CHAPTER ELEVEN

THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

11.1 INTRODUCTION
We all have common sense notions of heat and temperature.
Temperature is a measure of ‘hotness’ of a body. A kettle
11.1 Introduction with boiling water is hotter than a box containing ice. In
11.2 Temperature and heat physics, we need to define the notion of heat, temperature,
11.3 Measurement of etc., more carefully. In this chapter, you will learn what heat
temperature is and how it is measured, and study the various proceses by
11.4 Ideal-gas equation and which heat flows from one body to another. Along the way,
absolute temperature you will find out why blacksmiths heat the iron ring before
11.5 Thermal expansion fitting on the rim of a wooden wheel of a horse cart and why
11.6 Specific heat capacity the wind at the beach often reverses direction after the sun
11.7 Calorimetry goes down. You will also learn what happens when water boils
11.8 Change of state or freezes, and its temperature does not change during these
11.9 Heat transfer processes even though a great deal of heat is flowing into or
out of it.
11.10 Newton’s law of cooling
Summary 11.2 TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
Points to ponder
Exercises We can begin studying thermal properties of matter with
Additional Exercises definitions of temperature and heat. Temperature is a relative
measure, or indication of hotness or coldness. A hot utensil
is said to have a high temperature, and ice cube to have a
low temperature. An object that has a higher temperature
than another object is said to be hotter. Note that hot and
cold are relative terms, like tall and short. We can perceive
temperature by touch. However, this temperature sense is
somewhat unreliable and its range is too limited to be useful
for scientific purposes.
We know from experience that a glass of ice-cold water left
on a table on a hot summer day eventually warms up whereas
a cup of hot tea on the same table cools down. It means that
when the temperature of body, ice-cold water or hot tea in
this case, and its surrounding medium are different, heat
transfer takes place between the system and the surrounding
medium, until the body and the surrounding medium are at
the same temperature. We also know that in the case of glass
tumbler of ice-cold water, heat flows from the environment to

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the glass tumbler, whereas in the case of hot

tea, it flows from the cup of hot tea to the
environment. So, we can say that heat is the
form of energy transferred between two (or
more) systems or a system and its
surroundings by virtue of temperature
difference. The SI unit of heat energy
transferred is expressed in joule (J) while SI unit
of temperature is Kelvin (K), and degree Celsius
(oC) is a commonly used unit of temperature.
When an object is heated, many changes may
take place. Its temperature may rise, it may
expand or change state. We will study the effect
of heat on different bodies in later sections.
Fig. 11.1 A plot of Fahrenheit temperature (tF) versus
11.3 MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE
Celsius temperature (tc ).
A measure of temperature is obtained using a
thermometer. Many physical properties of A relationship for converting between the two
materials change sufficiently with temperature. scales may be obtained from a graph of
Some such properties are used as the basis for Fahrenheit temperature (t F) versus celsius
constructing thermometers. The commonly used temperature (tC) in a straight line (Fig. 11.1),
property is variation of the volume of a liquid whose equation is
with temperature. For example, in common t F – 32 t C
liquid–in–glass thermometers, mercury, alcohol = (11.1)
180 100
etc., are used whose volume varies linearly with
temperature over a wide range. 11.4 IDEAL-GAS EQUATION AND
Thermometers are calibrated so that a ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE
numerical value may be assigned to a given
temperature in an appropriate scale. For the Liquid-in-glass thermometers show different
definition of any standard scale, two fixed readings for temperatures other than the fixed
reference points are needed. Since all points because of differing expansion properties.
substances change dimensions with A thermometer that uses a gas, however, gives
temperature, an absolute reference for the same readings regardless of which gas is
expansion is not available. However, the used. Experiments show that all gases at low
necessary fixed points may be correlated to the densities exhibit same expansion behaviour. The
physical phenomena that always occur at the variables that describe the behaviour of a given
same temperature. The ice point and the steam quantity (mass) of gas are pressure, volume, and
point of water are two convenient fixed points temperature (P, V, and T )(where T = t + 273.15;
and are known as the freezing and boiling t is the temperature in °C). When temperature
points, respectively. These two points are the is held constant, the pressure and volume of a
temperatures at which pure water freezes and quantity of gas are related as PV = constant.
boils under standard pressure. The two familiar This relationship is known as Boyle’s law, after
temperature scales are the Fahrenheit Robert Boyle (1627–1691), the English Chemist
temperature scale and the Celsius temperature who discovered it. When the pressure is held
scale. The ice and steam point have values constant, the volume of a quantity of the gas is
32 °F and 212 °F, respectively, on the Fahrenheit related to the temperature as V/T = constant.
scale and 0 °C and 100 °C on the Celsius scale. This relationship is known as Charles’ law,
On the Fahrenheit scale, there are 180 equal after French scientist Jacques Charles (1747–
intervals between two reference points, and on 1823). Low-density gases obey these
the Celsius scale, there are 100. laws, which may be combined into a single

