66k6. Groupa of
1040 workerr could be trained at a time. depending on ehe level of interest
rhown end the manpower available.

Discusa tht current fish drying practicea, bringing their atceation to

spoilage aad infestation. Then, you should describe the proceeees you have
developed and explain the r6aaon8 for rray modifications to traditional
practicer. The extensioa workers shouid carry out a programne of practicai
aeeeioaa ia order to familiarire themselves with sun and solar drying
procareer and the conrtruction methods used for the dryers. Encourage them to
describe the techniques in their term8 and in those understandable by artisans
or firhermen/vcm6n. Gerry out a simple costing exercise co indicate the coet
of ths drying unitr, end diecuse wheeher ehis umounr. is feaeible in relation
to the price which can be obtained for the dried fish. By the end of the
 - 67-

training programme the extension worker should have assimilated all of the
aeceseary technical information and should be able to convey this to the
end-user of the technology. He/she should also be capable of undertaking all
the operations associated with the technology, from fish gutting to dryer
construction, end be confidene of the reaeoas for carrying out eheae tasks.
He/she should be aware of all ehe advaneagea and disadvantages of each
technique. The adoption of the technology now dependa on the identification
rf B target group of artihnns or fiehermen/vcea by the extension servicee.
where ehe approved methods tea be demonaerated by the trained exteneion
forces. The eechnolcgist should be retained in an advieory capacity during
this phase, to provide technical back-up as necessary.
 CHAPmR 5

VRCEl’AlLB DRYING

Vegetables are a desirable component of any diet, because they provide

e5,c cmpl”~’ renge- 9f n~uerienea required, ‘Iheir production is often seasonal
depending on annuai rains and suieabte growing temperatures. There era
likely to be periods when surpluses we available which the fanner raay uot be
able to uw or sell profitably. At other times of the year there are likely
to be abortages which can result in the variety and nutritional content of the
diet being restricted. This is parricularly wider.: in 10% income groups.
The ,introduction of simple proceesing taehniqwa to allow’vegetab1ea to becona
*vailable RI\ year, will go am* biay to rllnviatlng this problem aild will aIs0

help CO raise the incomes of rural people.

Drying ia a particularly suitable mc~.thod of preserving vegetables. When

deciding on which vegetables to dry the reader should make the distInctian
between vegetables which may be traditionally dried or consumed fresh in the
locality - in this group we may include okra, chillies end various herbs - end
vegetables wh ic h may be eaten exclusively in the fresh farm. The
introduction of dried versions of the latter may meet with conetuner resietence
which should be taken into consideration in any extension proposal.

Certain veyetablee euch 88 lettuce, melons, cucumbetcr, radishes and

usparsgue are not suitable for drying.

Vegetables are not subject to attack by the same range of pathogenic

organiws which thrive on flesh fnods such as fish. Poor drying techwiques

are more likely to lead to spoiled produce rather than dried foods which ere
dangerous co the health. Nowever the reader should be aware that mould growth
an incorrec tiy dried vegetabies (&rid mosi: other commodities! can contain
tox,ina wh:cb are poisonous.

I. Pre-processing
__l~-_ techniques

The best dried vegetables will be produced from freshly harvested produce

and not from the wcortd class remains of 6, botch the farmrr “as wwuccessful
 - 70 -

in marketing fresh. It is essential to plan at the time of harvest how much

will be aold fresh and how much will pe dried. The vegetables to be dried
should be kept cool, shaded and, in the ease of leafy vegetables, sprayed with
clean water to minimise wilting. Correct handling practices will minimise
bruiaiog and damage to the crop. Ideally the crop should be transported to
the drying site in menageably aired boxes and baskets rsther than moved in
bulk in a large cart and shovelled off.

it is important that all post-hatvest operations should be carried out as

soon as possible sfter harvesting to minimire the extent of spoilage.

I .l Hygiene

The need for gaod hygiene during all proceeaing operations sennot be
over-emphasised. Frequent hand washing, regular cleaning of equipsent, and
rapid disposal of wasta materials go a long way in preventing contami~natioe of
the dried product. Adequate provision of preparation equipment, for example,
sharp (stainless steel) koivss; availability of potable (or chlorinated)
water; plenty of room for vorking; and people who have bean trained in
processing procedures end the need for hygienic conditions; together with
correct Location of the processing eite ere other factors which contribute to
hygienic working conditions.

I .2 Cleaning

Following harvaating end transportation to the drying site, the first

prt?-drying operation ie usually cleaning, although this is not an essential
operation for all commodities. Cleaning ,eervea to remove dirt, leaves,
tviga, stouee, insects, insecticidal residues, end other contaminants. The
---I.--
..xnu”.l of they+* r~~c~i~~c,e r*&;=e r;poi:agc rates* Tine easiest way to
iiaab the crop is manuslly in a purpose-built tank made from concrete or
plastic, or in clay pots. It is essential to change the water regularly
especially when washing heavily soiled vegetables such as root crops.

X.3 Grading and eorting

Sorting is very important in the production of high quality foodstuffs.

However it should be noted that the operation can be made much easier (and
losses reduced) if correct harvesting procedures are followed. Sorting may
 L
- 71 -

be performed at the time the ecwmodity ia received at the drying site, but ia
scwetimes done immediately after cleaning when the physical characteristics of
the cosmodity are better exposed. Factors that may be considered in sorting
are rriae and shape, colour, texture, density, chemical canpoaiton, blemishes ,
and insect infestation.

Sorting serves to determine the value of the comppcdity for processing end
assists in making the operation more profitable.

Quality aspec:s sueb as maturity, colour, flavour, and the absence of

defects govern the acceptability of the finiahed product. Therefore sorting
is aetond in importance LO correct harvesting for producing high quality dried

products. During sorting, all the subataadard produce ahould be rejected.

Sorting is usually followed by grading, where the vegetables are aubdivided
into groups based on the desired quality attributes. Thin may be done on the
basis of aise. For small quaotities this process can be done manually.

Grading into lots according to shape or siee has the following advantages:

1. any subsequent pre-processing operation such as blanching or eulphuring

can be more easily controlled;

2. drying will be more uniform;

3. the market mey pey more for en evenly sized product. In some cases a
higher prica may be obtained for a particularly desirable siee at thie stage;

Size grading is only relevant to vegetables which wilt be dried whole.

Where the vegetables will be cut or sliced, size grading is earried out after
:hi6.
I

I .4 Peeling

Harry Vegetables require peeling prior to drying (see plate 5.1). Since
s thick skin presents a physical barrier to moisture removal its removal aids
drying. However, care must be taken not to remove too thick a layer in case
 - 72 -

Preparation of vegetable

Plate 5.1
Peeling yams. Good
sharp knives and a
clean work suface
are essential

Plate 5.2
II
The peeled and sliced vegetables shouid be stored under wat
 - 73 -

valuable nutrients are lost. e.g. peeling a thick layer from potatoes or
ginger removes most of the vitamins and minerals. Losses can also be high if
peeling ir, Oat properly controlled. Freshness is important; sanetimer
ahrivelled or Gorky skins develop on old vegetables vhich require special
peeling treatment.

In mwt ca8ee nwinual peeling using good stainless steel knives or potato
peelers ie the cheapeat and simplest method.

I.5 Coring, pitting and trimming

The object of this stage is to remove any undesirable part of the

vegetable. .Any blemishes should be at out. In the case of root vegetiables
the green tops and long roota should ha removed. With green vegetables any
w&y wan or core crhould ba cut out*

X.6 Cutting and slicing

Unless the vegetable is going to be dried whole, such as okra, it is

oaceseary to reduce its sine to enable drying to take place in a eenaible
time. &pending on the shape required by the market, vegetables may be cut
into cubes, alices, strips, rings, shreds, or wedger. Again cutting with a
sharp knife is the cheapest and simplest method. Care should be taken to
obtain pieces with a8 high a degree of uniformity as possible. Grading
should be carried out.

All of the manual cutting operationa described can be time consuming. To

prevent the prepared matsrial from browning or deteriorating, it can be stored
tamporrrily in a 2-4 per cent brine solution until the next batch processing
b.uF.-aLAY.* ‘.TrnF p’s::: j.;;. in the came of gtean lasfy vegetables, the
briaing gives an improved texture which makes the vegetables easier to dry.

I .7 Blanching

Blanching involves subjecting vegetables to boiling or near-boiling water

tempcraturee for very short periods. The principal function of blanching ia
to inactivate plant enzymes, but the operation also partially caoka the
tissues and renders the cell membranes more permeable to moisture transfer.
More rapid and ccmplete drying is obtained and the texture ie improved when
 - 74 -

the blanched, dried product is rehydrated. During bhtching, the

micro-organism count in foodstuffs ia substantially reduced and sometimar the
food becaaes practically sterile. However, during exposure to the
non-aterile conditions that can exiet in subsequent processing operations, the
product can easily become recontaminated.

All of the operaticme described, from harvesting to slicing, result in

damage to the plant tissue. The response to this by the plant is the release
of enxymeo which can produce undesirable quality changes, For example, when
potatoer are cut and exposed to the air, enzyme activity will result in the
formation of undesirab,le brown pigments. Other than discolouration, the
undesirable effects of enzyme activity are the development of offiflavours,
the loaa of vitamins, end the breakdown af tieeue,

Bnryme tlyst~~ in foodetuffe are extremely complex and vary with

dif terent canmodit iacl. Most of the eneyme SJybCeUIa are progressively
inactivated at temperatures above 70°C cclmpletely
and deactivated at around
90°C. Sanatimesl expo*urs of r7r 2: two T I c-I:c~.~
.___j.~--_,._ ia the blanching veseel ia
sufficient, but longer times are usually used to enaure complete
inactivation. Peroxid8se is one of the moat heat-resistant enzymes. The
teat for the destruction af this eaayme can be used to indicate the adequacy
of blanching in the fectory or laboratory.

During the blanching process, the time of expoeure to the heating medium
required for a given commodity depends upon eeveral factors:

(i) piece size. To obtain effhtive enzyme inactivetion all part.9 of

the material should reach a eempvrature of et least 90°C. Longer
blanching timeo are required for larger pieces to allow penetration
of heat to the centfee. However care should be taken in the case
of &rg* p:cee* thsr_ r&.ir ezii’if surfrce dos not become cooked;

(ii) temperature. Suieable uniform temperatures must be maintained

throughout ehe blancher. In mountainoue regions, where the
barmetric preesure is lower, immersion times must be increased to
coppeneate for eke lowar boiling temperature of water;

(ii) depth of load. Heat must peneeraee ineo the centre of the bed of
meterisl eo that all pieces will_ reech the deeired temperature;
 - 7s -

(iv) blanching medium: Blenchiug in water usually requires leas time

than blanching in eteem at t&m same temperature, because of the
rapid application of heat to each piece in the liquid medium, as
a&net ehe relatively elow penetration of eteem into the food.

Blanching can either be carried out in water or aeeam. For water

blanching, the commodity is imeraed in a container of boiling or near boiling
waeer for the necessary the. Care muse be taken. to avoid over-blanching
which leads to lash of eexeure and difficulties in subeequane drying. On a
small scale the eaeiese meehod is to uee a muslin hag or wire basket for
irmnersion which not only enauraa the aama immersion time, but keepa all eke
piecea together in a clean environment.

