TECTONICS, VOL. 12, NO.

4, PAGES 814-829, AUGUST 1993

STRUCTURE AND DEFORMATION Rangezirconfissiontrackagessuggest

rapidupliftfromthe
HISTORY OF THE NORTHERN RANGE Late Miocene to Recent. Late Miocene subsidenceof the
OF TRINIDAD AND ADJACENT AREAS Tobagoplatformimmediatelyto thenorthof theNorthern
Range,andgreaterthan3 km of normal,down to thenorth,
displacementindicatedfor the North CoastFault Zone
S. T. Algar and J. L. Pindell separatingtheNorthernRangeandTobagoplatform,leadsus
Departmentof EarthSciences, DartmouthCollege, to postulatethattherapiduplift of the NorthernRangewasin
Hanover,New Hampshire responseto the northwarddetachmentof the Tobagoplatform
from abovetheNorthernRange,alongthenorth-dipping
transtensional North Coast Fault Zone. This Late Miocene

Abstract.Conflictingmodelshavebeenproposed
for both changein deformationstylecanbe explainedby a changefrom
the evolution of northern South America and the neotectonics Caribbean/South Americanright-lateral tmnspression to
of thesouthCaribbean plateboundary zone.TheTrinidadian right-lateralstrike-slipgenerallystriking080ø. This has
portionof themarginis particularly controversial,
but generallyinduceda component of extensionon pre-existing
surprisingly it hasbeenlittlestudied.
We present
a structural faultsstrikingat greaterthan080ø,anda component of
analysis of Trinidad'
sNorthern Range,pertinent
updatesof the compression on faultsstrikingat lessthan080ø.
island's stratigraphy
andsedimentology, andnewzirconfission
trackagedeterminations, andusethemtoconstrainTrinidad's
INTRODUCTION
geologichistory,andtobetterunderstandthecontrolling
tectonic
processes.In ourinterpretation
Trinidad's
threeE-ENE
striking
ranges,
whichareseparated bylateNeogene-Recent NorthernSouthAmericacomprises a Jurassic-Cretaceous
depocenters,
expose (1) theNorthern
RangeGroup, generally passivemarginsectionoverlainby northwardthickening
greenschist-metamorphosed UpperJurassic
toCretaceousnorth forelandbasindepositswhichhavebeenoverthrustby
facingcontinentalslopesedimentsof theNorthernRange, allochthonsof metamorphicrock at debatedtimes[Maresch,
depositedonthenorthern SouthAmericanpassive
margin 1974; Gonzalez de Juanaet al., 1980; Pindell et al., 1988].
200-400 km to the WNW, and(2) the TrinidadGroup, One typeof model[e.g.,Bellizzia, 1972;Maresch,1974;
Cretaceous-Paleogene
shelfslopesedimentsof thecentraland Beetset al., 1984; Chevalier et al., 1988] considersthat arc
southern
Trinidaddeposited
lessthan100kmWNW of their collisionandmetamorphism occurredalongnorthernSouth
present
location.
A smallallochthon composing theSans Americain theCretaceous andwasfollowedby Cenozoic
SouciGroupCretaceoustholeiiticvolcaniclastic,
basaltic,
and mainlyright-lateralrelativedisplacementof theCaribbean
and
gabbroic
rocks(SansSouciFormation) andsediments(Toco SouthAmericanplates.Anothermodel[e.g.,Duncanand
Formation)now in thenortheastern
NorthernRange,hasbeen Hargraves,1984;Robertson andBurke,1989;Erlichand
transported
hundreds
of kilometers
fromthewestwiththe Barrett, 1990] considersthat Cretaceousarc collisionand
Caribbean
Plate.Despiteearlierreferences
to Cretaceous metamorphism occurredalongthewesternmarginof South
orogenesis,
all deformation
in Trinidad
isof Cenozoic
age.The Americaandthatfragmentsof thatorogenweresubsequently
firstdeformation
in theNorthernRange(D1) formednorth displacedandemplacedby mainly strike-slipmotionsacross
vergent
nappes andinduced
greenschistmetamorphism, northernSouthAmericain theCenozoic.A thirdmodel[e.g.,
Mattson, 1984; Pindell and Barrett, 1990; Snoke, 1991]
probablyin theLateEoceneor Oligocene.Thenappes
developedeitherbytheunderthrusting
of theProto-Caribbean producesthemetamorphism througharc-polarityreversalin
crustbeneathSouthAmericadue to convergence between the Pacificandthentranslatesthe metamorphicterraneswith
North and SouthAmerica, or as •ravitv slidescausedby the CaribbeanPlate and obductsthem,with only partial
oversteepening
inducedbythisconvergence and/or
thepassage reheating, ontothenorthernSouthAmericanmarginin
oftheCaribbean Plate's
peripheral bulge andarrivalofits Cenozoictimes.Only thesecondandthirdtypesof modelsfit
foredeep.
NorthernRange D2deformation issouth
vergent and modemregionalkinematicframeworks[Pindellet al., 1988].
represents
theincorporationofNorthern Range metasedimentsEachmodelis testableat specificlocationsalongnorthern
intotheCaribbean
accretionary
prism.
Thetransition
toD3 South America.

brittle
transpressive
right-lateral
strike-slip
faulting
is The palcotectonic development of Trinidad(Figure1) has
interpreted
tobeduetotheuplift
andeast-southeastward beenconsidered to encompass tectonismin theLate
transpressive
emplacement
ofNorthern
Range/Caribbean
prism Cretaceous, Paleocene,andEocene[Kugler,1953; Barr, 1963;
rocksontotheSouthAmerican
stepped
shelf.This Tysonet al., 1991], followedby Neogenefolding,thrusting
emplacement
formed
theMiocene
transpressive
thrust
belts
and andright-lateralstrike-slip[Kugler,1953;FarfanandBally,
foreland
basinincentral
andsouthern
Trinidad.
In thefinal 1991; Payne,1991; Tysonet al., 1991]. RobertsonandBurke
[1989] and Erlich and Barrett [1990] assumedCretaceous
phase
ofNorthern
Range
deformation
(D4)-E-Wnormal
faults
andshear
zones
andconjugate
NNW-SSE andNE-SW normal metamorphismin theNorthernRangebut translatedthatblock
from far to the west, with no Cretaceoustectonism in the
faults
developed,
anddisplacement
onpreexisting
~E-W
right-lateral
strike-slip
faults
continued.
The11MaNorthern remainderof Trinidad.AlgarandPindell[1991]doubted the
evidencefor Cretaceous deformation in theNorthernRange,
postulatingthatit wasdeposited closerto present-day
Trinidad
becauseof theabsence of any indicationof Caribbeanplate
Copyright
1993by theAmerican
Geophysical
Union. interactionuntil the Cenozoic. Pindell et al. [1988, 1991] and
Pindell and Barrett [1990] showed,from sediment
Papernumber93TC00673. accumulation andmarginalsubsidence history,thata large
0278-7407/93/93TC-00673$10.00 tectonicload, that is, arc continentcollisionand foredeep
 AlgarandPindell:Deformation
Historyof NorthernTrinidad 815

90øW 80øW 70ow 60ow

ALLOCHTHONOUS AUTOCHTHONOUS
&
• •%o • Atlantic
Ocean PARA UTOCHTHONO
US
20øN
20oN
••Ro_.cks
of
affinityCaribbean
(mainly •I'••Neogene& '".;'"'•
J Quaternary Cretaceous
Cretaceous)
Caribbetm Sea
FAULTS
• Paleo
gene
.....?...:•
Metamorphosed Cretaceous
Jurassic
&

/ Thrust
componentFOLDS
10øN Strike-slip
component
/ Anticline
Soum Am•ica
Normal
component/ Syncline
A - Araya Peninsula NCFZ - NorthCoast FaultZone
Ar - Arima Fault NR - NorthernRange
CA - Caroni Basin P - Paria Peninsula
CB - Columbus Basin PT - Pirital Thrust
CF - CentralRangeFault S - SoldadoFault
CFZ - Coche Fault Zone SB - Southern Basin
CR- CentralRange SDI- Serrania
delInterior CARIBBEAN
DR- DarienRidge SF - SanFrancisco
Fault TOBAGO
EPFZ - EI-PilarFaultZone
GP - Gulfof Paria
SR - SouthernRange
T - Tobago
PLATE
LB- LosBajos
Fault WS Springs

• CFZ NCFZ x,'X

GP

•½ø•
• L 100Km
I
SOUTH AMERICAN
PLATE

Fig.1. Tectonic
setting
ofTrinidad andnortheastern
Venezuelawithinthesouthern
Caribbeanplate
boundaryzone,X-X' andY-Y' arelinesofcross
sections
inFig.2. Modified
fromKugler[1961],Caseand
Holcombe [1980],Robertson
andBurke[1989],andPayne[1991].