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Fig. 11.3 A plot of pressure versus temperature and

Fig. 11.2 Pressure versus temperature of a low extrapolation of lines for low density gases
density gas kept at constant volume. indicates the same absolute zero
temperature.

relationship. Notice that since PV = constant named after the British scientist Lord Kelvin. On
and V/T = constant for a given quantity of gas, this scale, – 273.15 °C is taken as the zero point,
then PV/T should also be a constant. This that is 0 K (Fig. 11.4).
relationship is known as ideal gas law. It can be
written in a more general form that applies not
just to a given quantity of a single gas but to any
quantity of any low-density gas and is known as
ideal-gas equation:
PV
= µR
T
or PV = µRT (11.2)
where, µ is the number of moles in the sample
of gas and R is called universal gas constant:
R = 8.31 J mol–1 K–1
In Eq. 11.2, we have learnt that the pressure
and volume are directly proportional to
temperature : PV ∝ T. This relationship allows a
gas to be used to measure temperature in a
constant volume gas thermometer. Holding the
volume of a gas constant, it gives P ∝T. Thus,
Fig. 11.4 Comparision of the Kelvin, Celsius and
with a constant-volume gas thermometer,
Fahrenheit temperature scales.
temperature is read in terms of pressure. A plot The size of unit in Kelvin and Celsius
of pressure versus temperature gives a straight temperature scales is the same. So, temperature
line in this case, as shown in Fig. 11.2. on these scales are related by
However, measurements on real gases deviate
T = tC + 273.15 (11.3)
from the values predicted by the ideal gas law
at low temperature. But the relationship is linear
11.5 THERMAL EXPANSION
over a large temperature range, and it looks as
though the pressure might reach zero with You may have observed that sometimes sealed
decreasing temperature if the gas continued to bottles with metallic lids are so tightly screwed
be a gas. The absolute minimum temperature that one has to put the lid in hot water for some
for an ideal gas, therefore, inferred by time to open it. This would allow the metallic lid
extrapolating the straight line to the axis, as in to expand, thereby loosening it to unscrew
Fig. 11.3. This temperature is found to be easily. In case of liquids, you may have observed
– 273.15 °C and is designated as absolute zero. that mercury in a thermometer rises, when the
Absolute zero is the foundation of the Kelvin thermometer is put in slightly warm water. If
temperature scale or absolute scale temperature we take out the thermometer from the warm

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water the level of mercury falls again. Similarly, Table 11.1 Values of coef ficient of linear
in case of gases, a balloon partially inflated in a expansion for some material
cool room may expand to full size when placed
in warm water. On the other hand, a fully Material α l (10–5 K–1)
inflated balloon when immersed in cold water Aluminium 2.5
would start shrinking due to contraction of the Brass 1.8
air inside. Iron 1.2
It is our common experience that most Copper 1.7
substances expand on heating and contract on Silver 1.9
cooling. A change in the temperature of a body Gold 1.4
causes change in its dimensions. The increase Glass (pyrex) 0.32
in the dimensions of a body due to the increase Lead 0.29
in its temperature is called thermal expansion.
The expansion in length is called linear
Similarly, we consider the fractional change
expansion. The expansion in area is called area
expansion. The expansion in volume is called ∆V
in volume, , of a substance for temperature
volume expansion (Fig. 11.5). V
change ∆T and define the coefficient of volume
expansion (or volume expansivity), α V as

 ∆V  1
αV =  (11.5)
 V  ∆T
Here α V is also a characteristic of the
substance but is not strictly a constant. It
∆l ∆A ∆V depends in general on temperature (Fig 11.6). It
= a l ∆T = 2a l ∆T = 3a l ∆T
l A V is seen that αV becomes constant only at a high
temperature.
(a) Linear expansion (b) Area expansion (c) Volume expansion

Fig. 11.5 Thermal Expansion.

If the substance is in the form of a long rod,

then for small change in temperature, ∆T, the
fractional change in length, ∆l/l, is directly
proportional to ∆T.