The product CO be blanched can be plac,d on a mu&in cloth, the corner8

of which we then tied eo give .a simple bag (sac plaee 5.31. The bag can
then be attached to the end af a atick and dippad into a boiling pot. Care
rhould be taken not to put too large a batch in the boiling water or it will
coal the waeer excessively. The water temperature in ehe blancher should not
drop below about 90°C end, if possible, should be rapidly brought back to
the boil after iwrsing the vegetablea (see plate 5.4). With piecea of 6 urn
thiclmesa adequate blanching can be obtained after aboue 4-6 minutes Jeing
thie method. While the bag ia in the pot ie snould be stirred around eo
~~neure evco heating. After blanching the bag should be rapidly cooled using
cold waee’r to prevent eve--blanching or cooking.

glSnChing by immersion has the advantage that comparatively large amounts

of material can be processed at one time. However a high level of soluble
solids can leach into the writer from the vegetable, which may reduce :;he
nutrieional content Or render the dried food lees attractive.

gteam blanching produces e more attractive dried product and is often

preferred to water blanching bereuse ehere is a smaller loss of nutrients by
leaching and, in some vegetables, the dried product has an enhanced seorage
life. It basically consists of subjecting the prepared comnodiey to an
atmosphere of live steam. If the commodity ia on trap, therefore, there
need be no direct handling of eke corrarodiey between blanching end drying, thus
aid ing hygiene . On a small scale, ehis can be: carried out by placing ehe
tray in the upper section of a tank or pot, eke lower eection of which
contains vigorouely boiling water, and covering with a lid, The tray should
nue come ineo direct contact with the boiling wnter.
 Plate 5.3
Blenching can be done
in a cooking pot over
a charcoal. stove
 - 77 -

AS previously mentioned, steam blanohing times are usually a few minutes

longer than water branching times. Vegetable pieces of 6 mm thickness would
be adequately blanched after 6-8 minutes. These timee are given only as
guidelines. Trial and error will determine the most suitable blanching time
under local circumstances.

I .E Colour retention

Blanching can be used as a tool to aid colour retention, especially in

green vegetables. The green colour is due to the presence of chlorophyll
which breaks down when green tissues are heated in the presence of acid.
During blanching, since the contents of plant tissues are acid, the pH of the
blanching water falls, bleaching the leaves. When green vegetables such as
cabbage are blanched, it is necessary to use a sodium carbonate solution to
msintain the pW of the liquor at 7.3 to 7.8 to prevent discolouration. A
practical method of doing this in to use a 1 per cent sodium bicarbonate
soluticil for blanching, wing the immersion technique.

Blanching is not carried out with all vegetables. For example onions and
garlic sre not blanched, since this would result in a loss in pungency as the
flavour compounds are very volatile and would be lost through blanching.

I.9 SUlphuring and sulphiting

With scme dried products the use of chemical preservatives will improve
the colour and &resee the shelf life. The most conrson preservative used is
rulphur dioxide. There are two methods of providing aulphur dioxide (Sol)
to coPlmodities, aulphuring and sulphiting’. Sulphuring is more corrsonly used
for fruits, and sulphiting for vegetables.

Sulphiting iuvolves introducing $01 into the cosrxodity by the use of

sulphite salts such as sodium sulphite or sodium metabisulphite, either by
adding them to the blanching water or, when steam blanching is employed, by
either spraying a sulphite solution on to the coreaodity, or by soaking it in a
cold solution following blanching. Blanching in a sulphite solution is
particularly useful since it combines two operations into one. The
concentration of sulphite salts, and dipping, spraying or blanching times
again depend on the commodity.
 - 78 -

Concentrations used for spraying applications should be between 0.2-0.5

per cent. Sulphiting by the use of sprays or dips in not generally thought
to be praotical in the rural eeetor.

Where the chemicala can be obtained, immersion blanching in a aodiuar

metabisulphite solution might be practical. Tt is important to control
sulpt!,ting accurately to obtain the correct levels of SOS in the food.
Excessive amounts of SO2 give the food an unpleasant smell and may cause the
food to be unacceptable.

The strength of a sodium metabisulphite solution ie expressed in parts

per million (ppm) otherwise known as mg per kg. By way of conversion,
10,ooo ppm of so2 means there is an overall concentration of 1 par cent.
For example, 1.5 g of sodim metabisulphite dissolved in 1 litre of water will
give 1,OOC ppm to.1 per cent) of SO*. An easy way to prepare a stock
solution is io d,isaolve 12 g (2 l/2 level teaspoons) in 1 litre of water to
give an SO2 strength of 8,000 ppm (0.8 per cent). By adding more water to
this, different strengths can be achieved. Sage examples of the use of a
aulphiting solution are given in the techniques for drying vegetables below.

Sulphuring involves burning elemental sulphur in a sulphur chamber to

produce SO2 which permeates into food tissues. A sulphur chamber consists
of an enclosure, with adjuetable vents, housing perforated trays stacked one
above the other. The amount of sulphur used and the time of exposure depend
upon the commodity, its moisture content, other pre-treatments and the
permitted levels in the final product. The food is placed on the trays
inside the sulphur box and sufficient sulphur is placed in a container near
the trays. For most vegetables 10-12 g of sulphur (2-2 l/2 level teaspoons)
per kg of food is adequate. The *olphur is ignited and alloued to burn in
the muffled environuent for 1-3 hours.

Sulphuring has the advantage over sulphiting that it uees rock sulphur,
which may be more readily available than sodium metabisulphite. The fumes of
burning sulphur are unpleasant and can be dangerous to the processor .
Sulphuring should always be carried out outdoors in a well ventilated location.

1.10 Quality advantages

Other than the diecolourations caused by enzymes described for blanching,

browning reactions caused by chemical reactions can occur during drying.
 - 79 -

These adverse quality changes are referred to as non-ensymic browning. They

are particularly noticeable in light coloured foods such as potato and
cauliflower. The rata of most browning reactions is greatly dependent upon
temperature, the combined effect of time and temperature, and the moisture
content of the drying material. The chemical reactions involved occur in
water end proceed slowly in the dilute solutious found in very moist foods.
As the foods ore concentrated during the drying process, the reactions proceed
more rapid iy.

The brovning reactions continue after drying, and dried vegetables will
continue to darken during storage unless they have been treated with SO*.
The presence of SO2 in the dried vegetables will also inhibit
microbiological spoilage and will help to deter insects both during drying and
later in storage.

It should be emphasised that SO2 in toxic at high concentrations and

its use should be carefully controlled. Saee countriee have zuandator-- lizits
on how much SO2 can be included. The limits for some dried f.ruit and
vegetables in the United Kingdom are shown in table 2. If the dried product
is intended for export, the possibility of natioral regulations should be
borne in mind. In some countries, such as the Federal Republic of Germany,
the use of SO2 is not permitted.

Table 2
Maximum permitted levels of additives for
some dried foods in the United Kingdom

Food Preservative Leve 1 ( ppm)

coco”ut , desiccated Sulphur dioxide 50

Fruit:

Figs Sulphur dioxide 2,000

Sorbic acid 500

PrUlI62S Sulphur dioxide 2,000

Sorbic acid 1,000

Others Sulphur dioxide 2,000

Vegetables:

Cabbage Sulphur dioxide 2,000

Potato Sulphur dioxide 550
Others Sulphur dioxide 2,000
 - 80 -

x.11 Quality changer during dryiog

In order to rele,ct the comet drying conditions it is useful to be aware

of eme of the factors which affect vegetables during drying.

l’br product may bs adversely affected by light. Sunlight triggers a

ubola range of uudesirable reactiona. It can cause oxidation of fats which
eeueee rancidity. Light can initiate undesirable colour changes; green
vegetable6 may beccae bleeched. and pale coloured vegetables can darken.
Suolight can also cause a reduction in the autritional value; vitamina can be
deatrayed. Sot method of overcoming these problem is to dry the vegetable8
in the shade wherever possible.

gmarsively high temperaturas during drying can rerult in high levels of

shrinkage in the dried foode. Thin may render them irregular iz shape and
aim 1 aud uuatt,ractive to the consumer. High temperatures will also increase
rha tendency towarde brovaiog, Dried vegetables which are badly shrunken are
more difficult to rehydrate.

Tha rehydration of a dried food product is another iuportant factor,

particuiarfy in terms of coneumar acceptance. It must not be thought that
rvlhydration is a complete revereal of the dehydration process. Swe of the
changer produced by drying are irreversible. The outer layers of the dried
food, crushed and malformed during drying, are unable to return completely to
their original siee and shape. Soluble constituento in the dried foods leach
out into the rehydration water contributing to a leer in nutrients and also a
loer in flevour and aroma.

Tbe nwelling power of starch and the elasticity of cell walla, both
important rebydration factors, are reduced by heat treatment. With some
products, such as dried fish, producing a rehydrated product similar in
appearance to the original form ie not so important, as the dried product is
utilised in roupr or stews and is added directly to the cooking pot. This nay
also be true for dried vegetables.

II. Choice of drying technique

II.1 Sun drying

The 8un drying of vegetables on the ground should be avoided to prevent

 - 81 -

contamination by dust and insects. Where 6un drying 06 the ground is the
&?Z6Ctice, 6ttempts should be made to introduce aimple improvements 6uCh 66 the
use of mats. However, for the 6ame re66ons as dercribed for fieh drying. it
iS preferable to raise the drying vegetrbfeo off the 8rOMd by the use of
trays on racks. ve8at6bable6 can be dried on horizontal r6cks. Th6 tt6y6
should be perforated Co permit the maximus flow of air around the dryi
vegetables. The tray6 should be lorlded with no more than 6 kg of vegetables
per square metre. The vegetables should be spread in ao even lager snrl should
be stirred or moved at least every hour during the first dryiag period. !Ihia
will speed up drying and improve the quality of the finished product. gun
dryiog of vegetable6 ou racks is illustrated in plate6 5.5 and 5.6.

Shade drying should he carried out if it i6 neces6ary to prevent

diocolouration or to conberve nutriants. In this case the drying rack should
be plsced in s shaded poaitiQ6. Shade drying is more deptndant on air
6Qvement through or over the drying vegetables. Therefore the drying rack
should be positioned to take maximum advantage of any winds. In dry air
conditions with ample circulation, shade drying can be accomplished almost 6s
quichly as 6~6 drying. In conditions of high smahine 6ud low humidity sun
drring can be finished in RI?LI daylight period. Where R longer period is
nece666ry the same precautions concerning protection from evening rains and
morning dewa, described for fish drying, apply.

X1.2 Solar drying

Moat vegetables can be satisfactorily dried using a solar cabinet dryer.