development,did not occurin Trinidaduntil theMiocene. NorthernRangeGroup

Pindellet al. [1991] suggested
that Paleogenetectonismmay
havebeendue to the onsetof convergence betweenNorth and TheNorthernRangeGroupincorporates Jurassicand
South America, when the Caribbean Plate was still far to the Cretaceous passivemarginsedimentary rocksof northern
west.
SouthAmerica, metamorphosed togreenschistfacies
In this paper,we presentnew data,particularlyfrom the [Hutchison, 1939;Bart, 1963;Saunders,1972;Potter,1974;
NorthernRange,that allow us to assessthe geologicalhistory Freyet al., 1988;Algar,1993](Figures 3, and4). Thoughthe
of Trinidad.We presentdetailedstructuralanalysesandconsider field-scale
deformation is complex,
lithostratigraphic
them in conjunctionwith our recentadvancesin the formations havea Simplemappattern(Figure3b).Formation
understanding of theisland's stratigraphy
andsedimentology, contactsare rarely visible, but the unitshave consistent
new zircon fission track dates, and new views on some thicknesses
(Figure3b),andlateralvariations
in rockstypeare
significantregionalconsiderations.
A properunderstandingof duetoeithersedimentary
ormetamorphic facieschanges
the geologicalhistoryof Trinidadis importantbecauseit (Figure3a). Structuralreconstructions
of theseformations
further constrains the evolution of the eastern south Caribbean
(Figure3b)suggest
thesameagesequence asthatindicated
plate boundaryzone(SCPBZ), andnorthernSouthAmerica. fromthefauna,indicating
thattheNorthern
RangeGroupwas
oncea cohesivesediment
package[Kugler,1961;Bart, 1963;
STRATIGRAPHY
Saunders, 1972].Sandstones,
slates,
metaquartzites,
and
phyllitesarethemostcommonrocktypes,butlimestones,
Mapping of the NorthernRange[Kugler, 1961; Potter, cherts,andconglomerates
alsooccur.Evaporites
outcrop
1974; Algar, 1993] alongwith new sedimentological locallyalongthesouthern
flankof theNorthern
Range
observationsandinterpretationsin southernTrinidad[Algar, [Kugler, 1953; 1961] andhavebeencoredin the Gulf of Paria
1993]havedistinguished threestratigraphies
(Figures1, 2, and [BrayandEva,1983],wheretheyintrude
heavilyfractured
3a): LowerCretaceous
limestones,possibly
indicating
a diapiric
 816
AlgarandPindell:
Deformation
History
ofNorthern
Trinidad

NORTH SOUTH

X NORTHERN
RANGE
NorthCoast • Couva
MarineCENT•L
RANGE SOUTHERN
RANGE
X!
LosBajos/$oldado
Fault
Zone
t ,---• Arima CARONI
BASINWell
t/2 Warm
Springs
N•arirast•
a Fault
seal_©•'.. : '½)' ',.© (D ©,©
•';';::.":..:.'?.
•..•i•.,•
....
'"'"•"'•'•
•'•""-
........
':'":-.•'i:'i:' ':":""::
' "'
::'".'.'.
....
--'.':'•.
":' '" ' '':;•'?'•%•:'•:::•='•;:' ::'";:':':•;":"":
""":':":'
•sea
:'.':'":':"level

5kin Terrane Recent (relatively (tnetamorphosed)

(Cretaceous
to (?Jurassic)
umnetamorphosed) Oligocene)

y No•nERN•AN• •_ 10kin • so•nERN•AN•

North Toco/Grande
Coast Fault Riviere
Zone CENTRAL
RANGE Marcel
Zone y
Fault
$oa Fault
Zone _ •.•.,,-, tArima
...... MaturaBay
©•..•) q9•_•, xi..ratu•
Manzanilla
©
Point
,-,
C.asc•adoux
Anticline
Balata
Ant'cline SOUTHERN
.
BASIN
©
I•v•l-'•:...'..'•.:...:':•:
..... •?•:s:::.•
..........
•.•:•
.............
'--..•"-•,•,•i'
--•','-':.:.':.'--.':--.'.:.'.-'.'"..
'.• '.. .....-.. :-..-.--:
....-.......:... ..................... . \•. I sea
:.::.:..'.7 '. .' .....
"•'::T'•:-?•!•,...•..•..•'..'.:..!:::'.."...;.';::'..•.!'.'.
:"....'.'.....':.::.:'.::•.::?•;'."::;'..:'..i..:..:•':•.
.:':•':'":::'.':•::"'".":7•'•:':;;•.':•:?:':'":"7•'
I•¾•l
5km ß
•
'•!:::i::'•'i7:•"'
'""• '•i '•
'-""
'•''''
....
'
. . .'c. 5km

Fig.
2.North-south
cross
sections
through
the
east
andwest
coasts
ofTrinidad.
See
Fig.
1forlocation.
Thickest
lines
bound
primary
geologic
elements.
Structure
south
ofCaroni
Basin
modified
fromKugler
[1961];
that
north
ofNorthern
Range
modified
fromRobertson
and
Burke
[1989].
and/ortectonic
upwellingfromanunexposed Jurassic
and/or Cretaceous
eustatic
sealevelhigh.Theslightsealevel
LowerCretaceousunit[Algar,1993](Figure2). lowering
thatoccurred
intheMaastrichtian
wasprobably
The UpperJurassic
[Hutchison,1939]MaravalFormation responsible
forthesudden
influxof upperfanclastics
of the
limestones
aregenerally
wellbedded,
withphyllitic Galera Formation.
(micaceous)
layers,andrarebedsof calcareous
slates.
Massive Fromtheabovediscussion,
anda consideration
of
limestonebeds,
upto 100m thick,wedge outlaterally
overa sedimentation
ratesandregional
geology
[Algar,1993],we
fewkilometers.
Thelimestones locallycontain
algaland conclude
thattheUpperJurassic
through
UpperCretaceous
ooliticremains
[Potter,1968],butthemetamorphism has NorthernRangeGroupstratigraphy
wasdeposited
onapassive
recrystallized
thelimestone,obliteratingsedimentary margin.
Thequartz,mica,
andfeldspar-rich
mineralogy,
along
structures.
Thedepositional
environment
is thusuncertain,
and withthelackofarcvolcanic
debris
implythatthedepocenter
theformation
mayrepresent
shallow
waterplatform wasalongthenorthern
South
American
margin,
removed
from
limestones and/orcalciturbidites[Potter,1974;Algar, 1993]. theAndesandCaribbean,lessthan700 km WNW of
OverlyingtheMaraval,theinterbedded quartzites
andslatesof present-day
Trinidad,andprobablybetween200and400km
theMaracasFormationgradelaterallyinto slates,siltstones, WNW because of stratigraphic
similarities
toeastern
andconglomerates of theGuayamara Formation.The Maracas Venezuela's
Serranfa
delInterior[Algar,1993].
is interpretedasa sequence of mid fanoverlappingdepositional
lobeson the slopeapron,while the Guayamarais more SansSouciGroup
characteristicof theuppermid fan,with thechannelfill grits
in a fan lobesurrounded by interbeddedsandstonesandslates TheSansSouciGroupcomprises
theSansSouciandToco
representing lev6edeposits[Algar, 1993]. The Rio Seco, formations
andformsan allochthonous
terranedistinctfrom
Lopinot andLaventilleFormationsare lateralfacies theNorthernRangeGroup[AlgarandPindell,
1991](Figures
equivalents
of oneanother(Figure3a). The coarsesandstones 1,2, 3a,and3b).Threemainaspects
distinguish
thetwo
of the Rio Seco Formation interbed with slates and are groups.
First,theSansSouciFormation
contains
basalts,
interpretedasmeandering channels
on themid fan [Algar, brecciated
basalts,
dolerites
andgabbros
ofmid-ocean
ridge
1993]. To the westin theLopinotFormationthe sandstones basalt
(MORB)chemistry[Wadge andMacdonald,
1985].
are finer, and siltstonesare more abundantthan in the Rio Turbiditic
shales,
quartzo-feldspathic
sandstones,
and
Seco.The LaventilleFormationcomprises relatively conglomerates
of theTocoFormation
areinterbedded
withthe
unmetamorphosed shaleswitha deepwater fauna,surrounding igneousunits.
Zircons
(fission
trackage= ~100Ma)fromthe
variablyorientedshallowwaterlimestone blocks,interpreted TocoFormation (sampleT4,Figure3b)areinterpreted
tobe
to haveslumpedintotheshaleson thecontinental slope derivedfrom,andthus
date,atleast
partofthecrystallization
[Potter,1974;Algar,1993].Thoughsedimentation appears
to of theSansSoucivolcanic
rocksasAlbian[Algar,1993].
havebeencontinuous throughout theCretaceous, theAptian South America's
Proto-Caribbean
passive
marginformed in
throughCampanianis represented by a relativelythin theJurassic
[Pindell,
1985];therefore,
theSans SouciGroup
stratigraphic
sequence.This hasbeenobservedelsewhereon probably
derives
fromeithera younger
(between South
thenorthernSouthAmericanpassivemargin[e.g.,Ghosh, America
andYucatan?),
nowsubducted partoftheProto-
1984]andmaybe a condensed sectioncaused by theMiddle Caribbean
seafloor,
orthefar-traveled
Caribbean
Plate.In the
 AlgarandPindell:Deformation
Historyof NorthernTrinidad 817

SANS SOUCl
GROUP
OF NORTHERN
RANGE TRINIDAD
GROUP
NORTHERN RANGE GROUP (CENTRAL
& SOUTHERN RANGE)
& NORTHCOAST wF.
ST ,•.t.•,,.
•po.i.o.,,t
,,,,d .•ST NOP.
TH ,•.t.,,,.
•po.i.o.,,t... sottin
MARI N E A R EA p..... t-day
geographic
.it.
' u• " -' CEDROS

•A• •
Z •m ALLUVIUM
• S•GVA•
ERi•
MO
L• ]•YARO
•e T•A•S FOR• GROS

/ / •o• •us•
•o

• Middle
• • NAR•A
• :::
::•::• :.: • • •.• --
Lower • - •----

•ow•• • • NO
RECORD
OF
'

• Uooer
• •/ . •po•itionof•l•gene
Lower

• O

•L•sssom•[ • •
? ceno•an
;Lel •4•
•• •o •-• CUCHE-?••
o;;•; •' ......•:
• :.:.:':.,':..;
....... ._ -
•,•,.,,,, ,,,,,,,,.,,,,,. ,..,,, , . ß • ß ß

ß•o• ::'f":":':"
•::::':'":"y
:":':•"':':'::
•Q/'•'•//•
t t + f
o + + M•AVAL f f t
• ? + • , •
• + • + • + •+ • + • + • • ?•A•R•?
• ? B•c not o•crvcd ?

