Eddy current brake

A linear eddy current brake in a German ICE 3 high-

speed train in action

An eddy current brake, also known as an

induction brake, electric brake or electric
retarder, is a device used to slow or stop a
moving object by dissipating its kinetic
energy as heat. However, unlike friction
brakes, in which the drag force that stops
the moving object is provided by friction
between two surfaces pressed together,
the drag force in an eddy current brake is
an electromagnetic force between a
magnet and a nearby conductive object in
relative motion, due to eddy currents
induced in the conductor through
electromagnetic induction.

A conductive surface moving past a

stationary magnet develops circular
electric currents called eddy currents
induced in it by the magnetic field, as
described by Faraday's law of induction.
By Lenz's law, the circulating currents
create their own magnetic field that
opposes the field of the magnet. Thus the
moving conductor experiences a drag
force from the magnet that opposes its
motion, proportional to its velocity. The
kinetic energy of the moving object is
dissipated as heat generated by the
current flowing through the electrical
resistance of the conductor.

In an eddy current brake the magnetic field

may be created by a permanent magnet or
an electromagnet, so the braking force can
be turned on and off or varied by varying
the electric current in the electromagnet
windings. Another advantage is that since
the brake does not work by friction, there
are no brake shoe surfaces to wear out,
necessitating replacement, as with friction
brakes. A disadvantage is that since the
braking force is proportional to relative
velocity of the brake, the brake has no
holding force when the moving object is
stationary, as is provided by static friction
in a friction brake, so in vehicles it must be
supplemented by a friction brake.

Eddy current brakes are used to slow high-

speed trains and roller coasters, as a
complement for friction brakes in semi-
trailer trucks to help prevent brake wear
and overheating, to stop powered tools
quickly when power is turned off, and in
electric meters used by electric utilities.

Mechanism and principle

A metal sheet moving to the right under a magnet,

illustrating how a linear eddy current brake works. In
this drawing the magnet is drawn spaced apart from
the sheet to reveal the vectors; in an eddy current brake
the magnet is normally located as close to the sheet as
possible.
 

A circular or disk eddy current brake

An eddy current brake consists of a

conductive piece of metal, either a straight
bar or a disk, which moves through the
magnetic field of a magnet, either a
permanent magnet or an electromagnet.
When it moves past the stationary magnet,
the magnet exerts a drag force on the
metal which opposes its motion, due to
circular electric currents called eddy
currents induced in the metal by the
magnetic field. Note that the conductive
sheet is not made of ferromagnetic metal
such as iron or steel; usually copper or
aluminum are used, which are not
attracted to a magnet. The brake does not
work by the simple attraction of a
ferromagnetic metal to the magnet.

See the diagram at right. It shows a metal

sheet (C) moving to the right under a
magnet. The magnetic field (B, green
arrows) of the magnet's north pole N
passes down through the sheet. Since the
metal is moving, the magnetic flux through
sheet is changing. At the part of the sheet
under the leading edge of the magnet (left
side) the magnetic field through the sheet
is increasing as it gets nearer the magnet.
From Faraday's law of induction, this field
induces a counterclockwise flow of
electric current (I, red), in the sheet. This is
the eddy current. In contrast, at the trailing
edge of the magnet (right side) the
magnetic field through the sheet is
decreasing, inducing a clockwise eddy
current in the sheet.

Another way to understand the action is to

see that the free charge carriers
(electrons) in the metal sheet are moving
to the right, so the magnetic field exerts a
sideways force on them due to the Lorentz
force. Since the velocity v of the charges is
to the right and the magnetic field B is
directed down, from the right hand rule the
Lorentz force on positive charges qv×B is
toward the rear in the diagram (to the left
when facing in the direction of motion of
the sheet) This causes a current I toward
the rear under the magnet, which circles
around through parts of the sheet outside
the magnetic field in two currents,
clockwise to the right and
counterclockwise to the left, to the front of
the magnet again. The mobile charge
carriers in the metal, the electrons, actually
have a negative charge, so their motion is
opposite in direction to the conventional
current shown.

Due to Ampere's circuital law, each of

these circular currents creates a counter
magnetic field (blue arrows), which due to
Lenz's law opposes the change in
magnetic field, causing a drag force on the
sheet which is the braking force exerted by
the brake. At the leading edge of the
magnet (left side) by the right hand rule the
counterclockwise current creates a
magnetic field pointed up, opposing the
magnet's field, causing a repulsive force
between the sheet and the leading edge of
the magnet. In contrast, at the trailing edge
(right side), the clockwise current causes a
magnetic field pointed down, in the same
direction as the magnet's field, creating an
attractive force between the sheet and the
trailing edge of the magnet. Both of these
forces oppose the motion of the sheet.
The kinetic energy which is consumed
overcoming this drag force is dissipated
as heat by the currents flowing through the
resistance of the metal, so the metal gets
warm under the magnet.