During the initial stage6 of drying it is essential to ensure that there is no
condensation of water in6 idc the dryer. Condensation ia caused by
insufficient air flow and the operator should ensure that the air intake and
outlet Vents are sufficiently uide open to prevent this happening, Increased
sir flow inside the cabinet will reduce the temperature, but the reader will
recall that the initinl dryi6g phase is more dependant on air flow than high
temperature. The altixnative, with no air flow, is a hot steamy cabinet which
acts more a8 &I blancher than a dryer. In the second phase of drying the air
flow through the cabinet can be reduced allowing the temperature to rise.
Cabinet tempera:ures in the range of 604JQ°C are adequate to dry most
vegetables.
 Place 5.5
--
sun drying poracu NliCOS ax, rl raised tray

i’ 1 il Ce 5 . 6
ll-,--l._-..
,111 dryi~q tcxei~to si i.c;e.s .hiid oilion ri.nf@. ‘The trays RT,: raised upon
3 but these t,wc\ foods :;hou Id *mt be placed E irle by si,de ns f;hown twrr
 - 83 -

As described previously, the solar cabinet dryer can be used in tha

shaded mode by placing a black absorbant material directly below the cover.
Thirr absorber will transmit ‘moat of the heat received to the air inside the
dryer. When drying more than one ,vegetable ut a tilpe it is essential to
emore that the correct combination of different varieties is placed aide by
side on the rack or in the dryer. For example, strongly flavoured vegetablea
such as onions and chillie8 should not be placed next to more bland foods such
as tomutoes, otherwise I the tomatoes will pick up the strong flavour. Tent
drying of tomatoes and solar cabinet drying of carrots are illustrated in
plates 1.7 and 5.8.

XII. Specific vegetable dryinS techniques

TRY following methoda have baen collected from various sources in

diffcmmt countrias and giva an idea of what proceasing techniques might be
suitable. ‘t%e reader mey find it ~~~~sary to modify them to euit lscnl
practices.

III.1 General method - green legumes

After shelling, the outer skin of the pea or bean is gently punctured to
mairt t!.e internal moisture to escape. This ran be done by tapping a single
layer of the legume under an open meshed tray. The legumes are then scarified
by brushing a etiff-bristled steel wire brush lightly across the top of the
eesh or by gently tapping the brush on the peas, allowing the bristles to
penetrate slightly. Blanch by immersion in boiling water containing 1 per
cent sodium bicarbonste (2 teaspoons of baking soda per litre) for 2 minutes.
Spread evenly in a single layer and dry at 55-60°C until the legumes are
brittle and crisp. Shade drying may help preserve colour.

III.2 Specific methods

Green soyabeans. Steam blanch the pods for lo-15 minutes until the beans
sre tender but firm. Shell and dry until brittle.

Green beans. (i) Remove strings from string varieties and split the pode
lengthwise to hasten drying. Steam blanch for 15-20 minutes and dry until
brittle.

Green beans. (ii) Cut the vegetables into 2 cm pieces discarding the end
of the pod. Blanch in 1 per cent sodium bicarbonate solution for 4-6
 L 85 -

minutes. cool and dip the beans for 1 minute in a sodium metabisulphite
solution containing 8000 ppm S02. Dry until brittle, equivalent to a
moisture content of about 6 per cent.

Okra. (i) Okra may be dried whole or in halves or strips after blanching
(6 minutes iu boiling 1 per cent sodium bicarbonate solution). After
blanching remove the slimy exudate. Dry in a single layer at 60-65’12,
preferab,ly in the ahade.

Okra. (ii) Cut young tender pods into 1 cm pieces or split lengthwise.
Steam blanch for 5-8 minutes. Dry in a bed not more than 1 cm deep until very
brittle.

Peas. Shell young tender poda and then immediately steam blanch for 5-8
minutes. Dry, stirring fraquently, until the psaa are hard and wrinkled.

III .3 General method - green leafy vegetables

The vegetables should be waahed, stems removed as necessary and the

Leaver cut into atrippr about 5 sm wide. Blanch by dipping in boiling 1 per
cant aodims bicarbonate aolution for 3 minutes. Sulphite (optional) by
dipping in an 8000 pp so2 solution for 1 minute. Spread the vegetables
thinly and dry quickly, preferably in the shade, at 5S-60°C. Drying may be
achieved in as little as D hours.

XII .4 &ecif ic methods

ilroccoli. Trim, cut, wash, etc. Stesm blanch for 8-10 minutes and day
until crisp.

Cabbage. (i) Remove outer leaves, quarter, core, and cut into shreds.
Steam blanch for 8-10 minutes. Dry until tough and leathery.

Cabbage. (ii) Prepare as for method ii>, ihen bt;-.ch in s boiling 1 per
cent solution of sodium bicarbonate for 3 minutes, followed by s 1 minute dip
in an 8,000 ppm SO solution. Dry to a moisture content of about 5 per cent.
2

Cauliflower. Separate into florets. Dip in salt solution (2 tablespoons

of salt per litre of water). Steam until tender. Dry until the florets are
hard to crisp and tannish yellov in colour.
 - 86 -

celery. Strip off leaves, cut into 1 cm pieces. Steam blanch until
tender. Stir occasionelly during drying. Dry until brittle.

Parsley, Jaus-hallou/molochea and herbs. No prf+procesaiog necessary.

After ushing, spread loosely and shade dry, or alternatively, hang bunches of
the whole plant in a dry uarm shady place. Drying should be ccspleta in a few
hours. When dry and brittle crush the leaves and remove the stoma.

Spin@ h. Select Young tender leaves, wash and cut large leaves into
aeveral pieces. Steam blanch for about 4 minutea until wilted. Dry until
brittle.

111.5 Roots and tubers

Potatoae. (i) #ash, peel, trim, and cut into thin slices. To prevent
brouning, place in a 1 per cent eoIution. Blanch in boiling water for 5
uinutes. Sulphite (optional) for 1 minute in an 8,000 ppm SoI solution.
Spread. slices thinly and evenly, and dry at 60-70’~ until crisp and brittle,
equal to + raoiature content of 6 Per cent.

Potatoes. (ii) Wash, etc., and cut into long strips of 5 mm cross
section or slices about 3 nrv thick. Rinse in cold water and steam blanch for
4-6 minutes. Dry until brittle.

Sweet potatoea and yam. As for potatoee.

Turnips and suedes. (if As for potatoas.

Turnips and swedea. (ii) Wdsh, trim, etc. as before. Quarter, peel and
cut into 3 ssn slices or strips. Steam blanch for 15 minutes and dry until
leathery *

Carrots. fi) After washing and scraping, cut into 9 mm slices and blanch
for 5 minutes in boiling water. Sulphite (optional) by dipping in 8,000 ppm
So3 rolution for 1 minute. Drying conditions as for potatoes, Shade drying
will help to preserve colour and pro-vitamin A content.
 - 81 -

Carrots. (ii) Crisp tender cwrots free from woodiness should be wshed
trimmed and cut into strips or alices about 3 me thick. Steam blanch for S-10
ninutae and dry until tough 8nd leathery, equal to a moisture content of 6 per
cent.

Parsnips. As for carrots.

Beetroot. Wall tender beets of good colour snd free fetus woodiness sra
washed and trimed. The beets are steamed for 30-G minutes to cook through,
then cooled, pseled and cut into slices or strips about 3 m thick. me beet
pieces are dried until tough, leathery or brittle.

III .6 Other v,8g8tablcs

Onions. After remOv81 of tops, roots and outer leavea, the onions rhould
be vashed and aliced into thin (3 ma) rings. They should not be bl8oched
since this destroys flsvour. They do not require sulphiting. The rings
should be dried until crisp ac SS-7OoC and packed irenediately in air- and
uoisture-proof containers. Onion rings are highly hygroscopic. The safe
c&ore&e moisture content is about 5 per cent.

Leeks. As for oniou.

Garlic. Separste the cloves and remove the outer skins. Fiuely chop the
cloves into pieces smaller than 5 mm. Similar to onion, blanching or
sulphiting is not necasaary. Dry the piece8 until the garlic is brittle,
equal to a moisture content of S per cent. Separste off the dry skin by
winnowing, and pafk tha garlic ia air- and moisture-proof containers.

Peppers, sweet (capaicum). The washed, opened and cored peppers are
sliced into thin strips. No blanching ia neceesary, Sulphite (optional) by
dipping for i minute in 2,000 pp SO2 solution. Shade dry at SSdS°C
until crisp, equal to a moisture content of 7 par cent.

Tomato. (i) Steam or dip in boiling water to looeen skins. Chill in

cold water and peel. Cut into sections not over 20 mm wide, Sulphur
(optionel) in box for lo-20 minutes. Dry until leathery.
 - 88 -

‘fauato. (ii) After wshing and trirrming, slice the fruit 8nd dip for 3
minutes in a solution containing 600 ppm SO2 and 10 per cent salt. Dry the
&ices until they are leathery. equal to a moiature content of about 6 per
cent.

Chillies. li) Mesh and dry whole uithout blanching or sulphiting. Shade
dry at 6Q-65’C.

Chillies. (ii) Wash, trim, and cut into 1 cm strips or rings. Remove the
seeds. Steam until Leader, then dry the ring8 2 layers deep until they are
pliable,

Mushrooma. Peel larger muehroome end dry whole or sliced, depsnding on

sire. If stema are tender, elite for drying, if tough, discard. No
pre-processinS ir neceesary. Spread not mora ;han 1 cm deep, il.2 dry until
leathery to brittle.

Iv.Packaging of dried vegetables

Iv.1 Reasons for packagin&

Ail dried foodstuffs are normally packaged in 8ome way for storage and
marketing. Whether the package is a large one, perhaps for distribution to an
industrial or trade crretcmer, or a small package for sale to a household
consumer, three basic functiona of the package can be reCOgniasd:

(il it should contain the foodstuff, enabling the choeen quantity to be

handled as one unit without 1088, throughout the haaards of
t’ransport und storage;

(ii) it should protect the foodatuff and preserve its required attributes
through a planned shelf life;

(iii) it should communicate information about the foodstuff such as its

neture a origin, method of use , quantity, destination, and name of
producer.

With dried vegetables the need to protect the foodstuff ia of primary

consideration when selecting the method of packaging. The prevention of
 - 89 -

typical moisture contents in the range of 2-g per cent and require packaging
which gives good protection against moisture uptake. This is particularly 80

in humid tropical cliuates.

The tendency to pick up water, as water vapour, is determined by the

equilibrium relative humidity of the storage atmosphere, not merely by the
moisture content of the food. With some foods, such as potato crisps,
moisture content relates directly to a critical quality attribute (crispness),
and in conditions where the food gains moisture during storage, the shelf life
is simply the time taken to reach a critical moisture content. With many
other foods the moisture content influences the rate of deterioration in
quality through chemical and biochemical reactions or through microbiological
spoilage.

Wigh temperatures may have advcrae effects on fooda, but packaging cannot
provide direct protection except in the very short term. Oxygen is a
significant factor ia deterioration of many foods, especially those containing
fata or oils, and this can be taken into account in the packaging system.
Light may have effects similar to those of oxidation, or may promote
oxidation, and the package can be selected to exclude light from the food.

This is partzcularly important where processing steps, such aa the u~le of

sodium bicarbonate or shade drying, have been taken to preserve the colour of
green vegetables. Any quality advantages which have been gained by these
steps will be lost if light is not excluded from the packaged goods.

The package should also prevent tainting of the food by foreign odours.
Good storage practise will also help reduce the likelihood of odour
contsminatio~. Strongly flavoured dried vegetables euch 88 onions should not
be kept next to blander products which would pick up the onion flavour.

A good package will also help to retain the SO2 content of the dried
vegetable. This will help retain the good appearance of the product and
enhance the shelf life of the package,

Biological hazards to dried foods need attention throughout production

and distribution, although they are usually a seconda,ry consideration in
rel,ation to selection of a package. Bacterial spoilage will not be a problem
 - 90 -

in a dried food, and the action of II package is simply to exclude

contamination, thereby preventing any increase in the bacterial load.
Rowever, if the package is unable to prevent the absorption of moisture by the
dried vegetables, mould growth will occur which will spoil the food.