• d• • ?EV•OR•S
?
Fig. 3a. Stratigraphic
correlation
chartfor Trinidad,afterAlger,[1993].ModifiedfromKugler[1961]and
Cart-BrownandFrampton[1979].

formercase,theSansSouciGroupmaybe anelevatedcrustal a splay from the North CoastFault Zone, 2 km to the north
fragment
originally
accreted
totheCaribbean
accretionary [RobertsonandBurke,1989](Figure1). Similar
prism.With the exceptionof raretholeiiticvolcanicbedsin allochthonousoceanicrocks(El Copeymetavolcanics
and
theMaracasFormation[Potter,1974;Jacksonet al., 1991], partsof UquireFormation)occuralongthewestern
no igneousunitshavebeenfoundelsewherein Trinidad.The continuationof the North Coast Fault Zone, the Coche Fault
igneousrocksof thenearbyislandof Tobagoarequiteunlike Zone,alongthenorthcoastof the Araya-PariaPeninsula
thoseof theSansSouciGroup,beingislandarcin origin (Figure1) [Gonzalezde JuanaandMunoz, 1971].
[WadgeandMacdonald,1985;FrostandSnoke,1989;Jackson
et al., 1991]. Second, Toco Formation shaleshave no TrinidadGroupof theCentralandSouthern
ranges
metamorphiccleavage,unliketheslatesandphyllitesin the
NorthernRangeGroup,indicatinga differentdeformation In theCentralandSouthern
range's structural
highs(Figures
history.Third,metamorphic gradein theSansSouciGroup 1, and2), Cretaceous
throughMiocenerocksarejuxtaposed
(prehnite/pumpellyite)
is significantly
lowerthanthatin againstMioceneto Recentdeposits
of thesurrounding
coevalrocksof theNorthernRangeGroup(greenschist) [Frey lowlands[Kugler,1961].Thesetworangesaretraditionally
et al., 1988; Alger, 1993]. viewedasthrustfrontsin a SSEvetgentforelandfold and
Theboundary
between
theSansSouciandNorthern
Range thrustbeltactivemainlyduringtheMiocene[Kugler,1961;
groupsis a broadfault zone(Toco-GrandeRivierefault zone, Speed,1985;Tysonet al., 1991].Highanglefaultscoincident
discussed
below)whichAlgerandPindell[1991]interpreted
as with, andpossiblycrosscutting
through,thesethrustfronts,
 z •
D2 Backthrust
D im b rica tion r•,

1000"'- TocoFaultZone _ [ .

Z •
1000m

Arima
C Maracas/Brasso Fault
ß Seco
Thrust ß. • c

1ooom

Arima
Maracas/Brasso Fault
i:l Seco
Thrust • C B'

1000m

1000m

Younging
Direction Stratigraphic
contact
Dip measurement Fault
contact

D2
Backthrust

F MATURITA
RIVER
SECTION
Ar•ma
Fault
/ __- - F'
t• wall

.:. '%

ß:'.-q:-:v-';'.'..-:':
-',-.T..';
'-'.;4
•".'"("'-'/.'",':.:.";
..v:,....'.../.'....':
.,.:.:.'. ____ __
' 200m' Footwall
Syncline
¸
o

LADY YOUNG ROAD/MORVANT SECTION

E Arima E'
Fault
300m
n.,.. '?•..,'•
\ Fault • •Laventille
I. '•_•
I ß •' ' "" "•Morvant
Breccia .................
Beda=• •
.•••:..•.
'---'--'--..'-- •
I aaracasFm•.,•-•'""':'••:•"'--:'•:•:•:•,r•--•
Lop'mot Fm._-'"'"'•_
0 I Chan IcelorMem.
• '"'---"---'---'--'•-
300m

¸
 AlgarandPindell:DeformationHistoryof NorthernTrinidad 819

havebeenvariablyinterpreted asreversefaultsandright-lateral F1 foldsare tight to isoclinal,asymmetric,Ramsaytype lc,

strike-slipfaults[Kugler,1961;Payne,1991](Figures1, and with a 0.1 to 2 m wavelength,and0.1 to 1 m amplitude
2). The existenceof presentlynonquantifiablestrike-slip (Figure4a). Despitetheirtightness,S1 axial cleavageis very
offsetson thesefaultsthroughtheCentralandSouthernranges rare. Intrafolial folds are common in the Maracas Formation.
haspotentiallyalteredthepre-LateMiocenepaleogeography in StretchinglineationsoftenparallelF1 axes(Figure5).
and out of north-south cross section. On the basis of estimates F1 vergenceis northwardin upright,southfacingfolds(25
of strike-slipoffsetat theVenezuelanportionof theE1Pilaf of 170 F1 axes),andsouthwardin overturned, northfacing
fault[e.g.,Vierbuchen,1984]andoffsetsthroughtheGulf of folds(140 of 170 F1 axes).This F1 vergenceandthe
Pariapull-apartbasinandfaultswithinTrinidad(seebelow),it stratigraphicoverturningnorthof the centerof the Maraval
becomes apparent thatelementsof theCentralandSouthern Formation(Figure3b) imply thattheminor foldsareparasitic
rangesmay havebeenlaterallytranslated fromthewestby a on an anticline overturned to the north. This structure is also
total of 40 to 70 km. indicatedby the stratigraphic
repetitionof unitseithersideof
Separatelithostratigraphies weredeveloped for theNorthern theMaraval Formation[Potter,1973], and thenonvergence of
Rangeandcentral/southern Trinidad(NorthernRangeversus F1 folds within the Maraval Formation near the core. The
TrinidadGroups)because onlytheNorthernRangerocksare greaterthickness of MamcasandGuayamamFormationnorth
discernibly metamorphosed [Kugler,1953,1961].Both of the anticlinalaxis (Figure3b) is interpretedasthe
strafigraphiesare dominatedby slopeturbiditesand overturnedlimb of a second,contemporaneous, anticlinal
interchannelshalesandhemipelagites, andmay havebeen nappedecapitated by themainanficlinalnappeto thesouth.
deposited on thesamepassivemargin.The CucheFormation Nappehingesplungegently(<15ø)butfrequentlyswitch
is lithologicallyandfaunallyidenticalto theRio Secoand plungedirectionfrom eastto west(Figure3b).
LopinotFormations[Algar, 1993],andincludeslimestone F1 axesin themainNorthernRange(Figure5a)broadly
blockslike thosein the Lavenfille [Barr, 1952]. The organic mimic theE-W trendof theD1 nappes(Figure3b). However,
rich siliceousmudstones of theNaparimaHill Formationwere in theeasternNorthernRangedomain(ENRD), andsouthern
probablydeposited on theshelfby upwellingcurrentsduring NorthernRangedomain(SNRD), F1 axestrendNE-SW,
the samesealevel high thatsloweddepositionfurtheroffshore respectively,45øand15ø,counterclockwise of theD1 nappe
in theNorthernRangedepocenter [Algar,1993].Fromthe hingetrendin eachregion.Thisvariationis alsoshownby the
Maastrichtianthroughthe Late Eocene,mudstones are SObstrikein theSNRD andmainbody.F2 axesaredistributed
dominantwith periodicinfluxesof sandstone. The first similarlyto F1 axes,but S2 strikesconsistently
ENE in all
evidencefor a significantchangein alepositional depthis in the areas. These data indicate that the ENRD and SNRD were
LateEocene/EarlyOligocenewhenshallowwaterlimestones rotatedcounterclockwise relativeto themainbodyby up to
andconglomerates of theSanFernandoFormationdeveloped 45ø,at sometimeduringD1 and/orD2. It is probablethat
locally,in association with a slowingof deposition[Kugler, thisoccurredduringtheD2 convergence discussed
below,as
1953;Algar,1993].Thesedeposits areinterpreted tohave themainNorthernRangebody wasthrustandrotatedunderthe
resultedfromthepassage of theCaribbeanflexuralforebulge, SNRD andENRD (Figure2). In additionto theENE trendin
and/ormarginbucklingdueto convergence of NorthandSouth theENRD, theD1 nappehingetrendvariesfrom its E-W
America,possiblyaidedby eustacy[Pindellet al., 1991; coursein thewesternNorthernRange,whereit steps
Algar, 1993].In theLate Oligocene,initial depositionof a southward andverticallydown(Figure3b), resultingin the
thicksequence of shalesandsiltstones,
includingthePointe-a- lossof theMaraval Formationoutcrop.
Pierre[Algar,1993],NarivaandCiperoFormations, marksthe Incorporation of theMaastrichtianGaleraFormationinto all
onsetof Neogeneforedeep subsidence[Pindellet al., 1991]. D1 deformation, includingnappeformation(Figure3b),
We postulatethataneastward forebulge/foredeepmigration requiresthatD 1 be post-Cretaceous [AlgarandPindell,1991].
aheadof theCaribbeanmayhavecontrolledRobertson and Thenorthwardvergenceof theNorthernRangenappesis
Burke's [1989] eastwardshiftof deltaicsedimentssuppliedby contraryto the southwardvergenceof themain compressive
the Orinoco from the west. Since the Late Miocene the
deformationin northeasternSouthAmerica (Caribbean
Orinocodelta(Figure1) hassuppliedmuchof southern overthrusting
SouthAmerica),[e.g.,Maresch,1974;Speed,
Trinidadandthe surroundingareawith up to 7 km of deltaic 1985; Stephan,1985; PindellandBarrett,1990]. As will be
and nearshoremudstones,siltstones,and sandstones.
shownbelow,theseD1 nappesareoverprinted by D2 south
vergentstructures.
Thusthey are unlikelyto be synchronous
backthrust-related
structures
andprobablyformedpriorto the
NORTHERN RANGE STRUCTURAL STYLES
south
vergent
deformation.
4øAr/ 39At
micadates
[Speed
and
Foland, 1990; Foland et al., 1992] and zircon fissiontrack
Phase 1 (D1) ages(Figure3b; ^lgar, 1993]bothsuggesttwo separate
periodsof coolingfollowingmetamorphism (Oligoceneto
Most NorthernRangerockspossess a beddingparallel EarlyMioceneandMiddle-LateMiocene),whichprobably
pressuresolutioncleavage.Thiscleavageis almostalways correspond to D 1 andD2.
foldedby the firstgenerationfolds,butthereareveryrare We visualizetwo possiblemechanisms by whichthe
examples in whichthisdoesnotoccur,andthefirstcleavageis northwardvergentnappescouldhaveformed:(1) northward
axialplanarto thesefolds.To accommodate thisfeature,we vergentthrusting causedby theMiddleEoceneonsetof plate
assignbeddingS0a,firstfoldsF1, axialcleavage
toF1 folds convergencebetweenNorth and SouthAmerica [Pindell et al.,
S1, andthebeddingparallelcleavagefoldedby F1 foldsSOb. 1988;Pindellet al., 1991],and(2) large-scale
gravitysliding
Prehnite-pumpellyiteandgreenschist faciesmetamorphism of oversteepenedcontinentalslopesedimentsafterthepassage
[Freyet al., 1988]occurredduringthedevelopment of SOband of theCaribbeanPlate's peripheralbulgeandarrivalof its
SI, sinceboth are slaty,phylliticor schistose. foredeep/trench
depression.
$20 AlgarandPindell:Deformation
Historyof NorthernTrinidad