The braking force of an eddy current brake

is exactly proportional to the velocity V, so
it acts similar to viscous friction in a liquid.
The braking force decreases as the
velocity decreases. When the conductive
sheet is stationary, the magnetic field
through each part of it is constant, not
changing with time, so no eddy currents
are induced, and there is no force between
the magnet and the conductor. Thus an
eddy current brake has no holding force.

Eddy current brakes come in two

geometries:

In a linear eddy current brake, the

conductive piece is a straight rail or
track that the magnet moves along.
In a circular, disk or rotary eddy current
brake, the conductor is a flat disk rotor
 that turns between the poles of the
magnet.

The physical working principle is the same

for both.

Disk eddy current brakes

(left) Disk eddy current brake on 700 Series

( ) y
Shinkansen, a Japanese bullet train.
(right) Permanent magnet eddy current brake used in a
1970s electricity meter

Disk electromagnetic brakes are used on

vehicles such as trains, and power tools
such as circular saws, to stop the blade
quickly when the power is turned off. A
disk eddy current brake consists of a
conductive non-ferromagnetic metal disc
(rotor) attached to the axle of the vehicle's
wheel, with an electromagnet located with
its poles on each side of the disk, so the
magnetic field passes through the disk.
The electromagnet allows the braking
force to be varied. When no current is
passed through the electromagnet's
winding, there is no braking force. When
the driver steps on the brake pedal, current
is passed through the electromagnet
windings, creating a magnetic field, The
larger the current in the winding, the larger
the eddy currents and the stronger the
braking force. Power tool brakes use
permanent magnets, which are moved
adjacent to the disk by a linkage when the
power is turned off. The kinetic energy of
the vehicle's motion is dissipated in Joule
heating by the eddy currents passing
through the disk's resistance, so like
conventional friction disk brakes, the disk
becomes hot. Unlike in the linear brake
below, the metal of the disk passes
repeatedly through the magnetic field, so
disk eddy current brakes get hotter than
linear eddy current brakes.

Japanese Shinkansen trains had employed

circular eddy current brake system on
trailer cars since 100 Series Shinkansen.
However, N700 Series Shinkansen
abandoned eddy current brakes in favour
of regenerative brakes, since 14 of the 16
cars in the trainset used electric motors. In
regenerative brakes, the motor that drives
the wheel is used as a generator to
produce electric current, which can be
used to charge a battery, so the energy can
be used again.

Dynamometer eddy current

absorbers

Play media
A 6-minute ‘how-it-works video’ tutorial explaining how
engine-dynamometer and chassis dyno eddy-current
absorbers work.

Most chassis dynamometers and many

engine dynos use an eddy-current brake as
a means of providing an electrically
adjustable load on the engine. They are
often referred to as an "absorber" in such
applications.

Inexpensive air-cooled versions are

typically used on chassis dynamometers,
where their inherently high-inertia steel
rotors are an asset rather than a liability.
Conversely, performance engine
dynamometers tend to utilize low-inertia,
high RPM, liquid-cooled configurations.
Downsides of eddy-current absorbers in
such applications, compared to expensive
AC-motor based dynamometers, is their
inability to provide stall-speed (zero RPM)
loading or to motor the engine - for
starting or motoring (downhill simulation).

Also, since they do not actually absorb

energy, provisions to transfer their radiated
heat out of the test cell area must typically
be provided. Either a high-volume air-
ventilation or water-to-air heat exchanger
adds additional cost and complexity. In
contrast, the high-end AC-motor
dynamometers cleanly return the engine's
power to the grid.

Linear eddy current brakes

 

Eddy current brakes on the roller coaster Goliath made

by Intamin, at Walibi Holland (Netherlands)

Linear eddy current brakes are used on

some vehicles that ride on rails, such as
trains. They are used on roller coasters, to
stop the cars smoothly at the end of the
ride.

The linear eddy current brake consists of a

magnetic yoke with electrical coils
positioned along the rail, which are being
magnetized alternating as south and north
magnetic poles. This magnet does not
touch the rail, but is held at a constant
small distance from the rail of
approximately 7 mm (the eddy current
brake should not be confused with another
device, the magnetic brake, in wide use in
railways, which exerts its braking force by
friction of a brake shoe with the rail). It
works the same as a disk eddy current
brake, by inducing closed loops of eddy
current in the conductive rail, which
generate counter magnetic fields which
oppose the motion of the train.