Infestation by mites or insects is a potential problem with moat dried

foods; packaging has a part to play in control, but will only be effective if
combined with other vmaeures. Protection against maamalo (especially rodenta)
and birds cannot be provided economically through packaging, although good
packaging practice will assist control through minimising spillage. These
peats mwt be excluded from faod stores, by appropriate store design and
manageneat procedures.

IV.2 Type8 of packaging

%raditional packaging material8 used for long established products such

aa dried fruit and dried fish include baskets. bales. jute sacks, wooden boxes
and cardboard boxes. These can only be used for packaging dried products
which do not require water vapour or oxygen barriers under the prevailing
climatic cond it ione. They are appropriate for commodities which are
transported in large packages to a central marketing point and then aold
loose. These puckages can often be used several times and are usually cheap;
but tk need for good hygiene must be emphasised. Inclusion of a low denaity
polyethylene film lining in a traditional package can add aubstential
protection against uptake of water vapour.

A wide range of protective packaging materiale haa been ueed for dried
foadrtuffe including metal cans, glass jars, and ri,gid moulded plastic
containerr, (10 well aI) the more commoniy found flexible packs. Rigid packages
may be arsmved to have negligible permeation rates for water vapour and gases,
if they are properly sealed, but tbey are relatively expensive and of limited
relevance to the need6 of the small-scale proceseor in developing countries.

A wide range of flexible packaging materials is available including

paper, aluminium foil, plastic films, and aiso laminatea incorporating two or
more of these. Again the relevance of many of these ie limited with the
poaeible exception of polyethylene (low or high density) which may be
manufactured locally, an: is cheaply available. Low denei.ty polyethylene,
while not the optimum dried-food packaging material because of its high
permeability to oxygen, has two advantages. It is a moderately good moisture
barrier and it can be easily sealed in a caudle flame or by using aluminium
foil nnd a soldering iron.

Flexible materials may be used as the sole component of a amall package

or as a barrier component in a package. A sturdy outer package is also
required in each instance; this could comprise a basket, a fibreboard or
wooden box, a paper wrap, or a textile or paper sack. This outer package
provide8 much of the protection against transport harard8, and the choice
therefore influences the strength required in the inner pack. In practice,
therefore, the complete package system should be planned a8 a whole. It
should bc noted that in many circumstances the choice of packaging material8
b limited, and it may be a cake of utilising whatever material ia
availeble. The packaging of dried onion8 and tcetatoao using simple pla8tic
bags, a cheap and effective way, i6 illustrated in plate8 5.9 and 5.10.

IV .3 Alternative processes

The reader should bear in mind that there are other methods for
preserving vegetables. If the main purpose of preeervation ia to extend the
peried of availability, this ten also be done by curing, in the ceee of
onions L or aimply by good storage practice, in the case of root vegetablea.
Other appropriate technologies which could be considered include ealting and
pickling. These are traditional methods with widespread applications in the
rural sectors of many countries.

V. Extanaion work activities for vegetable drying

This wiil be diacuaaed in the following chapter on fruit drying since the
suggested techniques are eimilar for both ecnmodity groups.
 - 92 -

Packaging

Plate 5.9
Dried onion rings
The food should be
pecked as BOUT 8s
possible to prevent
any moistum? re-
absorption

Place
--“---__. 5.10
Dried t~onioto sli.c.,es.

Polyechy lent? bag!? pruvide

a rk?asonable barrier

against in0i.s ture and can

be sealed in il flame
 CHAPTER 6

FRUIT DRYING

Fresh and dried fruit contribute a range of micronutrients to the diet

end are particularly valued as sources of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and beta
carotene (pro-vitamin A). Fresh fruit consumption is often limited by
seasonal availability and in some cases by high cost. Strangely, in frame
cultures fruit is considered to be almost a luxury item and consumed in small
mounts whereas in others it is a dietary atsple. Any steps which result in
increasing the availability of fruit in deficient areas can only be considered
as meritorious. In thie context fruit drying can provide a means of
increasing availability.

Twa forms of dried fruit axiec - semi-moist fruits and dried fruits.
Sani-moist fruits, such as dried grapes, contain naturally high levels of
sugar. This means that dried grapes can be preserved at a higher moisture
cantent thsa other dried foods. Typicfil’ly, semi-moist products can have a
moisture cmltent of about 25 per cent. This gives these products the
advantlrge that tbay can be eaten directly in their preserved state without any
wed to rehydrate them. Therr: is considerable world trade in semi-mist
fruit, particularly dried grapes from Austraiia, eke United States end
CypNS. The distinction should also be made between traditionally dried
fruits, such as dates and apricots, and novel dried fruits such aa papaya or
in some cases jurngo. It will almost certainly be more d,ifficult to sell dried
“IAngO than dried apricot to the uninitiated. Most, fruit varieties 5x-e
suirable for drying with the exception of citrus fntir,, nltbough there is a
iimited production of sun-dried limes in tbr Middle East.

I e Pre-processing techniques
--

Some fruits have a tendency to ripen rapidly, after which they start to
deteriorate in axing quality. As with vegetablea, it is essential that only
the best produce be used for drying, anti since the correct harvest period for
fruits might be quite short, there i.s a greater time constraint plowed on the
processing methods used. There is considerable variation ir: the ripening
 - 94 -

characteristics of different fruit. Mangos and bananas ripen rapidly and can
have short harvest periods whereas citrus ripen slowly.

All fruit to be dried should be hand picked and not shaken from the
tree. This will prevent bruising. The fruit should be picked when just ripe
and ready to eat. Over-ripe fruit will bruise easily and may be soft and
difficult to slice. The copi.ous sszount cf juice in some over-ripe fruit makes
it aticky and difficult to handle. During subsequent processing, over-ripe
fruit can absorb an excess of SC+ during sulphuring which renders the dried
product dark and unattractive. Conversely, under-ripe fruit may not absorb
euf f icient .S02 and will give a hard, bitter. watt rat t ive dried product .
There is therefore little sense in preparing and d&ying fruits which have been
harvested at the wrong time.

All of the infonoacioo on the pre-processing of vegetables is pertinent

tu fruit with the exception that fruit at-a norsally not blenched. Browning
tan occw when the flesh of I’mits such as apples or bananas is cut. To
prevent this the fruit should not be cut up until the last possible minut?,
and the cut pieces should then be stored under water uutil time for the next
processing stage. It is customary to sulphur fruit, using a sulphur box
rather than to use a sod&n metnbisulphite dip. Sulphuring is essenti.Tl co
preserve the light colour of some dried fruits such as apples and apricots.
Sulphuring also helps to preserve the ascorbic acid and the &ta carotene

content duriog drying. As previously mentioned, it has the sdditib,nal

advsntages of controlling microbial and insect activity and of protect&
/
delicate flavoura. Generally, about 3.5 to 4 kg of sulphur per tonne of fresh
fruit ia sufficien:. This is about half the level recommended for vegetables.,

II. l’re-Erocessing methods specific to fruit

II .1 Checking

Some fruit with a waxy skin is dipped in a hot dilute caustic soda

solution prior to sulphuring. This process is called checking. Typically,

washed grapes (or plums) are dipped in a 0.3 per cent boiling sodim hydroxide
solution for 1 or 4 seconds. This produces cracks in the fruit skin which
spead up the subsequent dehydration process. The grapes are then washed in
cold water to prevent sny more chemical damage end to avoid cooking the
product. Another cold wslxr dig is used to eliminatn all, traces of sodium
 - 95 -

hydroxide from the skin. Where checking is not a feasible proposition, due to
the lack of sod&a hydroxide or a reluctance to use it, an alternative ia
steam blanching for 10-15 minutea. The fruit is then sulphured.

II .2 Sugaring

There are various methods of applying sugar (sucrose) to fruit. The

simplest is to apply a dusting of fine sugar just before drying. ~I69 may
help retard brouoing and give the dried product a sweet Co8ting.

Fruit pieces can also be dipped in a concentrated syrup. Ibis results in

the aeovement of weter out of the fruie by the process of osmosis. At the same
time, a crmaller amount of sugar will penetrate the fruit tiaaue. Thin
phenonwnon of o.smosis, the diffueion of a solvent through a semi-permeable
membrane from a dilute to (I concentrated solution, proceeds until an
equilibrirrm concentration i.8 reached. Tba aolute (sugar) io able to diffuse
through ‘ehe membrane in the reveree direction only very elowly, 80 that the
net result ie traaofer of water to the concentrated solution.

By iraeeraing fruit in 8 concentrated sugar solution, water equivalent to

over 50 per cent of the initial fruit weight can be removed, thereby greatly
reducing the load on the dryer in the subsequent solar drying etage. It
ehould be noted that the product obtained ia different to that obtained by
drying alone. The process is enelogc?s to salting fish. 1n the same way that
saltfieh do not require to have as mu& moisture removed a8 unsalted dried
fish (because of the preservati.ve effect of ealtl, fruit which has been
oemoticaily treated will be ahelf stable at high moieture contents and have
textures rimiler to aemi-moiae fruits such as reiuina. ‘&ia ie due to the
preservative ef feet of the sdditionnl eugar absorbed from the ayrup. Sane of
the advantages of including this osmotic step in the drying process are:

(il during OsmOSill the material is not subjected to a high temperature

over an extended time, so heat damage to colour and flavour are
minimised;

(ii) a high concentration of sugar aurroundrng the material prevents

discolouration by enzymic or oxidetive browning. A good colour can
be obtained in the dried product without chemical treatments, such

88 sulphit ing;
 - 96 -

(iii) ae water ir removed by osmosis, 8-e of the fruit acid io removed

along with it. This lower acid content, combined with the small
amount of sugar added to the fruit during osmosis, produces a
blander sad aveeter product thnn ordiuary dried fruit.

Some of the di8adVantagea are:

(i) a thin film of sugar is left on the surface of the fruit after
drying, which may be undesirable. However, this can be removed by a
quick rinse in water after oamoeis;

(ii) the process produces n dilute syrup as a by-product. ‘Ibis can be

brought back to strength by concentrating or by adding more sugar,
and recycled. However, there iti a l&it to how ofeen it can be used
bafore becomingl unacceptably contaminated. Suggeeted ueen for the
syrup hnve included fruit nectars;

(iii) the process may be unnecesaerily cwplicated by including this step;

(iv) sugar may be expensive.

The concentration of solueion and time of sonking are dependant on the

mnterial and the desired Level of water removal. The technique has been
tested with banaoa, mango end papaya. Suggeseed soaking times nre up to 18
hours in a 67 per cent ~ucro8e syrup, stirring occaaionelly. This will remove
about 40 per ceut of the original moisture. Thie soak is followed by a one
hour aoak in a 60 par cent auSer solution containing one per cent SO2 (a8
aodium metabimlphite), and finally a rime in cold writer to ramove subsequent
stickiaess. The fruit can then be sulphured an3 eolar dried. Shade drying
will help to conserve the coSour.