From the Middle Eocene to the Recent, as much as 150 Alternatively,giventhatD1 nappesformedfromsediments
km of convergence betweenNorth andSouthAmericamay on therelativelysteep,northfacingpassivemarginslope,
havebeenaccommodated in theregionof Trinidad.Farther gravityslidingmayhavecreatedthenappes.Many of the
west,away from the pole of plate rotation,as muchas 300 km characteristicsof theD1 nappesdescribed abovehavebeen
may havebeenaccommodated [Pindellet al., 1988]. Pindellet documented in gravityslides:(1) thelackof foldaxialplanar
al. [1991] postulatedthatthisconvergence causedbucklingof cleavagein mostF1 isoclinalfolds;(2) the suddenoffsetsof,
thenorthernSouthAmericanmargin,andeventuallythe anddiscordance of minorfoldsfrom,themainnappeaxis;(3)
subduction of the Proto-Caribbean crust beneath northern intrafolialfolds;and(4) theseveringof theupperlimb of
SouthAmerica.Subduction initiationmayhavebeenaidedby underlying nappes[Helwig, 1970;GawthorpeandClemmey,
the loadplacedon the Proto-Caribbean from theCaribbean 1984;ElliottandWilliams,1988;WebbandCooper,1988].
Plateapproachingfrom the west.Pindellet al. [1991] noted Because theF1 minorfoldsfolda pressure solutioncleavage
that the shallowingobservedthroughoutnorthernSouth (SOb),thesediments musthavebeenwell lithifiedpriorto
Americaaroundthistimemayhave,at leastpartially,resulted their deformation. This is not consistent with the classical
from intraplateshortening,or bucklingprior to subduction, "softsediment"aspectsof slumping,but it is knownfrom
andalsocitedtomographicimages[Van der Hilst, 1990] that moderngravityslides,someof whichshowa highdegreeof
impliedthepresenceof a subducted slabbeneathnorthern internalcohesionin seismicsections,for exampletheMexican
SouthAmerica.Subduction remainedamagmaticbecauserates Ridgesof westernGulf of Mexico [Buffleret al., 1979]andthe
of convergence averagedonly6-7 mm/yr.The NorthernRange westernmarginof Africa IN. Zitellini, personal
northwardvetgentnappesmay haveformedwithin the communication to JLP, 1991]. Gravity slidingmayhavebeen
accretionaryprismof thissubduction complexaftertheMiddle triggeredby slopeoversteepening afterpassage of the
Eocene, but before the arrival of the CaribbeanPlate to which Caribbean peripheralbulgeandprogressive arrivalof the
it was accreted. foredeepbasinaheadof theESE-migratingCaribbeanPlate

(e)

D4 '

y = 40cm
•
Fig. 4. Structural
stylesin theNorthernRange.(a)F1 tightasymmetric
minorfoldfoldingSObfoliation.
North to the right, in overturnedlimb of D1 anticline.Lenscapis 55 mm diameter.(b) Open, symmetric
F2 fold with gentlydippingfold axial planerefoldingtightasymmetricF1 fold. North to theright, on
uprightlimbof anticline.Hammeris 32 cmlong.(c)S2cleavage crenulating
SObcleavagein theGalera
Formation slates.Northto theright.(d)Subvertical
D3 brittlefaultzonedissecting
SObfoliationplanesand
tight,F1 fold. Bucklefoldingadjacentto fault is contemporaneouswith D3 faulting.Right-lateral
strike-slipfault displacement
impliedfrom subhorizontal slickenside
lineationson nearbyfaults.Hammeris
32 cm long. (e) D4 extensionalhigh-angleshearband.
 AlgarandPindell:
Deformation
History
ofNorthern
Trinidad 821

(Eocene-EarlyMiocenedependinguponthelocationof the Ma [SpeedandFoland,1990] through200ø-250øC at 11 Ma

NorthernRangedepocenter) [PindellandBarrett,1990],or by [Algar, 1993]. D2, the last fully ductiledeformation,therefore
the marginbucklingfrom theMiddle Eoceneto Recent likely occurredaround15 Ma.
convergence of NorthandSouthAmericanotedabove.Sliding The northwarddip of the cleavages,the SSE vergent
may havebeenfacilitatedby an evaporitichorizonwhichhas asymmetryof someF2 folds,andtherelativeabundance of D2
beenpostulated to underlietheNorthernRangesequence structuresalongthenorthcoastof theNorthernRangeare
[Algar, 1993]. consistentwith a SSE vergentoverthrustonto the Northern
At presentwe are unableto distinguishwhichof the two Range.
methodsproposedabovebestexplainstheNorthernRange Phase 3 (D3)
northwardvergentnappes,thoughthelowerheatflow
associatedduringunderthrusting mighthinderheatingto the Faultsandgentlefoldsare assignedto the thirdphaseof
observedgradeof metamorphism. It is possiblethattheyacted deformation(D3) becausetheydeformD2 structures but are
together.Many of thefeaturesthatfavorthegravityslide themselvesdeformedby later (D4) structures. The faultsare the
interpretation
may havebeencausedby theunderthrusting. mostpervasivestructure,severelydisruptingD 1 andD2
Inclusion of the Maastrichtian Galera Formation in the D 1 structures,
especiallyin theeasternandsouthernNorthern
nappes,togetherwith thezirconfissiontrack[Algar,1993] Range(Figures4d, and5b). Fault surfacesare generallysharp
and4øAt
! 39At
cooling
ages[Foland
etal.,1992]broadly and well definedby a thin (<5 mm) fault gougeor, less
confineD1 to PaleocenethroughEarly Miocene.Becausethe commonly,slickensidelineations.Faultsare frequentlysteep
SObcleavage
occurs
throughout
theMaastrichtian
Galera (>70ø), and tendto anastomose within the outcropin both
Formation as well as in the older units, the Galera was once strike(+30ø) anddip (+20ø).Block rotationaboutsubvertical
buriedbeneathseveralkilometersof sedimentprior to D1, axesfrom shearbetweentwo faults,asymmetricdragfolding
implyingthatD1 occurredwell into thePaleocene-Early dueto shearalonga singlefault, andsymmetricfoldingdueto
Miocenetime span,probablyin theLateEoceneor Oligocene. compression betweenfault planesarecommon,and together
AssumingthatCaribbeaninteractionwith theNorthernRange with subhorizontal slickenside lineations and calcite shear vein
sediments(accretionof slopesedimentsto prism) shouldhave lineationsimply a major componentof fight-lateral
produceda recognizabledeformation,theEocenerelative transpressionalong and betweenthe faults.It is not possible
positionof SouthAmericaandtheCaribbean[e.g., to quantifythesefault displacementsbecauseof a lack of
reconstructionof Pindell et al. [1988]) can be usedto define measurablelineations.Thoughthereis a broadspreadin the
the maximumwestwardpositionof thedepocenter.
Usingthis orientationof individualfaults(Figure5b), NE to ENE strikes
logic,we suggest
thattheoriginalNorthernRangeGroup predominate.The spreadis likely duemainly to fault planes
depocenterwasno fartherthan600-700km to thewestof anastomosing,
whilstthe similarityof D3 faultandSOb
Trinidadtoday.ComparingtheNorthernRangeGroupto foliation strikesimpliesa strongdependence on the preexisting
northernSouthAmerica'spassivemarginsection,thebest structuralgrain.D3 fault orientationis thusunlikely to be
correlations are made with eastern Venezuela's Serrania del indicativeof a paleostress field.
Interior[Algar, 1993]. Thus,it seemslikely thattheNorthern The magnitudeandrelativeproportionof compression and
RangeGroupwasdeposited about200400 km to thewestof strike-slipare difficult to ascertainfor thistranspressional
its positiontoday. phaseof deformationbecausethe lack of markerhorizonsand
smalloutcropsizehindersrecognitionof fault offsetsgreater
thana few meters.The greaterintensityof faultingandblock
rotationin theeasternandsouthernNorthernRange(Figure
Phase 2 (D2)
5b) impliesthat theseregionsare eithermore stronglyor more
pervasivelyaffectedby thetmnspression thantherestof the
D1 structures aredeformedby openfoldsanda crenulation
NorthernRange.This may be due to the relativelyless
cleavageassigned to thesame,D2, phaseof deformation,
competentargillaceous (versusarenaceous) dominatedrheology
becausetheyarebothdeformedby all later structures.
of thesouthernandeasternNorthernRange?
F2 foldsare symmetric,openandsimilar,quiteunlikethe
Somelargeroutcropsshowgentlefoldingof the SOb
tightto isoclinal,asymmetric F1 minorfoldsthattheyrefold
foliationwith a wavelengthof 5-20 m. The largewavelength
(Figure4b). This styleof foldingoccursthroughout the
precludesrecognitionin themajorityof outcrops;thereforethe
NorthernRangebut is particularlywell developedalongthe
datasetin Figure5 may not be a t_merepresentation of the
northcoast.In additionto theirlargerapicalangle(70ø-120ø),
relativepervasiveness of thesefolds.The 170ø+20ø azimuth
F2 foldsaredistinguished fromF1 foldsby theirlarger
averagefor the fold axes(Figure5b) is inconsistent
with the
wavelength (2 - 10 m versus0.1 - 2 m), largeramplitude(1 -
similarlystrikingnormalfaultsdescribedbelowandmay
3 m versus<1 m), andthepresenceof an axial planarcleavage
indicatea changein regionalstresses.
thatoftendipsto thenorth(Figure5a).
L- andLS-tectonitesarewell developedalongthenorth
An S2 crenulationcleavagewascommonlyobserved
coast, where D2!3 deformation is most intense, and the LS
withoutassociated F2 foldsandis plottedseparatelyfromF2
fabriccrenulates
SOb.Thisregion's LS-tectonite
fabricis thus
fold axialplanarcleavagebuthasa similarorientation(Figure related to D2 and/or D3 deformation. Its relation to the
5a). Both dip predominantlynorth,obliqueto the south
stretchinglineationsobservedelsewherein theNorthernRange
dippingSOb(Figures4c, and5a).Thin sections showno
asparallel to F1 minor folds,is uncertain.
significantgrowthof metamorphic mineralsalongS2,
implyingthatthemajorityof metamorphic minerals(mainly Phase 4 (D4)
whitemicas)grewparallelto SObduringD 1. However,both
zircon
fission
trackand4øAr
/ 39At
methods
suggest
a second ThelatestNorthernRangedeformation formedsteep(>60ø),
periodof heatingandcoolingafterD1, from~350øCat ~15 brittlenormalfaultsandhighangleshearbands(Figure4e).
822 AlgarandPindell:Deformation
Historyof Northern
Trinidad