∆l
= α1 ∆T (11.4)
l
where α1 is known as the coefficient of linear
expansion (or linear expansivity) and is
characteristic of the material of the rod. In Table
11.1, typical average values of the coefficient of Fig. 11.6 Coefficient of volume expansion of copper
linear expansion for some material in the as a function of temperature.
temperature range 0 °C to 100 °C are given. From
this Table, compare the value of αl for glass and Table 11.2 gives the values of coefficient of
copper. We find that copper expands about five volume expansion of some common substances
times more than glass for the same rise in in the temperature range 0–100 °C. You can see
temperature. Normally, metals expand more and that thermal expansion of these substances
have relatively high values of αl. (solids and liquids) is rather small, with material,

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like pyrex glass and invar (a special iron-nickel lakes and ponds, freeze at the top first. As a lake
alloy) having particularly low values of αV. From cools toward 4 °C, water near the surface loses
this Table we find that the value of αv for energy to the atmosphere, becomes denser, and
alcohol (ethanol) is more than mercury and sinks; the warmer, less dense water near the
expands more than mercury for the same rise bottom rises. However, once the colder water on
in temperature. top reaches temperature below 4 °C, it becomes
less dense and remains at the surface, where it
Table 11.2 Values of coefficient of volume freezes. If water did not have this property, lakes
expansion for some substances and ponds would freeze from the bottom up,
which would destroy much of their animal and
Material αv ( K–1) plant life.
Aluminium 7 × 10–5 Gases, at ordinary temperature, expand more
Brass 6 × 10–5 than solids and liquids. For liquids, the
Iron 3.55 × 10–5 coefficient of volume expansion is relatively
Paraffin 58.8 × 10–5 independent of the temperature. However, for
Glass (ordinary) 2.5 × 10–5 gases it is dependent on temperature. For an
Glass (pyrex) 1 × 10–5 ideal gas, the coefficient of volume expansion at
Hard rubber 2.4 × 10–4 constant pressure can be found from the ideal
Invar 2 × 10–6 gas equation:
Mercury 18.2 × 10–5 PV = µRT
Water 20.7 × 10–5 At constant pressure
Alcohol (ethanol) 110 × 10–5 P∆V = µR ∆T
∆V ∆T
Water exhibits an anomalous behaviour; it =
V T
contracts on heating between 0 °C and 4 °C.
The volume of a given amount of water decreases 1
i.e., αv = for ideal gas (11.6)
as it is cooled from room temperature, until its T
temperature reaches 4 °C, [Fig. 11.7(a)]. Below At 0 °C, αv = 3.7 × 10–3 K–1, which is much
4 °C, the volume increases, and therefore, the larger than that for solids and liquids.
density decreases [Fig. 11.7(b)]. Equation (11.6) shows the temperature
This means that water has the maximum dependence of αv; it decreases with increasing
density at 4 °C. This property has an important temperature. For a gas at room temperature and
environmental effect: bodies of water, such as constant pressure, αv is about 3300 × 10–6 K–1, as

Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

(a) (b)
Fig. 11.7 Thermal expansion of water.

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THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 283