A third method of introducing sugar is to immerse the fruie pieces in a

boiling syrup for n few minutes. This will result in a change in the texture
of the fruit, and 8 hard gel will form on the surface. A partially candied
fruit product can be made in this fashion which can then be sulphuted and
dried. Care ehould be eakon not to immerse the fruit in the syrup for too
 - 97 -

long kr else exrensive browning will occur. If over-ripe fruit is used, it

will t&d to disintegrate in the syrup.

The advantsges and disadvantages of this process are the same as for the
osmotic process described above.

Unlike most of the pre-processing operations described, sugaring is not

essential to give a good dried product. The technique has been included as an
example of an additional operation which 3 be useful. The reader must
de-ide its relevance to his/her particular situation.

XIX. Drying methods

Host of the countries which dry fruit commercially have hot sunny
&imatas which favaur sun drying methods. Indeed exposure to the sun is
easrntial to obtain the eotreet colour development in grape drying. Even in
developed countries with access to sophisticated alternative techniques, sun
drying of fruit is still the principle method of drying since it gives the
desired product quality.

The drying methods described for vegetables are entirely appropriate for
fruit drying. The simplest method which can be recommended is sun drying on
racks. It is essential when drying fruit to keep it off the ground to speed
the drying process snd also to reduce theft or damage by predators. Drying
fruits are particularly attractive to insects and animals and it is desirable
to keep losses to a minimum because of the comparatively high value of the
crap.

Generally speaking, fruit takes longer to dry than vegetables. This is

due to the sugar content which can make the drying fruit sticky and retard the
rate of moisture loss. 5ami-moist fruits, such as dates, have a high invert
Sugar concent rstion. Invert sugars and f rut tose in particular, are
hygroscopic. In a hot dry climate, suffi.cient moisture will be lost to give
the desired semi-moist product with good keeping qualities. Howwer, in humid
climates the fruit may oat lose sufficient water quickly enough to prevent
spoilage. It is possible in some cases that drying fruit exposed to a sudden
increase in humidity will reabsorb moisture from the air. Where fruit
 - 96 -

vith a high sugar content cannot be dried sufficiently fast, moulds and yeasts
are likely to grow which will ferment the sugJirs present.

In areas where sun drying is not feasible, due perhaps to high

bmidities, solar dryieg using a cabinet dryer is a possible alternative.
Op+ratiog coaditiona are similar to those described for vegetablea. When
drying fruit which is valued for its vitamin content, such as mango, it is
worth oonaiderieg shaded cabinet drying. 0x1 the other hand where exposure to
the sun ia necessary. as in grapes, direct cabinet drying should be carried
out.

111.1 SQle rpecific fruit drying methods

Suitable drying temperatures for fruit are 60-8O’C.

nanana. The fruit should be rips, and awcat, but not soft cx brown. cut
into thin slicen 5-7 m thick, and sulphur. Alternatively auiphite by dipping
in a 2000 ppm SO2 solution for 1 minute. Dry the fruit in a single layer
at 60-7S”~ until it ia hard and brittle, equal to a moisture content of
about 12 per cent. Avoid overheating the banana to prevent darkening.

Braadf ruit . Peel, core and cut into chips or thin slices, Dry as for
baoana.

Apples. Peel, core and cut into slices or rings. Sulphur for 60 minutes
and dry until the fruit is leathery and has no moist area in the centre.

Pears. Peel, cut in half lengthweys, core, and form slices about 3-S ma
thick. Sulphur for 60 minutes and dry until the fruit texture is springy.

Peaches. Peel carefully and avoid bruising. Dry as for pears until
pliable, but leathery.

Apricots. Cut the fruit into half and pit. Apricots wi1.i dry more
rapidly if qoartered or sliced but check that smaller pieces ara acceptable in
the market. Sulphur for 60 minutes. Dry until pliable, but leathery.

Plums. Cut in half and pit. Check and sulphur for 65 minutes. A
handful of pPums properly dried will fall apart after squeeeing.
 - 99 -

Berries. Wash and check. Sulphur for 60 minute& Dry until the berries
are hard and there is no visible moisture uhea crushed. Strawberries are not
t&table for drying.

Figa. 16 the figs are 616611 or have been partly dried on the tree they
mey be dried *IhoPe without checking or blanching. Othexwi6e cut in half,
check and dry until plieb\,e and leathery, but atill alightly sticky.

Datecl. Date6 may be partially or wholly dried on the palm depending on

the climate. Where Zheey 6~6 paztly dried they can than be 6un or solar dried
whole without P;CY pre-prcx336sing. Direct 6Udight i6 e66ential.
Alternatively the dates G&B be Pitred, halved and sulphured before drying.
fhe sani-moirt datr-balvrtrr 6.w be pressed together to form a paste.

e-26pO6. Wash, &ask :%ad aulphur for 60 minutcae. Dry until pliable and
ls6thary. ~~~~d~%~$ vnsitaisrd are preferable for dryinS.

Hango. Peal md cut off the two fleshy cheeks. Cut into thin alices.
Tr6aC with 61rSar (wptionsli sod sulphur for 60 minutea. Shad? dry. Well
dried mango will be golden brown and plieble. Different varieties of mengo
have different &~y,iiz& qt:ec,i:itiea. If exceaeive browning occur6, dry at lower
temperatures.

Papaya. Dty 80 far m.sm~O.

The maximum pc.w6iiaibi8 moisture content for the safe storage of some
dried fruit is show% b$l~:w~

Table 3

Fruit Haximum permissible

---, moisture content (~6 r cent)
Rinieins 25.0
Sultenss 20.0
l?rum?s 21.5
r4pricot.s 20.0
Peaches 18.0
06tes 24.0
 - 100 -

IV. Packagiog

The packaging requirements of many dried fruits are similar to those of

dried vegetables. However, the ssmi-moist products in particular have special
packaging needs to prevent the reabsorption of water, Since dried fruits are
a valuable commiity it may be possible to spend more on the packaging
materiel. A moisture-proof, sealed plastic bag inside a cardboard box would
be a suitable package. It is likely that the producer of dried fruit will be
in sn 6rea where there are other growers. It might be possible to arrange for
coummal packaging facilities. This would minis&se costs and could result in
a standard package (with the producers own identification if so desired) which
would be easily racognised by the consumar.

V. Alternative processes

Other methods of processing fruit include preserve manufacture to give

jam, jellies and chutneys. Fruits rich in euger can be fersmnted to produce
wince. Starchy fruit such as bananas can be sliced and fried to give chipe,

VI. ExtensiOn work activities for fruit snd vegetable drying

VI .l. Locat ion

Fruit and vegetables are highly seasonal and may well be harvested in
different parts of the country at different times of the yeer. It may be
difficult to find one single location where all or even n representative cross
section of the crops will br grown .and harvested at a convenient time for
drying. ConsultatiOn with horticultural agencies should assist in finding the
most suitable spot to set up drying deamnstretlon units. Aa with extension
work for fish drying, i,t may be convenient to work in co-operation with other
post-harvest development projects, sharing overheads and providing
complementary skills. Horticultural units may also be sble to provide
information on the types of fruit and vegetables which are grown and on the
varieties suitable for processing.

VI .2 Current practices

Determine which fruits and vegetables are traditionally dried and what
techniques are used. Establish whether any iasprovcments to the process are
 - 101 -

desirable and who vould benefit from the improvements. Consider whether any
cropa drich are usualPy consumed fresh could be dried and what the dried
product could be used for. For example, tmatoes could be dried and sold as a
direct replacement for tomato paste at the village level. Chilli peppers
could be dried and sold either whole or ground up. It might be possible to
sell dried chilli pmfitably in large towns where the present supply is poor
or non-existant .

Detemine the major season(s) for each fruit and vegetable crop which you
ate going to dry. Work out a processing schedule which will enable you to dry
different cmmodities at different times of the year. In this way, through
time you will build up a collection of various dried foods to show to
extension workers. When extension workers come for training, it is unlikely
that you will be able to demonstrate drying tschniquee f6r more than a handful
of commodities, but the dried samples with an explanation on how they were
mada will provide a broador picture af the merits of the process.

VI.3 Demonstration units

Draw up a list of all the unit operations you are going to cover and the
equipment you will need. For dsmonstration purposes, batches of up to 10 kg
of raw material will be sufficient to teecb the basic skills. The pilot plant
can therefore be designed around this amount. The equipPent you will need at
each stage will include the following:

(il preparation - knives, work surfaces, chopping boards, clean water,

salt and containers for washing. peeling, etc.;

(ii) pre-processing - charcoal stove or other heat source, and pots for
blanching and/or sulphiting; a wooden box for sulphuring; rock
sulphur or aodius metabisulphite, sodium hydroxide, sodium
bicarbonate, sugar;

(iii) drying - materials and tools for building drying racks and/or solar
dryera; plastic material for covering the dryer and also for
packaging; other packaging materials as appropriate;

(iv) monitoring - a set of scales, and wet and dry bulb thermometers are
desirable.
 - 102 -

As noted in the fish drying exteneion work section, it is important to

guard all tools to prevent them being misplaced or damaged. They should be
stored under lack and key when not in use and only issued on your authority.

The preparation stages can be housed indoors if a suitable building is

available. The preprocessing and drying units should be constructed at a
secure outdoor location where full advantage of the sunshine and any
prevailing wind can be taken advantage of, The flat roof of a buildi!xx wuld
be a useful site.

Coaatruct or collect the full range of dryers and processing aids you are
going to test, keeping a record of any procurement difficulties experienced.
Determine the cost of the pilot plant. A useful exercise at a later date
might ba to ask trained extension workers to cost comparative pilot planta
using alternative materials.

Becwe familiar with each of the processing steps using a variety of

fruit and vegetables. Retain samples of the dried products with careful
records of the methods used to obtain them. Obtain market reaction to your
products. Establish which processes and products are preferred and can be
recormsended to extension workers.

VI.4 Involvement of extension workers

Arrange for a group of extension workers involved i,n fruit and vegetable
post-harvest technologies to attend a one to two week training prograoole at
your demonstration site. During the training programme you should explain the
reasons for drying crops and the quality advantages whic;l can be gained by
using the recommended proceases. The trainees should be made aware of the
advantages of:

cleaning, sorting and grading;

blanching - but discuss also the extra labour and cost incurred by
using fuel;
sulphuring/sulphiting - but consider the availability of
sulphur-containing materials and the extra cost and effort required;
shade drying;
 - 103 -

solar drying.

Compare the quality of sun driad with oolar dried products and discuss
which material the market would prefer.

lhe extension workers should have practical axperience preparing dried

foods and become familiar with the construction techniques used to produce the
pilot plant.

Display your previously prepa.ed dried foods and present illustrations on

the methods used to produce it. Ask the trainees to suggest what other fruit
and vebetables might be suitable for drying and get them to devise suitable
procea*es. The trainees should present the information in a method
understandable LJ the farmer. The trainees could also devise methods or
recipes for using the dried foods.

Before the end nf the training programme the extension workers should be
*war* of processing constraints , the most suitable methods to use and, bearing
in mind the construction costs of any recommended method, what the quality
and/or price advantages will be in the market.