structuralzones.We maintain, however, that the main

Poles t( problemis thatall modelsto dateassume andattemptto verify
SOb a singlekinematicmodefor thedevelopment of all structures.
ß'.;?tO ß
ß Thefourstructural phases
of theNorthernRangedescribed
.$....a..'•:....
ß o
abovearean indirectindicatorof howtheregionaldeformation
ßo
ß

historymayhavechangedthroughtimeßThesecanbe
considered in conjunction
withaspects of someof the
larger-scalefaultzonesandadjacentareasin andaround
F1 Folds Trinidad to further elucidate the evolution of the eastern
oß
SCPBZ.It will beshownthattranspression wasreplaced by
right-lateral
strike-slip,
withthechangeoccurring
aroundthe
endof theMiddle Miocene(~10 Ma). We suggest thatthisis
whyno singlekinematicregimehassatisfactorilyexplained all
the structures of the area.

F2 El Pilar Fault

TheE1Pilarfaultis well documented aspossessing

significant
(severaltensof kilometers) right-lateral
strike-slip
(RLSS)in easternVenezuela [e.g.,Vierbuchen, 1984](Figure
.. ß
ß
1). Althoughheavilydebated,thetraditionalview thatit also

Poles to S2
Foliation ' ß "
ß • .#

,:.:.•.
;..•.. ß
ß. .... ß •
F2Fold•___[.Allochthon
Ye•iestoS2
ß

ß
ß
A.
xes• /" Foliation
Stretch.
ing•
oo

Lineations
:.:. + .
:.•.
Fig. 5a.Lowerhemisphere
equalareastereograms
of some
relevantstructuralelementsof the NorthernRange.Data are
dividedinto structuraldomainsthatbestshowthevariationsin
• ß.. - Polesto Body
the orientationandrelativeabundance of structures.
SeeFig.
ß •,I.".,,••...D3
Faults..---"•--'x---•
F3Gentle
5b for key to structural
domains.

, ".';/'-..: :. ß
The high angleshearbandsare only foundin thephyllitic
quartzitesof theChancellorMemberof theMaracasFormation
(Figure3b), wheretheshearbandspacingis generallybetween
30 cm and 1 m. Their E-W to ESE-WSW strikeandsoutherly ß SNRD --r-- allochthon

dip (Figure5b) may indicatethattheyarerelatedto the

exhumationof the NorthernRange.The normalfaultsstrike
SE-SSEandNE-SW andareinterpreted asconjugates D4 D4 High
accommodating E-W extensionß Normal Angle
SE-SSE-strikingfaultsoffsetstratigraphic boundaries Faults Shear
Bands
throughout theNorthernRange(Figure3b). The apparent
offseton thesefaultsis mainly normaldip-slip,because
formationboundaries on eithersideof theD1 anticlinalnappe
are offsetin oppositedirections.Offsetsin theD2 thrustfront STRUCTURAL
in the ENRD may alsobe normalfaults,but a componentof DOMAINS
strike-slipdisplacement,principallyleft-lateral,couldalso
explainthe observedstratigraphic offsetß

FAULT ZONES OF THE EASTERN SCPBZ Main Body SNRD ENRD SansSouci
(SouthernNorthern (EasternNotxhern
m•or•,.) •ge•o.•. Allochthon
The relativerolesof compressional, extensional,and Fig. 5b.Lowerhemisphere equalareastereogramsof some
strike-slipstructures,
andtheir implicationsfor Caribbean- relevantstructural
elementsof theNorthernRange.Arrowson
South American motion in the eastern SCPBZ has been the
D4 fault/extension
planesindicateslipdirection
on
subjectof numerousconflictingstudies[Rod, 1956; hangingwall determined
fromslickenside lineations,
or ductile
Vierbuchen,1984;Speed,1985;Robertson andBurke,1989; extensionlineation. Data is divided into structuraldomains
1991;Erlich andBarrett, 1990; Speedet al., 1991]. Partof the that best show the variationsin the orientationand relative
problemrevolvesaroundincompleteexposureof important abundance of structures.
 AlgarandPindell:DeformationHistoryof NorthernTrinidad 823

continuesinto TrinidadbetweentheNorthernRangeandthe structure,thatit is clearlyrelatedto theCentralRange.

CaroniBasinasa major(tensof kilometers)faultof reverse Furthermore, the El Pilar zone itself has no reverse
and/orRLSS displacement is supported
by (1) therelatively displacementbut insteadis a zoneof significantnormal,down
suddentopographic transitionfromtheNorthernRange to thesouthdisplacement of Cretaceous units.Strike-slip
mountains to thelow-lyingCaroniswamps(1000 m over-10 displacementcannotbe ruled out, but the minor amountof
kin); (2) themetamorphic/nonmetamorphic transitionfrom disruptionof Neogenesedimentsimpliesthatit wasa
NorthernRangerocksto thosein thesouth;(3) the relativelysmallcomponentin at leasttheNeogene.Thus
interpretation thatthrust,normalandstrike-slipfaultsobserved althoughthe normalfaultingmay haveaccentuated it, the
withinPleistocene depositsimmediatelysouthof theNorthern topographictransitionbetweentheNorthernRangeandCaroni
RangeindicateRLSSmotionalongan underlying El Pilar Basinis primarilya resultof sedimentary
onlap.
fault [Robertsonand Burke, 1989]; and (4) the observationof In summary,only in Venezuelais theEl Pilaf a majorfault
flower structures in seismic lines off the east coast of Trinidad with tens of kilometers of RLSS from the Late Miocene to
[Erlich and Barrett, 1990]. We, too, havefoundevidencefor Recent.In Trinidad,it appearsto havebeena normalfault
RLSS alongthe southernflank of theNorthernRangein the zonesincetheLate Miocenewith only minorright-lateral
formof theD3 right-lateraltranspressive
faulting,described displacement. Thejuxtapositionof theNorthernRangeagainst
earlier,andtheoutcroppatternof theGaleraFormationalong centralandsouthernTrinidadwastranspressive, and
the southernflank of the NorthernRange,whichresembles displacement wasin ouropinionmostlikely accommodated
thatof a RLSS duplex(Figure3b). However,after full alonga blindthrustbeneaththeCaroniBasin,possiblyrooted
considerationof all the data, we conclude that the offset and onJurassic/Lower Cretaceousevaporites (Figure2), andat a
regionalsignificance
of thehigh-angleRLSSEl Pilar fault later stage,alongthe Arima Fault (seebelow).
known from easternVenezuelais unlikely to be presentto
anywherenearthesameextentin Trinidad.First,althoughslip Arima Fault
couldbe aseismicor locked,the zonein Trinidadis historically
(70 years)seismically
inactive[Per6zandAggarwal,1981; The Arima fault (Figures1, 2, and3) anastomoses
alongthe
Speedet at., 1991;Russoet at., 1992]andshowsno offsetof southernflankof theNorthernRange,placingtheLopinotand
Holocene alluvial fans or disturbance of Holocene sediments Rio SecoFormations abovetheMaracasandGuayamara
[RobertsonandBurke, 1989]. Second,our studyof recently Formations. The rivers and roads that traverse across the
shotseismiclines to the eastof Trinidad (courtesyTrinidad boundaryshowoverturningof theotherwisemonotonously
Ministryof Energy)showsclearlythattheflowerstructure southwarddippingandfacingMaracasFormationwithin 1 km
faultzoneclaimedby ErlichandBarrett[1990]to bea of the contact,in the styleof a footwall synclineto a north
continuationof theEl Pilar is more likely to be continuous directedthrust(Figure3b, E-E', F-F'). Northvetgentthrusting
withtheNE-SW strikingfaultsthatextendfromtheCentral alongthe Arima Fault is alsoimpliedby imbricationof the
Range(Figure1). Figure6 showsanonlandnorth-south Rio SecoandGuayamaraFormationsin theeasternNorthern
seismicline acrossthe Caroni Basin, with this sameflower Range(Figure3b,D-D'). However,because theLopinot

I 5 krn
N s
FLANK OF CENTRAL
NORTHERN
ELPILAR GUA'I'APA,JARO RANGE
RANGE ANTICLINE
O

- .. .... •. _••7• •,.•.•• :•. ••'._••- -.