much as order(s) of magnitude larger than the Answer

coefficient of volume expansion of typical liquids. ∆A3 = (∆a) (∆b)
There is a simple relation between the ∆Al = a (∆b)
coefficient of volume expansion ( α v ) and
coefficient of linear expansion (αl). Imagine a ∆b
cube of length, l, that expands equally in all
directions, when its temperature increases by b
∆T. We have ∆a
a
∆l = αl l ∆T
so, ∆V = (l+∆l)3 – l3
3l2 ∆l (11.7)
In Equation (11.7), terms in (∆l)2 and (∆l)3 have
been neglected since ∆l is small compared to l.
So ∆A2 = b (∆a)
Fig. 11.8
3V ∆l
∆V = = 3V αl ∆T (11.8)
l Consider a rectangular sheet of the solid
which gives material of length a and breadth b (Fig. 11.8 ).
αv = 3αl (11.9) When the temperature increases by ∆T, a
increases by ∆a = αl a∆T and b increases by ∆b
What happens by preventing the thermal = αlb ∆T. From Fig. 11.8, the increase in area
expansion of a rod by fixing its ends rigidly? ∆A = ∆A1 +∆A2 + ∆A3
Clearly, the rod acquires a compressive strain ∆A = a ∆b + b ∆a + (∆a) (∆b)
due to the external forces provided by the rigid = a αlb ∆T + b αl a ∆T + (αl)2 ab (∆T)2
support at the ends. The corresponding stress = αl ab ∆T (2 + αl ∆T) = αl A ∆T (2 + αl ∆T)
set up in the rod is called thermal stress. For
Since αl
10 –5 K–1, from Table 11.1, the
example, consider a steel rail of length 5 m and
product αl ∆T for fractional temperature is small
area of cross-section 40 cm2 that is prevented
in comparision with 2 and may be neglected.
from expanding while the temperature rises by
Hence,
10 °C. The coefficient of linear expansion of steel
is αl(steel) = 1.2 × 10–5 K–1. Thus, the compressive
t
∆l
strain is = αl(steel) ∆T = 1.2 × 10–5 × 10=1.2 × 10–4.
l
Example 11.2 A blacksmith fixes iron ring
t
Youngs modulus of steel is Y (steel) = 2 × 1011 N m–2.
Therefore, the thermal stress developed is on the rim of the wooden wheel of a horse
cart. The diameter of the rim and the iron
∆F  ∆l  ring are 5.243 m and 5.231 m, respectively
= Y steel   = 2.4 × 10 7 N m –2 , which
A  l  at 27 °C. To what temperature should the
corresponds to an external force of ring be heated so as to fit the rim of the
wheel?
 ∆l 
∆F = AYsteel   = 2.4 × 107 × 40 × 10–4 j 105N.
 l  Answer
If two such steel rails, fixed at their outer ends,
are in contact at their inner ends, a force of this Given, T1 = 27 °C
magnitude can easily bend the rails. LT1 = 5.231 m
LT2 = 5.243 m
Example 11.1 Show that the coefficient
t
So,
of area expansion, (∆A/A)/∆T, of a LT2 =LT1 [1+αl (T2–T1)]
rectangular sheet of the solid is twice its
linear expansivity, αl. 5.243 m = 5.231 m [1 + 1.20×10–5 K–1 (T2–27 °C)]
or T2 = 218 °C. t

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11.6 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY heat absorbed or given off to change the
Take some water in a vessel and start heating it temperature of unit mass of it by one unit. This
on a burner. Soon you will notice that bubbles quantity is referred to as the specific heat
begin to move upward. As the temperature is capacity of the substance.
raised the motion of water particles increases If ∆Q stands for the amount of heat absorbed
till it becomes turbulent as water starts boiling. or given off by a substance of mass m when it
What are the factors on which the quantity of undergoes a temperature change ∆T, then the
heat required to raise the temperature of a specific heat capacity, of that substance is given
substance depend? In order to answer this by
question in the first step, heat a given quantity S 1 ∆Q
of water to raise its temperature by, say 20 °C s= = (11.11)
m m ∆T
and note the time taken. Again take the same The specific heat capacity is the property of
amount of water and raise its temperature by the substance which determines the change in
40 °C using the same source of heat. Note the the temperature of the substance (undergoing
time taken by using a stopwatch. You will find no phase change) when a given quantity of heat
it takes about twice the time and therefore, is absorbed (or given off) by it. It is defined as the
double the quantity of heat required raising twice amount of heat per unit mass absorbed or given
the temperature of same amount of water. off by the substance to change its temperature
In the second step, now suppose you take by one unit. It depends on the nature of the
double the amount of water and heat it, using substance and its temperature. The SI unit of
the same heating arrangement, to raise the specific heat capacity is J kg–1 K–1.
temperature by 20 °C, you will find the time If the amount of substance is specified in
taken is again twice that required in the first terms of moles µ, instead of mass m in kg, we
step. can define heat capacity per mole of the
In the third step, in place of water, now heat substance by
the same quantity of some oil, say mustard oil,
and raise the temperature again by 20 °C. Now S 1 ∆Q
C= = (11.12)
note the time by the same stopwatch. You will µ µ ∆T
find the time taken will be shorter and therefore, where C is known as molar specific heat
the quantity of heat required would be less than capacity of the substance. Like S, C also
that required by the same amount of water for depends on the nature of the substance and its
the same rise in temperature. temperature. The SI unit of molar specific heat
The above observations show that the quantity capacity is J mol–1 K–1.
of heat required to warm a given substance However, in connection with specific heat
depends on its mass, m, the change in capacity of gases, additional conditions may be
temperature, ∆T and the nature of substance. needed to define C. In this case, heat transfer
The change in temperature of a substance, when can be achieved by keeping either pressure or
a given quantity of heat is absorbed or rejected volume constant. If the gas is held under
by it, is characterised by a quantity called the constant pressure during the heat transfer, then
heat capacity of that substance. We define heat it is called the molar specific heat capacity at
capacity, S of a substance as
constant pressure and is denoted by Cp. On
∆Q the other hand, if the volume of the gas is
S= (11.10)
∆T maintained during the heat transfer, then the
where ∆Q is the amount of heat supplied to corresponding molar specific heat capacity is
the substance to change its temperature from T called molar specific heat capacity at constant
to T + ∆T. volume and is denoted by Cv. For details see
You have observed that if equal amount of Chapter 12. Table 11.3 lists measured specific
heat is added to equal masses of different heat capacity of some substances at atmospheric
substances, the resulting temperature changes pressure and ordinary temperature while Table
will not be the same. It implies that every 11.4 lists molar specific heat capacities of some
substance has a unique value for the amount of gases. From Table 11.3 you can note that water