Dissemination of solar drying technology in the Sudan: a case study

Using the techniques described above, a training programme - part of an

IL0 project on appropriate technological advancsment in the rural sector of
the least developed Arab countries - wa8 carried out in cooperation with the
food technology staff of the Food Research Institute, Khartoum. The target
audience was extension workers active in the rural sectors of the province of
Khartoum Province. The objective of the course was to increase awareness of
sun and solar drying techniques and thereby provide the extension workers with
more information to disseminate to farmers and artisans. The training
programme was divided into two parts. In the firet phase, solar dryers were
constructed and the principles governing their use were demonstrated. This
was followed by a practical session when a range of commodities was dried
using different techniques and the quality of the dried goods evaluated.

Three types of solar dryers were built: the cabinet, the tent and the
modified paddy dryer. For ease of construction, prepared timber and other
conventional building materials were used. The extension workers soon became
familiar with the construction principles. They were, however, less willing
 - 104 -

to suggest alternative building materials. lhis may have been because of

unfamiliarity with rural materials or a subconscious belief that the
expensive, prepared materials were best because of their professional
appearance. The danger exists that this belief could subsequently bs passed
on to the farmer who could ill afford the luxury of expensive raw materials.
Since most of the prepared timber, woodworking tools, nails, etc. are
imported, any general recommendation to increase their consumption will have
widespread implications. It is essential therefore that the extension workers
should be made to question the appropriateness of any construction technique.

A supply of plastics to cover the dryers was a problem. The local

plastic manufacturer was sympathetic and willing to sell us a relatively small
amount. However, the factory at that time was not working due to lack of
(imported) raw material. Fortunately, this situation resolved itself shortly
afterwards.

After the practical drying sessions, the extension workers were asked
about their opinions on the various products and processes. It was agreed
that the solar cabinet dryer gave a good quality dried product and was
relatively simple to construct. It was questioned whether the improved
quality (in this case the exclusion of substantial amounts of dust) would be
recognised by the farmer. In the rural areas concerned, dust vns ubiquitous
and people learnt to live with it. Because of this familiarity, a high dust
content would not necessarily be considered a negative quality aspect. In any
case the dried food would ‘be exposed to dust in the market place. Packaging
to exclude dust was not realistic since people liked to see and touch what
they were buying.

Blanching and eulphuring/sulphiting were recognised as steps which

improved the qua1 i ty , but the extension workers did not consider them a8
realistic recommendations. The extra cost and effort required would not be
reflected by a higher price in the market for the dried foods. The overall
impression received from the extension workers was that until the consumer was
prepared to pay a high prick for improved quality (or alternatively not pay
the asking price for inferior goods), there was little incentive to introduce
improved drying techniques in their particular sphere of activity.
 - 105 -

Dissemination of sun drying technology in Somalia : a case study

The IL0 has been involved in income generating activities in refugee

camps in Somalia. One project concerned the development of agriculture in
Jalalazsi camp where refugees were encouragad to grow crops including
tomatoes, onions, melons and chilli pepper. Many vegetables are in short
supply in Somalia and it was considered that the farmers would be able to sell
their surpluses in the surrounding towns and villages or in major population
centres such as the capital, Mogadiscio. However, chilli pepper production
was much greater than the demand for the fresh material. Therefore, it was
decided that the project farm manager should introduce simple sun drying
techniques. In the first instance chilli peppers were dried by placing them
on mats on the ground, sun drying took between 4 and 14 days depending on the
weather. At a later stage of the project, drying on racks wss introduced.
The dried chillies were then ground into a powder using small hand-powered
mills. Several problems were noted at this stage. If the chillis were
incorrectly dried (due to humid conditions or insufficient time), they were
soft and difficult to grind. The grinding work was unpopular since it could
be arduous and the powdered pepper was an irritant. No grading of the peppers
was carried out before grinding which gave an unevenly coloured powder.
However, this observation was somewhat academic since local demand for the
dried pepper far exceeded supply.
 CHAPTER 7

GRAIN DRYING

I. Sun drying

Unlike most other foodstuffs, cereals dry out almost completely during
the normal ripening process on the plant. Most areas of the world receive
sufficient sunshine at the time of harvest, and dependence upon the sun for
drying grain is the cheapest and most common practice. Cereals are routinely
dried in bulk in this fashion. The question whether or not to dry grain very
seldom arises since in most cases there is no alternative process. A notable
exception is maize, which when eaten fresh as corn on the cob is usually
considered a vegetable.

I.1 Millet and sorghum

Drying may be completed in the field before harvesting or else may be

continued after the harvest by placing the crop in the sun. Sun drying can be
completed before or after threshing. In the case of fine grains such as
millet and sorghum, the seed heads can be spread out on mats or on a concrete
floor. The grain should be threshed before putting it in store since closely
packed grain is less subject to insect attack. Sorghum and millet grow in
semi-arid areas and are therefore seldom exposed to the damp harvest
conditions which prevent adequate drying and result in spoilage.

I.2 Rice

By cant rast , rice,the staple food in the monsoon areas of Asia, is often
harvested under humid conditions. Drying is necessary to reduce the moisture
content to safe storage levels. Sun drying Lan be done before or after
threshing . Unthreshed paddy is sun dried by leaving small bundles in the
field for several days after cutting. Newly threshed paddy is sun dried by
spreading it on mats or on a concrete floor. In some countries, areas Of
metalled roads are used. Periodic stirring is necessary to obtain uniform
 - 108 -

drying. Losses and contamination can be considerable. Variable weather

conditions can result in poor quality, ds rewetting and overdrying can crack
the rice grains and produce a poor yield of full kernels after milling.

I.3 Maize

Cob maize, either husked or unhusked, is often dried in narrow cribs

(figure 8) with open-wall construction to allow natural ventilation through
the cobs. Under suitable climatic conditions, and provided that the air flow
is not restricted, the cobs dry to a safe moisture content without the
deve lo pmen t of surface mould or insect infestation. These cribs are also
commonly used for the temporary storage of dried cobs.

The sides of the crib can be made of wire mesh, or of any conventional
materia 1 P such as loose-woven wattle, that does not obstruct the air flow more
than the maize cobs themselves. Natural aeration will dry the cobs slowly but
safely whether or not the cob sheaths are removed. Where the climate is
generally dry after harvest, the crib may be at least 2 m wide. In humid
areas, the width should be reduced to 1 m at most, and possibly to 60 cm.

For protection against rain, the roof should be as water-tight as

possible. 0n the other hand, intermittent wetting of the sides of the cob
mass will not seriously impede drying unless the wetting is prolonged and
excessive. Extens iv= ?-c-sI: overhang at the sides is therefore usually
unnecessary and has been shown to reduce the drying rate.

The posts and post-holes supporting the crib can, if necessary, be soaked
with a persistent insecticide to stop termite damage. Rat damage is prevented
by building the base of the crib at least 1 m above the ground. Rat-guards
made of sheet metal cones, may also be mounted on the posts in order to
prevent rats from climbing up the crib. These guards should stand out at
least 25 cm from the post.

If birds represent a serious problem, additional screening should be used

to keep them out. The mesh size of the screen should not exceed 2 cm.
 - 109 -

Figure 8
Crib for storing maize grain delivered on the cob
 - 110 -

Unhusked maize are often tied by the tassels into small bundles and
hung from trees rcterior house rafters to dry. Alternet ively , simple
racks, made from :ontal bars supported by inclined bamboo poles, may be
used (1 -,:e 9). The cobs are hung from the horizontal bars by their
tassels. In the event of a sudden shower, a similar but slightly taller rack
covere,d with polythene sheeting or large leaves can be placed over the first
rack ( figure 10 1.

Ma- Grain shelled di-ectly after harvest may be spread on the ground
and SUI ied to a safe moisture content. Drying under these conditions can
be a ated by placing the grain on a black surface, such as a black
pla- :?et ing. Two posts are knocked into the ground on either side of the
P’ ;?et and a rope or bamboo pole is suspended between them. The grain
ijreaci over the sheet with the two ends of the latter left uncovered. In
event of a rain shower, the two ends can be lifted and pegged to the rope,
thus forming a simple tent over the grain (figure 11). This type of drying
system requires frequent mixing of the grain in order to prevent over-heating.

Many of the problems associated with grain drying can be attributed CO

the vast bulk which is handled. For examp lc I IllGSt of the sun drying
operations for both threshed grain and grai;;l on the cob are conducted at
ground level. In most c3ses -t would be preferable to raise the cereals off
the ground to improve air circulation and isolate pests, but where large
quant it ies are involved it may not be practical to do so. Unthreshed grain
can be dried in cribs in the fashion described for maize, but this method is
not satisfactory for large volumes of threshed grains. This is because
threshed srain forms a very compact structure which restricts the passage of
air. Hence a large surface area is needed to turn and mix the grain. The
small particle size of most food grains means that the crib material would
have to be tightly woven to prevent leakage and this too would inhibit air
flow.

II. Solar drying methods

Grains have a pronounced constant rate period of drying and therefore

benefit from comparatively high air flow rates. Cereals can be damaged if
dried at 60-70eC whiie rice should be dried at a lower temperature in the
range of &5-55’C. Simple natural convection dryers such as the cabinet dryer
 - 111 -

Drying rack
made of bamboo
poles

Figure 9
Simple rack for the sun drying of
unhusked maize cobs

Moveable "roof" of palm leaves

(or polythene shee t)
on a bamboo frame

Figure
-- 10
Drying rack inside a moveable "roof"
 - 112 -

Black polythene shee;

uncovered

ground

Figure 11

Improved sun drying of shelled mai?e grain

(O’Kelly, 1979)
 Table 4
Advised maximum moisture contents for
safe storage up to about 27OC
(Higher ambient temperatures require lower maximum moisture content)

Cereal Percentage of moiature

content (wet basis)

Wheat 13.5
Bulgur wheat 13.5
Wheat flour 12.0
Maize - yellow 13.0
- white 13.5
Maize meal 11.5
Milled rice 12.0
Sorghum 16.0

Note:
-- The precise safe moisture content value differs to some extent between
varieties for all cereals. The variation in grain sorghums is particularly
great. The values given are the average for each particular cereal, and where
there is any doubt about particular varieties, the equilibrium relative
humidity of the grain, which must not exceed 70 per cent for safe storage,
should be used as the deciding factor.
 - 114 -

are not ideal for drying grain but should be used if available due to, for
example, a gap in vegetable drying schedules. The maximum air flow possible
through the cabinet (whilst maintaining the operating temperature in the
desired range) should be obtained. Threshed grain should be spread in a layer
1.5 - 3.5 cm deep on drying trays of appropriate mesh size so as to give a
loading of about lo-12 kg/m2. For bulky materials, such as unthreshed
sorghum, the layer can be up to 7 cm deep.

The natural convection dryer with separate collector and drying chamber
(d scribed under Groicp two dryers in Chapter 2) was designed as a possible
solution to the problems of harvesting rice in the wet season in Thailand.
The design consists of a solar air heater, a box for the rice bed, and a
chimney giving a tall column of warm air to increase the convection effect.

Because of the increased air circulation, this design is said to be

capable of satisfactorily drying paddy layers lo-15 cm deep within 3-4 days.
It is recommended that the area of the solar collector should be about three
times the area of the rice bed. The top of the bed should be shaded to
prevent overheating of the uppermost layer. Similarly, the bed should be
stirred from time to time to give even drying ar., to prevent the bottom paddy
from being overdried.

The best solar dryer designs for grain drying incorporate high air flow
rates with only moderate increases in temperature. Hence, this is an obvious
area for the use of forced convection dryers. Most of the research and
development in this field has been carried out in North America, reflecting
the economic importance of cereals in this region.