DATA COURTESY TRINIDAD AND TOBAO0 MINISTRY OF ENERGY

Figure6. Seismicreflectionprofile (two-way travel time, migrated)throughthe CaroniBasinshowing

northwardonlappingof Neogenesediments ontotheNorthernRange.The El Pilar fault hasa normal
displacementas well as an indeterminate,but probablyminor, right-lateralstrike-slipcomponent.Key:
LK, LowerCretaceous; MZ, ManzanillaFm. (UpperMiocene-MiddlePliocene);SPV, SpringvaleFm.
(Middle Pliocene);LT, Lower TalparoFro. (UpperPliocene);andLIT, UpperTalparoFro. (Lower
Pleistocene).
Sectionandinterpretation afterPayne[ 1991].
$24 AlgarandPindell:Deformation
Historyof Northern
Trinidad

Formationis bothyoungerandof slightlylowermetamorphic klippen.As RobertsonandBurke[1989] noted,theE-W trend

gradethantheMaracasFormation [Algar,1993],a normal, of the NorthernRangeputsit into transtension in a zoneof
down to the south,reactivationmay constitutea more strikeslip that appearsfrom the structuresin the NCFZ to
significant
proportion
of thedisplacement
alongtheArima trend070ø+ 15ø. If thisunloadingoccurredquickly,the
Fault. Some elementof lateral motion is also likely because NorthernRangemay haverebounded relativelyrapidlyto
D3 transpressive faultsarecommon to thesouthof thefault. maintainisostaticequilibrium.Sucha modelis consistent
Because theSObfoliation andF1foldsarefoldedbytheArima withzircon
fission
trackdata[Algar,
1993]and4øAr/39Ar
mica
fault's faultpropagation folds,it is impliedtohaveformedas data[SpeedandFoland,1990;Folandet al., 1992]thatindicate
a backthrust.It mayhavebeeninducedby theD2 blind rapiduplift of theNorthernRange(~1.0 mm/yr), beginningin
thrusting of theNorthernRangeintotheCretaceous rocksof theMiddle Miocene(15 Ma), synchronous with subsidenceof
centralandsouthernTrinidad(Figure2). theTobagoterraneimmediatelynorthof theNorthernRange.

North Coast Fault Zone (NCFZ) Toco-Grande

Rivierefault zoneandSansSouciallochthon

The North CoastFault Zone (NCFZ) coincideswith the The boundarybetweentheGaleraandTocoformations of

boundary betweenSouthAmericanandallochthonous northeasternTrinidadwasregardedby Bart [1963]asan
Caribbeanrocks(Figure1) andhasbeenshownfromseismic erosionalunconformitywith a basallag brecciain thelower
reflection
profilestohaveconsiderablenormalandright-lateral Galera,indicatingto him a periodof MiddleCretaceous
offsets[Robertson andBurke,1989]. Onestrandaloneof the orogenesis(Figure3). We interprettheboundaryasa major
NCFZ hasaccumulated 10 km of right-lateraloffsetsince1.6 faultzone,with brecciationinducedby motionalongthe
Ma [RobertsonandBurke, 1989], or roughlya thirdof the boundary forminga tectonicm61ange [AlgarandPindell,
total Caribbean/South American E-W relative motion 1991]. The easternstrandof the fault zoneis well exposed
(assumingfull rate= 15-20 mm/yr) [Pindellet al., 1988, alongthecoast,whereblocksof TocoandGalerarocksupto
1991]. BecausetheNCFZ comprises a numberof suchstrands, 100m acrossarejuxtaposedin a multitudeof orientations.
it may have been the dominantsite of Plio-PleistoceneRLSS Separatingtheblocksarecataclasticfaultbreccias
upto 5 m
in theeasternSCPBZ. Historically,however,thenear-surface thick,containingmillimeter-to centimeter-sized
clastsof
NCFZ identifiedin theseseismicreflectionprofilesis aseismic sandstone,limestone, or chert, of both formations,enclosedin
(last70 years)[Pertz
andAggarwal,1981;Speedet al., 1991; a matrixof mudstonewith scalycleavage(Figure7). The
Russo et al., 1992]. foliationis commonlysubvertical,
andstrikesbetween045ø
A number of observationsindicate that the normal, down to and 100%with a meanaround060%subparallelto the mapped
the north, componentof offset is suchthat basementalongthe boundary betweenthetwo formations.
Strainindicatorssuch
northflank of theNCFZ (Tobagoterraneof SpeedandWalker as clast rotation, slickenside lineations, vein offsets, and clast
[1991]) wassituatedstmcturallyabovetheNorthernRangein
theMiddle Miocene: (1) The SansSouciGroupis interpreted
to be an allochthonjuxtaposedagainsttheNorthernRange
Groupalonga strandof theNCFZ, theToco-GrandeRiviere
Fault Zone [Algar andPindell, 1991]; (2) An outcropof
dolerite10 km southof the SansSouciallochthonmay
constitutea klippenfrom the sameallochthonous body [Barr,
1963]; (3) A subaerialerosionalhiatusseparatesseveral
kilometers of Late Miocene-Recent clastic rocks from
Cretaceousbasementin the southern,but not the northern,
part of the Tobagoterrane[RobertsonandBurke, 1989]. This
indicatesthatthe southernpartof Tobagoterranewasuplifted
andexposedabovesealevel prior to theLate Miocene;(4)
NorthernRangeD2/D3 structures arebestinterpreted
asthe
resultof obliqueoverthrusting; (5) Middle?-LateMiocene
CunapoFormationproximalalluvial-fluvialconglomerates in
theCaroniBasin(Figure3a) containcobblesandpebblesof
basicigneousrock (Guaico#1 well) [Algar, 1993].Likely
sourceterrainsfor thesearetheSansSouciGroup,Tobago
terrane,or equivalents.If so,thentheCaribbeanallochthons
musthavebeenhigherthan,andprobablyon, the intervening
NorthernRangeat the end of theMiddle Miocene.
If theTobagoterrane/Sans SouciGroup(Caribbean
accretionary prism/forearc?)wasoncesubaeriallysituated
abovethe NorthernRange,a tectonicmechanism(in addition
to erosion)is requiredto explaintherelativesubsidence of the Toco Fault Zone
erosionalunconformityby 3-4 km to its presentdepthbelow
Phacoidal Cleavage
sealevel (Figure2). The normalthrowon the northward
dippingNCFZ wasprobablyprimarilyresponsible for the Fig. 7. Typical subverticalcataclasticfabricof the tectonic
northward withdrawal of the allochthons from above the m•langein theToco-Grande RiviereFaultZone.Lookingwest
NorthernRange,in theprocessstrandingtheSansSouci at verticalplane.Lenscap is 55 mm in diameter.
 Algar andPindell:DeformationHistoryof NorthernTrinidad 825

long-axisorientationimply a dominanceof lateralmotion,of represents

themaximumageof thesandstone (Oligocene),
indeterminatesense,parallelto the fabric.D4 normalfaults implyingthattheToco-Grande
Rivierefaultzonewasactive,
crosscutthe m61angefabric. andD2/3 occurred
duringand/oraftertheOligocene.
Similar structures occur to the west in the Grande Riviere Becausethe Toco-GrandeRiviere fault zoneis only 2 km to
river section, where the Sans Souci and Toco formations are the southof the NCFZ and separates
rockssimilarto those
juxtaposedagainsttheGaleraandolderformations(Figure3b). separated
by theNCFZ, it is likelyto be a splayfromthe
Lack of exposurepreventstracingof thefault zonebetween latter. As such,the Toco-Grande Riviere fault zone may once
thesetwo areasof outcrop,but sincethe only observed haveformeda significantpartof theeasternSCPBZ,
boundariesare faultedand,asnotedabove,the boundary accommodating relativelylargeamountsof RLSSand/or
separatestwo very differentrock units,it seemslikely that a convergencebetweentheCaribbean SansSouciallochthon
and
continuous fault zone bounds the Sans Souci and Northern the SouthAmericanNorthernRangeGroup,in accordwith the
Range groups. verydifferentearlydeformation histories
of eacharea.
Because(1) D1 structuresare absentfrom the SansSouci
allochthonbut are deformed within the fault zone, and (2) D4 OtherSCPBZdeformation
in andaroundTrinidad
normalfaultscrosscutthem61angefabric,juxtapositionof the
SansSouciand NorthernRangegroupswaspost-D1and RapidMiddleMiocene(15 Ma) shoaling of theCentral
pre-D4 (i.e., D2 and/orD3). Zirconfissiontrackanalysison a Rangeculminatingin deposition
of theTamanaFormation
sandstone from the center of the eastern strand of the fault zone shallow water limestones,the identification of the Middle
foundwhatwereinterpretedasunannealed zirconsdatedat 33 + MioceneRio Claro wildfiysch,andtheinterpretation of
8 Ma (sampleTFZ-J in Figure3b) [A!gar, 1993]. This imbricatestructuralstylesundercentralandsouthernTrinidad,

(a) LateMiddle
Eocene .....
(42Ma) ..•?/•::..-..• _ _,•.••
$1•e•
r•-,,,•
Serranfa
de]
Interior Po
e resent'
graph)

--"•
'"•'-
Gulf
Southern
ofParia •w '"'••,
Trinidad
/ Caroni ß""'•!
"'...........
:•'••%inail]a., ' "'
---'"'a
' '.....•'
.
"•..";..';::•i:?:•i!?...'.":?"':.:-;':,;•27:.•.•.{:::.'.::.';";7';•..