The kinetic energy of the moving vehicle is

converted to heat by the eddy current
flowing through the electrical resistance of
the rail, which leads to a warming of the
rail. An advantage of the linear brake is
that since each section of rail passes only
once through the magnetic field of the
brake, in contrast to the disk brake in
which each section of the disk passes
repeatedly through the brake, the rail
doesn't get as hot as a disk, so the linear
brake can dissipate more energy and have
a higher power rating than disk brakes.

The eddy current brake does not have any

mechanical contact with the rail, and thus
no wear, and creates no noise or odor. The
eddy current brake is unusable at low
speeds, but can be used at high speeds
both for emergency braking and for regular
braking.[1]

The TSI (Technical Specifications for

Interoperability) of the EU for trans-
European high-speed rail recommends
that all newly built high-speed lines should
make the eddy current brake possible.

The first train in commercial circulation to

use such a braking system has been the
ICE 3.

Modern roller coasters also use this type

of braking, but in order to avoid the risk
posed by potential power outages, they
utilize permanent magnets instead of
electromagnets, thus not requiring any
power supply, however, without the
possibility to adjust the braking strength
as easily as with electromagnets.

Lab experiment
In physics education a simple experiment
is sometimes used to illustrate eddy
currents and the principle behind magnetic
braking. When a strong magnet is dropped
down a vertical, non-ferrous, conducting
pipe, eddy currents are induced in the pipe,
and these retard the descent of the
magnet, so it falls slower than it would if
free-falling. As one set of authors
explained

If one views the magnet as an

assembly of circulating atomic
currents moving through the
pipe, [then] Lenz’s law implies
that the induced eddies in the
pipe wall counter circulate
ahead of the moving magnet and
co-circulate behind it. But this
implies that the moving magnet
is repelled in front and attracted
 in rear, hence acted upon by a
retarding force.[2]

In typical experiments, students measure

the slower time of fall of the magnet
through a copper tube compared with a
cardboard tube, and may use an
oscilloscope to observe the pulse of eddy
current induced in a loop of wire wound
around the pipe when the magnet falls
through.[3][4]

See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to
Eddy current brakes.

Dynamic braking - either rheostatic

(dissipating the train's energy as heat in
resistor banks within the train, or
regenerative where the energy is
returned to the electrical supply system)
Telma retarder – an eddy current brake
system made by Telma, a company that
is part of the Valeo group
Electromagnetic brakes (or electro-
mechanical brakes) – use the magnetic
force to press the brake mechanically on
the rail
 Linear induction motor can be used as a
regenerative brake

Notes
1. "Wirbelstrombremse im ICE 3 als
Betriebsbremssystem hoher Leistung"
("Eddy-current brake in the ICE 3 as high-
efficiency service brake system", by Jürgen
Prem, Stefan Haas, Klaus Heckmann, in
"electrische bahnen" Vol 102 (2004), No. 7,
pages 283ff
2. Partovi, M Hossein; Morris, Eliza J
(2006). "Electrodynamics of a magnet
moving through a conducting pipe".
Canadian Journal of Physics. 84 (4): 253–
71. arXiv:physics/0406085 .
Bibcode:2006CaJPh..84..253P .
doi:10.1139/p06-065 .
3. MacLatchy, Cyrus S; Backman, Philip;
Bogan, Larry (1993). "A quantitative
magnetic braking experiment". American
Journal of Physics. 61 (12): 1096.
Bibcode:1993AmJPh..61.1096M .
doi:10.1119/1.17356 .
4. Ireson, Gren; Twidle, John (2008).
"Magnetic braking revisited: Activities for
the undergraduate laboratory". European
Journal of Physics. 29 (4): 745.
Bibcode:2008EJPh...29..745I .
doi:10.1088/0143-0807/29/4/009 .

References
K. D. Hahn, E. M. Johnson, A. Brokken, S.
Baldwin (1998) "Eddy current damping
of a magnet moving through a pipe",
American Journal of Physics 66:1066–
66.
M. A. Heald (1988) "Magnetic braking:
Improved theory", American Journal of
Physics 56: 521–522.
Y. Levin, F. L. da Silveira, F. B. Rizzato
(2006) "Electromagnetic braking: A
simple quantitative model", American
Journal of Physics 74:815–817.
Sears, Francis Weston; Zemansky, Mark
W. (1955). University Physics (2nd ed.).
Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
 Siskind, Charles S. (1963). Electrical
Control Systems in Industry. New York:
McGraw-Hill, Inc. ISBN 0-07-057746-3.
H. D. Wiederick, N. Gauthier, D. A.
Campbell, P. Rochan (1987) "Magnetic
braking: Simple theory and experiment",
American Journal of Physics 55:500–
503.

External links

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