One type of forced convection solar dryer is shown in figure 12. This
dryer type was originally designed to improve the drying rate of grain
contained in conventional bins. The roof and sun-facing wall of the bin are
converted into a solar collector by painting them black to enhance the
absorption of solar radiation. An air duct is formed by fixing wooden panels
under the roof and inside the sun-facing wall. The heat absorbed by the black
surface is transmitted by conduction to the air saithin the duct, thos raising
its temperature. A fan at the base of the air duct draws the warm air from
the duct, and forces it through the drying bed. After passing through the
grain, the exhaust drying air passes through the chimney in the roof.
 - 115 -

Air inlet
/
___I) Air flow

Source: Buelow (1961)

--Figure 12
A forced convection solar dryer
 - 116 -

Many other designs are available, details of which can be found in the
references listed at the end of this document.

Where forced air convection drying appears to be a promising solution to

a drying problem, the relative merits of solar energy systems and conventional
artificial drying systems should be investigated. Artificial dryers require a
supply of energy to heat the drying air and to drive the fan. Solar dryers
require energy to drive the fan, and to justify this cost, the collector must
be efficient enough to heat the air io the reQuired temperature. Both types
of systems must therefore be carefully costed. The possibility of the hybrid
system of artificial drying with solar enhancement should also be considered.

To reduce the dependence of forced convect ion so lar dryers on

conventional fuels, photovoltaic systems are being developed which convert
sunlight into electricity. This electricity could then be used to drive the
fans. This technology is still in its infancy and has limited uses. When
developed, and production costs of photovoltaic panels come down, it should
provide a clean, cheap source of electricity which would have widespread uses,
including powering fans in forced convection solar dryers.

III. Packaging and storage

Cereal grains are well suited to handling and storage in bulk, and can be
packed in jute or cotton sacks or in bulk storage containers. During Storage,
deterioration can be caused by heat, moisture, moulds, insects, mites,
rodent 6, and birds.

Deterioration by heat can be minimised by storing in the shade in a well

vent i lated are a. If a storage building is used, excessive heat gain can be
prevented by reflection of solar radiation, correct orientation, shading of
walls, insu lat ion, and controlled ventilation.

In storage buildings the roof, walls, doors, and ventilation openings

shou Id exe Lude wind-b low rain. If water absorption from the ground below is a
problem, the floor must be supplied with a damp-proof course or the packaged
goods should be stacked on pallets, boards, or poles giving 10 cm floor
Cle aranc e , or moisture- proof sheets.
 - 117 -

Rodents and birds can be excluded from buildings by sealing all

unnecessary openings, screening the ventilation openings and minimising gaps
around doors. Poisoned baits can be used to eliminate rodents but should be
used very carefully, preferably by experienced personnel.

Insects and mites can be killed by effective fumigation with a suitable

gas such as phosphine or methyl bromide. Stacked produce can be fumigated
under gas-proof sheets if these are properly used. Fumigaticrn of the building
itself can also kill pests throughout the interior of the building, but it is
not always easily and effectively achieved, Insects and mites can also be
controlled by treatment with contact pesticides, especially where these can be
admixed with dried products, such as grains and pulses, for which there are

approved and acceptable dosage rates. Only those pesticides recommended for
such purposes should be used. Sacks should be stacked tidily and methodically
SO that the stacks can be kept clear of walls without collapsing.

Each stack of grain should be bordered by a clear gangway, and an access

to the top of the stack should be provided. This is essential for inspection
and pest control procedures. I f necessary, ladders should be provided for
access to the top of the stacks.

In building the stack, the bags need to be kept off the floor by placing
them over stacking pallets or regularly spaced Roles. The latter may not be
necessary if the floor is completely moisture--proof, although they may still
be useful in case of minor flooding.

The bags should be laid regularly as they are stacked, and should be
bonded together by alternating the stacking pattern in each layer. Tight
stacking is usually recommended provided that the grain is dry. Well-built
stacks can include 30 to 40 layers of bags in sufficiently high stores.

Stacks can be completely covered with gas-proof sheets for fumigation.

The sheets must be in good condition and held down firmly close to the floor
by chains or narrow sand bags. For protection against reinfestation after
fumigation, the stacks can be sprayed layer-by-layer, as they are built, with
a locally approved semi-persistent contact insecticide. Subsequent respraying
of the exposed stack surfaces will proLong the protection considerably but not
indefinitely . Spraying the exposed surface (capping sprays) without the
 - 118 --

initial layer-by-layer application is often a waste of time and money. An

alternative to spraying treatments consists in leaving the gas-proof sheets in
place after fumigation as a physical barrier against insects. With this
met hod, use of insecticides can be restricted to a spray or powder treatment
of the floor where the edges of the protective sheets are Laid. Excellent,
long-term protection can be obtained by this procedure so long as the grain
remains dry and cool (i.e. without significauc heating above the ambient mean
temperature). Caution is necessary, however, in high altitude areas where the
daily fluctuations of ambient temperatures may be relatively large. In all
situation3, good warehouse management and regular inspection for damage to the
sheets are essential. Monitoring arrangements are also advisable for the
early detection of any infestation problems that could arise due, for example,
to a fumigation failure or reinfestation through a torn sheet. The use of
transparent, light-weight polyethylene sheets as permanent fumigation covers
is usually less costly and more effective than other methods, and their
transparency also permits inspection through the sheets.

Bag stacks in a store with controllable ventilation can also be

effectjvely protected against reinfestation after fumigation by reguLarly
spaced insecticide treatments. However , these must be applied sufficiently
frequently and at the best time. A daily treatment at dusk is recommended.
This method is particularly cost-effective when use is made of insecticides
such as Dichlorvos. On the other hand, many of the commonly recommended
alternatives, especially the natural and synthetic pyrethroids are usually
considered rather too costly for daily application in grain stores. A final
possibility, for stores that can be made effectively gas-tight and are
permanently SCreened to prevent the entry of insects, is total store
fumigation. This method allows a Long-term protection of the grain, but
requires a type of store and storage management which is usually impractical
where stocks are being moved in and out at frequent intervals.

These same principles apply also to rural grain storage. If modern

pesticides are not available or cannot be safely used, there is a need to make
the best possible use of local traditional methods such as airtight storage.
In many rural locations dried grain is stored in pits dug in the ground. This
practice, cannot be recommended if there is any possibility of dampness
encroaching through the soil. The pit should be lined with an impervious
material where possible.
 - 119 -

Maize can be both dried and stored in a crib. To reduce inset t

infestation, the crib and the ground beneath it should be thoroughly cleaned
before loading. Furthermore, any grain residues that cannot be of immediate
use should be burnt. Spray treatment after cleaning, using an approved
semi-persistent contact insecticide, is a useful further measure. If the cobs
are to be stored longer than 3 to 4 months, they should be treated, layer by
layer, as the crib is loaded, with a locally approved grain-protectant spray
or powder. Alternatively, and more effectively, the grain can be protected by
shelling the cobs as soon as they are dry (13 per cent moisture content) and
admixing the grain protectant more thoroughly, This permits the effective use
of substantially reduced dosdge rates for most insecticides.

Other grains which have been adequately dried can also be stored in a
crib. The walls should be meshed or woven compactly enough to prevent the
threshed grains from falling through.

IV. Extension work activities for grain drying

The extension of grain drying requires a different approach from the

other ctimnodities discussed. Fish, fruit and vegetables contain over 80 per
cent water in the fresh stage and this fraction has to be reduced to 20 per
cent or less during drying. The drying requirement for cereals is much lower
since most grains are harvested with a moisture content below 20 per cent. A
distinction should be made between those cereals which require little if any
secondary drying after harvest and those such as rice which require drying to
ensure safe storage.

The first group includes most of the cereals grown in temperate or dry
tropical climates such as wheat, maize and millet. Any secondary drying of
these crops has to be considered largely as an extension of good storage
practice.

The second group is typified by rice which is often harvested in hot

humid ccnditions which are not conducive to easy sun drying. This group
requires a more rigorous approach and any drying problems should be tackled
separately, though not in isolation, from storage.

IV. 1 Location

Since drying is best considered in conjunction with storage, the most

suitable location to develop and demonstrate any improved drying technique
 - 120 -

will be at a centre involved in cereal storage. It may be possible to work in

conjunction with a storage extension project. Of all the commodities and
processes, grain storage receives more attention than most because of the
importance of this food group. There is therefore likely to be an institute
or agricultural extension agency working in this field within reach which can
be consulted. Any storage project would of course be able to supply extension
workers to study your methods.

IV ;2 Current practices

The cultivation and handling of grains is an established practice in most

countries and it is likely that the methods used by the farmer to harvest and
store the grain, together with any problems experienced, are well documented.
This, of course, does not mean that solutions have been found to all of the
problems.

The current drying requirements should be considered. If only an

occasional batch is endangered, due to say freak showers, then the simpiest
solution mCght be to devise a cover which can be used with sun drying. Where
maize is taking too long to dry in a crib, it might be possible to redesign
the crib to allow a better air flow. This may entail the use of alternative
construction materials or methods. A simple solution might be to recommend a
different method of filling the crib so that the grain is less densely packed,
and thus more moisture is allowed to escape. However, it should be remembered
that looser packing may permit easier entrance for insect and pests.

Where there are more substantive drying demands, such as in the case of
rice, the use of solar dryers to improve drying rates could be considered.

IV .3 Demonstration units

Ideally, these should be constructed side by side with examples of grain

stores, in consultation with storage technicians. This will permit an
integrated demonstration showing the advantages of both good drying and
storage practices.

Decide which drying techniques are going to be demonstrated and build the
necessary units. Most of the devices will be quite straightforward with the
possible except ion of the solar paddy dryer. Become familiar with the
necessary construction techniques for the solar dryer and find out whether the
 - 121 -

necessary materials and skills are to be found in the rural sector. The
design may have to be modified until a functional device, which can be built
cheaply and with minimum effort, is obtained. Drying trials should be carried
out until the operation of the dryer is mastered and its effectiveness is
demonstrated.

In conjunction with people knowiedgeable in storage &qatters, the quality

of all dried cereals prepared by the different methods should be evaluated.

Some simple costing exercises should be done to determine what the

additional costs of the improvements will be to the farmer and whether the
benefits (improved quality, reduced losses, etc.) justify these costs.

IV.4 Involvement of extension workers

Having tried and tested modifications of existing drying techniques or

developed new methods, this information can now be disseminated to extension
workers. Ideally, a training programme in drying should be carried out in
conjunction with a session on storage. The most likely trainees to benefit
from this combined approach will be extension workers working on grain storage
projects.

During this training programme, the extension workers should be made

aware of;

- correct field drying practices;

- the vagueries or possible inadequacies of sun drying;
- the damage caused to incorrectly dried grain by moulds;
- the relative merits of threshing and drying the grain on the head;
- simple improvements to sun drying;
- the potential for solar drying;
- the construction materials and correct use of any drying device;
- the additional cost of any improvement;
- correct grain storage practice;
- the damage caused by insects, rats, etc. to stored grains.