shoalsß Jurassic-.'
marsinai
offset
• -•-
.i'"' •
' stePP
e
shelj•
Bret'-
d

CARIBBEAN PLATE
t..n •--.Accretionary
Prism
,•.<.'•4_
4. •.,•/•
::":•b•)• •4 •'-.'1....
,.oa.[•,: ;.'..:
.;:
::d'Sans PROTO-CARIBBEAN
-''d..'
.•'"x I. PLATE 1.
NW •.,•1•?'
'mil•-/•/•-•..-.
,•:. :::.'-
,Oq<.. '..3•_:/
•../ ..... . Gp
Souc] '•
Araya•/•
M-•%'•g'
.'-':".'"'-:'
' '......... • 9 --

(b) EarlyOhgocene•-"••-- //orebulge • •

(35Ma)
D1Northern
Range
nappes
form
.,.,•:..:,:.:..:•::-.':
either
..:..;.
.:• '•
tectonic
nappes
inaccretionary
prisma :•:.'."::_.{•'...:.'
Proto-Caribbean
subducts
beneath
South
America,
or• grm,
itysliding.
SeeFig. ............. i•. con lomerates

-Jf',•,"l•...... :',Jf',7,"l
•'" ' .... "'" ...... "'/ .........
Scotland
Fro.?
ßL•<,, •¾t•;'•'•L•<.,, g.:';:':: :'..::..:'..'-.../'.::':.'.'•--?
..... ,, ..-O•a•o•)
r:_-7 :7::-. ..::"
¾5_y-•z:•
y• •½'3.x•...:..-'
'. :..•: :":::
'r',-;,•/_--• •L_x•..v- :...-..:..,•r
.-.: '-'...... -' ß' .....
NWAraya

{C) Late
Oligocene"'"" x•'"-'-:'---:...:"_'•!;5!""'•':•-•i:: •-t
(28Ma) -•-,.•.
....;...,.....•.•
:•...
:,.-•.`
,...-.
:..

// /// Pointe-a-Pieffe
Fm.•,•'•-

ß-' ' X/•.V.I"Z4

' \--' xl<- - \---E- •<..\•.[x.........
- ...- .. ß ß.......
"."-'. ß-'.'.-'.."" Continued
•,_
ß
>,IL..•.:A•.,
q •/-•
•,_
,•,•4 •) ;•2v•x_
4 -•-
>,IL..•.•,.A.•,••L..•i•,•..'-..
r• • .•, t3't,,4q •Er• •-'.•V.I"Z4
ß::.::
ß:.'..•./......:•..'..'-.':')•'
".ß
:•-..-J':11•?i!'i'•/
• . ,q • r,•._•7Xl3'.-.'.-'.-..'
it;•4 7) w' • .-rr• •.<, Ca::
.':.'.-.'
.... .....
ScotlandFm.
- ....' ......
"-'-....
- .... ..
of
accret,on

,•<,, '•1•/I•'4• /••• I',,,xll

ß,•qt,
-•'X •.-• •,,\/i N •-
v.•,•qt, .",1-•-
v.•,•J
I"•;i' '. .' .'."-
" ' '"•"J
•"-'-.' '.' .'' ß
.... ' "-'-'.'
' '' ß
D,Transpresston

(d) EarlyMiocene

Fig. 8. (continued)
826 Algar andPindell:DeformationHistoryof NorthernTrinidad

/.-•'-_'7•',' t,.lx>q ; /.-•'-_'7

•',' •.tx•q i L-•.'7 l/ ,'•.lx'•'l'yff.'..'-'."...'." •.'. .::':•]'- '.' '--./D2 Transpression
>.v•_• E•• • > v>z_•'.'•• > v>z?• ;X•.i"."''::v:.-',::--'•':
:-'.,/,'.'-:-::1
I,<. •>,•12t, .• U",4 ' ' '-'" '-' ' -' ' -:.:
. ."'. ; '.':'. :.: -"
_,•:.• .......-..

Early
Middle
Miocene
Co]umbus(fore]and)
{16Ma) Eastern
Venezue]an Basin
(fore]and)Basin

b..z-'•W-4'
C.r-3/•z_.,•/•C.x-Cv
• z..,•/•_•,
b_x-Cv
K.z_,;,/,-¾..
.. :7-.
•:."-'...:.:-').
:'(.:.'Z..
''-.•:."]
. xiz. •.hZ-A
•' •-.• z: ,4z. •.hZ.A
• •-.• z:,,ts•./ h2_-A
X-.-xz:,,
''.......'-.'. ß
•. :...":..-•....'..' .." :'.'

ß ,.,,:•.•.•.
ß,I h,a..... ¾.. '---, ,, .- .: ............
_. •-- ,z,,•
_...............
"y'....
.....•
--.-- ....- -':•--
II - '. ......
...... -....
{ •'.-"
fault i..•}'•.:':'•::':•;':;;'½'•'.-z--
.'...:•-.;•.?::.:;•;:•:.h
'"'•••'-"'-•'""•-'--'-'-•'!•:4:•;
""•
"'" ..............
01Ma)

ßz_•-•p, - •.-,,/x•-b,a.•-/v,,-,,•x•-b,z_r,Z/•t.-.-...:.
...-::..-..).:.-.
:.),;...•..
:'.'...-.-':'
Moron
i , F•• •I/ • W,.:•'.
"".'.":'
ßß:.'..;...
""'
Early
Pllocene ::::'•
:•i!z:.,.'-•..'
'• ' C••s'•'• '•and
E-
Wextert•ion'

Fig.8. Modelof tectonic

evolution
of thesoutheastern afterthepassage of theforebulge(transgressive)?;
(d)Onsetof
Caribbean
in thevicinityof Trinidadandnortheastern themajorperiodof fold andthrustbelt formationin Serranfa,
Venezuela
incorporating
theresults
of thisstudy.
Northern CentralRange(CR) andSouthernRange(SR), as the
SouthAmericais dividedintofourtectonostratigraphic
units CaribbeanPlate/prismoverthrusts andpushestheNorthern
whose
deformations
areindependently
estimated.
Construction Range-Pariabodyup thecontinentalslope(NorthernRange
assumes
16 km/Ma Caribbean/South
Americanrelative D2); (e) Obliqueobductionof CaribbeanprismandNorthern
motion
atangles
shown,
90kmof NW-SEshortening
in Rangerocksontothemarginmarkedby (1) coolingof
Serranfa
delInterior[Passalacqua
etal., 1991],and50kmof NorthernRangeby erosionand/oroverthrusting ontocooler
shortening
across
southern
Trinidad
[Rohr,
1991].(a)Jurassic section
(nøAr
/ 39At
age15Ma),[Speed
andFoland,
1990],
and
toEocene
passive
margin
deposition.
Thoughthenorthern (2) thrustingof theCentralRangeto sealevel asrecordedby
South American margintrends
broadlyE-W,salients
and Tamana shallowwater limestones[Erlich et al., 1993].
re-entrants
aresuggested based
ongeometry ofTertiary
thrust Strike-slipcomponent of deformationrecordedin Northern
belt[PindellandErikson,1993].TheNorthern
Range Rangeby D3; (f) Changein azimuthof Caribbeanmotion
sedimentdepocenterwasalongthismargin,somewhere upto initiates-E-W shearzonein thisregionof the SCPBZ.
700km to thewestof thepresent
position
of theNorthern Structuresthroughouttheregiontrendinglessthanor greater
Range,
butlikely200-400
kmawaybecause
ofsedimentary than-080 ø generallyarecompressional or extensional
similaritiesto the Serranfadel Interiorof easternVenezuela respectively,with variableRLSS components. The
[Algar,1993];(b)Passageofflexural
forebulgeahead ofthe transtension on theNCFZ (NorthernRangeD4) allowed
CaribbeanPlateand/or
underthrusting
oftheProto-Caribbean isostaticexhumationandfurthercoolingas indicatedby 11 Ma
beneath
northern South
America, raisestheshelf.Thisinduces zirconfissiontrackages[Algar,1993],andrapidsubsidence
D1north vergentnappeseitherasgravityslides
by andburialof previouslyexposedTobagoshelf(northward
oversteepening
oftheslope,
orastectonic
nappes
within
an normaldetachment off of NorthernRange?);(g) Southward
accretionary
prism.
Thisdeformation
andmetamorphism steppingof theEl Pilaf RLSS fault zonealongtheNW-SE
probably
occurred
between
thelateMiddle
Eocene
and
Late strikeof a Jurassicmarginaloffsetto E-W andENE-WSW
Oligocene
(4øAr
/ 39Ar
cooling
agesLateOligocene-Early RLSS faultsin centralandsouthernTrinidaddevelopsCaroni
Miocene), [Folandetal.,1992];(c)Encroachment
ofthe (CA) andGulf of Paria(GP) pull-apartbasins,similarto Late
Miocene to Recent formation of Cariaco basin to the west.
Caribbean Plateinitiates
SSEdirectedthrusting
inSerranfa
del
Interior.
Barbados's ScotlandFormationprobably
comprises Under thisregimesignificantclockwiserotationsare expected.
sandsreworked frominfilledportions
oftheforedeep
and NorthernRangecontinues itsrapidexhumation.Inset
GuyanaShield
(regressive,
prograding).
Trinidad's
Pointe-a- summarizesthe relativemotionhistoryof the Caribbean
Pierre
Formation
mayrecord
theonset
ofmarine
conditions (representedby Tobago)relativeto northernSouthAmerica.
 AlgarandPindell:Deformation
Historyof Northern
Trinidad 827

havecausedtheCentralandSouthernrangesto be considered Payne[1991]showedthatfaultsstrikingat greaterthan080ø