At the end of the training programme, the extension worker should be ih a

position to advise farmers of the most appropriate techniques to use at all
stages from harvesting to storage,
 ANNEX I

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I. FOOD PROCESSING AND GENERAL DRSING

Baron, C. (ed.): Technology, employment and basic needs in food processing

in developing countries (Oxford, Pergamon Press, 1980).

Budyko, M.I.: The heat balance of the earth's surfaLe. English translation
by N. Stepanova (Washington, DC., United States Department of Commerce
and Weather Bureau, 1958).

Esmsy. M.L.; Hall, C.W. (eds): Agricultural mechanisation in developing

countries. (Tokyo, Sjin-Noxsha Co., 1974).

ILO: Appropriate technology for employment generation in the food processing

and drink industry in developing countries, Technical Report III, Second
Tripartite Technical Meeting on Food Processing and Drink Industries
(Geneva, 1978).

Van Arsdel, W.B.; Copley, M.J.; Morgan, A.I.: Food dehydration, vol. I and
II. (Westport, Avi Publishing Co., 1973).

Van Loesecke, H.W.: Drying and dehydration of food. (New York, Reinhold
Publishing Co., 1957).

Van Wylen, G.J.; Sonntag, R.E.: Fundamentals of classical thermodynamics,

Second edition. (New York, John Wiley and Sons, 19/6).

Yaciuk, G. (ed.): Food drying, Iroceedings of a workshop held at Edmonton,

Alberta, 6-9 July 1981 (Ottawa, International Development Research
Centre, 1982).

II. SOLAR DRYING

Anon: How to make a solar cabinet dryer for agricultural produce, Do-it-
Yourself Leaflet No. ~6 (St. Anne de Bellevuc, Canada, Brace Research
Institute, 1965).

Bolin, H.R.; Salunkhe, D.K.: "Food dehydration by solar energy - Critical

reviews", in Food Science and Nutrition, 1982, vol. 16 (4), pp. 327-354.

Buelow, F.H.: "Drying grain with solar heated air", in Quarterly Bulletin
vol. 41 (2), pp. 421-429, (East Lansing, Michigan AGultural
Experimental Station, 1958).

-----: Drying crops with solar heated air, Proceedings of a UN

Conference on New SOUrCeS Of Energy (Rome, United Nations, 1961).
----- .. "Corrugated heat collectors for crop drying", in Sun at Work,
1981, vol. 4, pp. 8-9.
 - 124 -

Harigopal, V.; Tonapi, K.V.: "Technology for villages - Solar dryer" in

Indian Food Packer, 1980, vol. 34 (2), pp. 48-49.

Lawand, T.A.: Solar dryers for farm produce, Technical report T4 (St. Anne
de Bellevue, Canada, Brace Research Institute, 1963).

---. "A solar cabinet dryer", in Solar Energy, 1966, vol. 10 (4),
l pp. 158-164.

---: The operation of a large-scale solar agricultural dryer, Progress

Report, Technical Report T33 (St. Anne de Bellevue, Canada, Brace Research
Institute, 1967).

McDowell, J.: Solar drying of crops and foods in humid tropical climates,
Report CFNI-T-7-73 (Kingston, Jamaica, Caribbean Food and Nutrition
Institute, 1973).

Mendoza, E.P.: Performance of a low-cost solar crop dryer, Proceedings of

an inter-regional symposium on solar energy for development, dot.
B-7 (Tokyo, Japanese Solar Energy and Technology Association, 1979).

New Mexico Solar Energy Association: How to build a solar crop dryer (Santa Fe,
New Mexico, NMSEA, 1978).

Szulmzyer, W.; "From sundrying to solar dehydration", in -Food Technology, 1971,

vol. 23, pp. 440-443.

Trim, D.S.: Solar crop dryers, Paper presented at the Arab Conference on
Solar Energy Utilisation in Agriculture at Annan, Jordan, December 1982
(London, Tropical Development and Research Institute, 1982).

Williams, B.: "Design of solar home food dryers", in Sunworld, 1980, vol. 4
(61, pp. 195-196.

III. FISH

Burgess, G.H.; Cuttling, C.L., Lovem, J.A.; Waterman, J.J.: Fish handlin
and processing (New York, Chemical Publications Co., 196fT,----H

Curran, C.A.; Trim, D.S.: Comparative study of three solar dryers for use
with fish, Proceedings of an FAO Expert Consultation on Fish Technology
in Africa held in Casablanca, Morocco (Rome, FAO, 1982).

Deng, J-C=; Chaw, K-V.; Baird, C.D. Heinis, J.J.; Perez, M. and WU, L.: Drying
seafood products with solar energy Proceedings of the Second
International Conference on Energy'Use Management (Los Angeles, 1979).

Doe, P.E.; Ahmed, M. Muslenmuddin, M.; Sachithananthan, K.: "A polythenc

tent dryer for improved sun drying of fish", in Food Technology in
Australia, 1977, vol. 29, pp. 437-441.

----: A polythene test fish dryer - A progress report, Proceedings of

an international conference on Agricultural Engineeri,ng in National
Development, dot. 79-12 (Selangor, Malaysia, University Pertanian, 1979).

FA3: The prevention of losses in cured fish, FAG Fisheries Report Paper
No. 219 (Rome, 1981).
 - 125 -

ILO; Small-scale processing of fish, Technical Memorandum No. 3 (Geneva, 1982).

Richards, A.H.: A polythene tent fish dryer for use in Papua New Guinea’s
Sepik River salt fish industry, Proceedings of a seminar on sun drying
methodology (tilombo, Sri Lanka, National Science Council, 19!6).

Rogers, J .F.; Cole, R.C .; Smith, J .D.; Barron, J .O.: An illustrated guide
to fish preparation, Report G83 (London, Tropical Development and
Research Institute, 1975).

Sachithananthan, K.; Trim, D.; Speirs, (?,.I.: A solar dome dryer for drying
of fish, FAO Fisheries Paper (Rome, FAO, 1983).

Watanabe, K.: “An experimental fish drying and smoking plant on Volta Lake:
Design, construction and economic considerations”, in Tropical Science,
1975, vol. 17, No. 2, pp. 75-93.

Waterman, J .J .: The production of dried fish, Fisheries Paper No. 160,

(Rome, FAO, 1976).

IV. VEGETABLES

Anon: Drying fruits and vegetable at home, Bulletin No. 555 (University of
Idaho, 1975 1.

m-w- . “Chilli drying, vegetable seeds drying”, in Annual Report (Bhopal, India,
Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, 1980)) pp. 51-52.

Best, R.s Cassava drying. (Cali, Colombia, Cent ro Internaciona 1 de Agricultura

Tropical, 1979).

Jackson, T.H.; Mohammed, B.B.: Sun drying of fruits and vegetables,

Agricultural Services Bulletin No. 5 (Rome, FAO, 19691.

Mantosudirvo, S.; Kurisman, I.; Taragan, I.: Improvement of solar drying

technique in post-harvest technology - A study of onion drying in
Indonesia, Proceedings of an inter-regional symposium on solar energy
for development, Paper B-10 (Tokyo, Japanese Solar Energy and Technology
Association, 1979).

Shaw, R.: “Solar drying potatoes”, in Appropriate Technology, 1981, vol. 7,

No. 4, pp. 26-27.

Start Clark, C.: “Solar food drying: A rural industry”, in Renewable Energy
Review Journal, 1981, vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 23-26.

Trim, D.S.; Ko, H.Y.: “Development of a forced convection soiar dryer for red
peppers” ) in Tropical Agriculture, 1982, vol. 59, No. 4, pp. 319-323.

V. FRUITS

Anon; Drying fruit and vegetables at home, Bulletin No. 555 (University of
Idaho, 1915).

Bhatia, A.K.; Gupta, s.L.: “Solar dryer for drying apricots”, in Research and
Tndustre, 1976, vol. 21, No. 9, pp. 188-191.
 - 126 -

Bolin, H.R.; Petrucci, V.; Fuller, G.: "Characteristics of mechanically

harvested raisina produced by dehydration and by field drying", in Journal
of Food Science, 1975, vol. 4C. p. 1036.

Bolin, H.R.; Stafford, A.E.: "Effect of processing and storage on provitamin

A and vitamin C in apricots", in Journal of Food Science, 1974, vol. 39,
p. 1035.

Bolin, H.R.; Stafford, A.E.; Huxsoll, C.C.: "Solar heated fruit dehydrator",
in Solar Energy, 1978, vol. 20, pp. 289-291.

Bowrey, R.G.; Buckle, K.A.; Haney, I.; Pavenayotin, P.: "Use of solar energy
for banana drying", in Food Technology in Australia, 1975, vol. 32, No. 6,
pp. 290-291.

Cheema, L.s.; Riberio, C .M.C.: Solar dryers of cashew, banana and pineapple,
Proceedings of a conference on "The sun: Mankind's future source of
energy" (Parkville, Australia, International Solar Energy Society, 1978),
pp. 2075-2079.

FAO: Date production and protection, Plant Production and Protection Paper
No. 35 (Rome, FAO, 1983).

Jackson, T.H.; Mohammed, B.B.: Sun drying of fruits and vegetables,

Agricultural Services Bulletin No. 5 (Rome, FAO, 1969).

Pablo, I.s.: The practicality of solar drying of tropical fruits and marine
products for inccme generation In rural areas, Proceedings of a UNESCO
Solar Drying Workshop (Manila, Philippines, Bureau of Energy Development,
1978).

Umaro, G.G.; Ikramov, A.I.: "Features of the drying of fruits and grapes in
solar radiation drying apparatus", in Geliotekhnika, 1978, vol. 14, No.
6,
pp. 55-57.

VI. GRAINS

Boshof, W.: Drying and conserving maize in the humid tropics, Tropical Stored
Products Information No. 36 (London, Tropical Development and Research
Institute, 1978).

Brooker, D.B.; Bakker-Arkema, F.W.; Hall, C.W.: Drying of cereal grains.

(Westport, Conn., Avi Publishing Co., 1974).

Exell, R.H.B.; Rornsakoo, S: "A low cost solar rice dryer", in Appropriate
Technology, 1978, vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 23-24.

---;---: "Solar rice dryer", in Sunworld, 1979, vol. 3, No. 3, p. 75.

Exell, R.H.B.: "Basic design theory for a simple solar rice dryer", in
Renewable Energy Review Journal, 1980, vol. 1, No. 2, pp. l-14.

Foster, G.H.; Peart, R.N.: Solar grain drying: Progress and potential,
Agricultural Information Bulletin No. 401 (Washington DC., Department of
Agriculture, 1976).

Hall, D.W.: Handling and storage of food grains in tropical and sub-
tropical areas, Agricultural Development Paper No. 90 (Rome, FAO, 1970).
 - 127 -

ILO: Small-scale maize milling, Technical Memorandum No. 7 (Geneva, 19%).

Kent, N.L.: Technology of cereals. (Oxford, Pergamon Press, 1966).

O’Kelly; E.: Processing and storage of foodgrains by rural families, Agricul-

tUra1 Services Bulletin (Rome, FAO, 1979).

Ozisik, M.N.; Huang, B.K.; Toksoy, M.: "Solar grain drying", in Solar Energy,
1980, vol. 24, pp. 397401.

Wumbleski, E.M.; Catania, PJ.; Solar grain drying in Saskatchewan, Canada,

Proceedings of a conference "The sun: MankInd's future source of energy"
(Parkville, Australia, International Solar Energy Society, 1978).