as southvergentimbricatedthrustfronts(equivalentto arepresentlytranstensional,
for example,LosBajosandE1
Northern
Range
D2dated
by4øAt
/ 39At
ofSpeed
andFoland Soldadofaults,andNorthCoastFaultZone,andonly
[1990] at 15 Ma), mainly activein theMiocene[Kugler, structures
strikingat -070 øor lessarecompressional,
for
1961;Tysonet al., 1991], and accommodating asmuchas 50 examplesegments of CentralandSouthern Rangefaults
km of NNW-SSE convergence (Rohr [1991], basedon (Figure1). Thisimpliesthatthestrike-slip
planein Trinidad
cross-sectionbalancing).The CentralRangehas,however, since the Late Miocene was -080 ø. This orientation is
also been cited as a center of Paleocene and Cretaceous slightlyobliqueto the 090ø trendof the northernSouth
tectonismbecauseof the interpretationof the St. Joseph's Americanmargin,perhaps because
of theproximityto the
conglomeraticboulderbedin the ChaudiereFormation(Figure transition
betweenthe090øSCPBZtransform boundary and
3a) asa synorogenicconglomerate,andof Paleocene and the 000 ø Lesser Antilles subduction zone.
Cretaceous m•langesas wildflysch[Kugler,1953]. However,
these"wildflysch"are now thoughtto be tectonicand/or TECTONIC EVOLUTION
diapiricm•langesof latterNeogeneage,andtheboulderbedis
mostprobablya localizedsubmarineerosionalproduct[Algar, Figure 8 summarizesour model of the Cenozoictectonic
1993]. The Late Eocene-Oligocene SanFernandoFormation, development of theTrinidadregion.Thismodeldiffersfrom
discussedabove,is theonly unitproducedby pre-Miocene previousmodels,first,by ourinvalidationof arguments for
deformation, and is attributed to flexural extension associated Cretaceous orogenesis, whichare(1) theobservation
thatthe
with thepassageof a flexuralforebulgeaheadof theCaribbean Maastrichtian GaleraFormation is involvedin all phases
of
Plate.
deformation affectingtheNorthernRange;(2) therecognition
Recentseismicreflectionsurveyshave identifieda number of Bart's [1963]supposed mid-Cretaceousangular
of ENE strikinghigh-anglefaultsin the Centraland Southern unconformitybetweenthe Toco andGaleraFormationsasa
ranges,with continuations offshore(Figures1, and2) [e.g., cataclastic
faultzone(Toco-Grande RiviereFaultZone);(3) the
Payne,1991;FarfanandBally, 1991].A component of identification
of Kugler's[1953]Cretaceouswildflyschin the
strike-slipis indicatedfor thesefaultsby subhorizontal CentralRangeasoccurrences of Neogenetectonic
and/or
slickensidelineations,andby the flower structureseenin at diapiricm61ange [Algar,1993];and(4) thereinterpretation
of
leastthenorthflank of the CentralRange(e.g.,Figure6). thePaleocene St. Joseph's
boulderbedasa submarine erosion
Thereis little controlon themagnitudeof totalstrike-slip product[Algar,1993],ratherthanasa synorogenic deposit
offset,but strainis broadlydistributedon numerousfaults [Kugler,1953]. Second, mostauthors[e.g.,Speed,1985;
throughoutthe ranges.Judgingfrom sedimentaryunits Robertson andBurke,1989]haveemployedeithercontinued
involved,thisphaseof deformationappearsto havebeenactive right-oblique
convergence or E-W strikingRLSSto generate
from the Plioceneor Late Miocene to Recent(?), after the the structuresin the easternSCPBZ. However,the structural
Middle Mioceneculminationof SSE thrusting. stylesof theNorthernRangeandenvirons
cannot
beexplained
Seismicsectionsthroughthe Gulf of PariaandCaroni by a single,ongoing
modeof deformation.
Theyrequire,
basins[Payne,1991], (e.g., Figure 6) shownormalfaults instead,thatthedeformation in theregionof theeastern
strikingin a variety of orientations,but mainly NW-SE and SCPBZhaschanged fromtranspression (EarlytoMiddle
E-W (Figure1). The geometryandtimingof activityof these Miocene)to right-lateral
strike-slip
at 080ø (LateMioceneto
faultsand the age andpositioningof basinfill are best Recen0.We perceive thegeneralmodelproposed by Speed
explainedasa seriesof Late Mioceneto Recentpull-aparthalf [1985],in whichoblique
collision
isaccommodated
by strain
grabensresultingfrom a fight stepin the E1 Pilar fault trace partitioning
onENE thrusts andE-W right-lateral
faults,tobe
across the Gulf of Paria to at least two main centers of
essentially
correctfor theEarlytoMiddleMioceneonly.
displacement,theCentralandSouthernranges(Figure8). Likewise,thesimple-shear modelof RobertsonandBurke
Thoughmuch of the motion alongthe E1 Pilaf in Venezuela [1989]bestsuitstheLateMiocenetoRecent phase
of
wastransferred to the south,formingthesepull-apart developmentandis consistent
withregionalseismicity,
structures,
somemay havebeentransferredto theNCFZ across including
thecontinuedoverthrusting
of thenortheast
striking
the Araya-Pariapeninsula. Proto-Caribbean
slab[PerezandAggarwal,1981;Russoand
Speed,1992], thoughthe azimuthof net relativemotion
DISCUSSION probablystrikesaround080ø.

E-W andESE-WNWfaultswithlargenormaldisplacements, CONCLUSIONS

activesincebut not beforethe Late Miocene,occurin the Gulf
of Paria/Caroni
Basins,in theSouthern Basin,alongthe Trinidad's
stratigraphy
is splitintothreegroups,
the
flanksof theNorthernRange,andthroughout the Northern
Range,SansSouci, andTrinidad Groups.
TheSans
allochthonousTobagoterrane northof TrinidadandAraya- SouciGroup,an allochthonin thenortheastern
Northern
Paria(Figures1, and2) [Wilson,1968;CaseandHolcombe, Range,probably
derives
fromtheCaribbeanaccretionary
1980;Robertson andBurke,1989;Payne,1991].Thestrikeof prism.TheNorthernRangeandTrinidadGroupswereboth
thesefaultsandtherapidsubsidence associatedwiththem(see deposited
onthenorthern
SouthAmerican passivemargin
alsoNCFZ, above) are inconsistentwith modelsof continued fromtheJurassic
through
theEocene.TheNorthernRange
right-lateralobliquecollision[Speed,1985; Speedet al., Groupmayhavebeendeposited upto 700km to theWNW of
1991]. This impliesthatthe transpression
that formedthe its presentlocationbutprobablywasbetween200 and400 km
D2/3 structures in theNorthernRange,developedthefold and WNW. There is no evidence for Cretaceousdeformation in
thrust belt in central and southern Trinidad and the Venezuelan eithertheTrinidador NorthernRangeGroups.Thefirst
Serrania did not continue after the Late Miocene. deformationfoldedtheNorthernRangesedimentsinto
828 AlgarandPindell:Deformation
Historyof NorthernTrinidad

northwardvergentnappesbetweentheMiddle EoceneandLate Cenozoicdeformationhistoryaccords with,andhelpsto

Oligocene.The nappesformedeitherby thrustingwithinan verify, kinemmicmodelsof the southernCaribbean[Pindellet
accretionary
prism(formedby theunderthrusting
of the al., 1988]. In relation to the rest of the SCPBZ the Northern
Proto-Caribbean crustbeneath
northernSouthAmerica),or by Rangeof Trinidadmustsit to thesouthof a still poorly
gravitysliding(inducedfromtheoversteepening
of themargin definedinterthrusted
boundarybetweenCaribbean metamorphic
by the encroachment
of the CaribbeanPlatefrom thewest, rocksandProto-Caribbean/South Americanmarginal
and/ortheconvergence of NorthandSouthAmerica).Passage sediments.
of theflexuralforebulgeaheadof theCaribbeanPlateand/or
convergence of NorthandSouthAmericamayhavebeen Acknowledgements. We sincerely thankPhilipFarfanand
responsiblefor the uplift of TrinidadGroupin thelatest KrishnaPersadfor encouraging usto work in Trinidadandfor
EoceneandearliestOligocene.Middle to Late Oligocene directingus to importantfield localities;Arco andUnocalfor
foredeepsubsidence heraldedtheEarlyto MiddleMiocene supportingfield andlab studiesof theNorthernRange;Chuck
transpression betweenthe CaribbeanPlateandnorthernSouth Drake and Tori Carlson-Foscz for field assistance in the
Americain theregionof Trinidad.TheNorthernRangewas NorthernRange;Exxon,Chevron,andTotalfor supporting
incorporated withintheCaribbean accretionaryprism,andthen field andlaboratorystudiesin theCentralandSouthernranges;
thrustto the southeast,
creatinga forelandfold andthrustbelt theTrinidadandTobagoMinistryof Energyfor accessto
in central and southern Trinidad. From the Late Miocene the seismic,borehole,radar,andlibrarydata;andTrintocand
azimuthof relativeplatemotionchanged,anddeformationin Trintopecfor accessto corematerials.We thankHansAv6
theright-lateralSCPBZis typifiedby transtensionand Lallemant, Kevin Burke, JohanErikson, Dave Pivnik, Leslie
transpressionat structures
trendinggreaterthan,or lessthan, Sonder,andFrankWallesfor discussion
andhelpfulreviewsof
080ø,respectively.The transtensionon theNCFZ allowed variousversionsof thismanuscript.Our work in Trinidad
isostaticexhumation andfurthercoolingasindicatedby 11 Ma benefitedthroughdiscussions
with, WinstonAli, Barry
zirconfissiontrackages[Algar,1993],andrapidsubsidence Cart-Brown,JohnDewey,BruceEggertson, Neil Payne,Cliff
andburialof thepreviouslyexposedTobagoshelf(northward Potter,ClementRamroop,JohnSaunders, Art Snoke,Bob
normal detachmentoff of Northern Range?).This strictly Speed,andLou Tyson.

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