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Table 11.3 Specific heat capacity of some substances at room temperature and atmospheric
pressure
Substance Specific heat capacity Substance Specific heat capacity
(J kg–1 K–1) (J kg–1 K–1)
Aluminium 900.0 Ice 2060
Carbon 506.5 Glass 840
Copper 386.4 Iron 450
Lead 127.7 Kerosene 2118
Silver 236.1 Edible oil 1965
Tungesten 134.4 Mercury 140
Water 4186.0

has the highest specific heat capacity compared equal to the heat gained by the colder body,
to other substances. For this reason water is also provided no heat is allowed to escape to the
used as a coolant in automobile radiators, as surroundings. A device in which heat
well as, a heater in hot water bags. Owing to its measurement can be done is called a
high specific heat capacity, water warms up calorimeter. It consists of a metallic vessel and
more slowly than land during summer, and stirrer of the same material, like copper or
consequently wind from the sea has a cooling aluminium. The vessel is kept inside a wooden
effect. Now, you can tell why in desert areas, jacket, which contains heat insulating material,
the earth surface warms up quickly during the like glass wool etc. The outer jacket acts as a
day and cools quickly at night.
heat shield and reduces the heat loss from the
Table 11.4 Molar specific heat capacities of inner vessel. There is an opening in the outer
some gases jacket through which a mercury thermometer
Gas Cp (J mol–1K–1) Cv(J mol–1K–1) can be inserted into the calorimeter (Fig. 11.20).
The following example provides a method by
He 20.8 12.5 which the specific heat capacity of a given solid
H2 28.8 20.4 can be determinated by using the principle, heat
gained is equal to the heat lost.
N2 29.1 20.8
Example 11.3 A sphere of 0.047 kg
t
O2 29.4 21.1
aluminium is placed for sufficient time in a
CO2 37.0 28.5 vessel containing boiling water, so that the
sphere is at 100 °C. It is then immediately
transfered to 0.14 kg copper calorimeter
11.7 CALORIMETRY
containing 0.25 kg water at 20 °C. The
A system is said to be isolated if no exchange or temperature of water rises and attains a
transfer of heat occurs between the system and steady state at 23 °C. Calculate the specific
its surroundings. When different parts of an heat capacity of aluminium.
isolated system are at different temperature, a
quantity of heat transfers from the part at higher Answer In solving this example, we shall use
temperature to the part at lower temperature. the fact that at a steady state, heat given by an
The heat lost by the part at higher temperature aluminium sphere will be equal to the heat
is equal to the heat gained by the part at lower absorbed by the water and calorimeter.
temperature. Mass of aluminium sphere (m1) = 0.047 kg
Calorimetry means measurement of heat. Initial temperature of aluminium sphere =100 °C
When a body at higher temperature is brought Final temperature = 23 °C
in contact with another body at lower Change in temperature (∆T)=(100 °C -23 °C) = 77 °C
temperature, the heat lost by the hot body is Let specific heat capacity of aluminium be sAl.

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The amount of heat lost by the aluminium

sphere = m1s Al ∆T = 0.047kg × s Al × 77 °C
Mass of water (m2) = 0.25 kg
Mass of calorimeter (m3) = 0.14 kg
Initial temperature of water and calorimeter=20 °C
Final temperature of the mixture = 23 °C
Change in temperature (∆T2) = 23 °C – 20 °C = 3 °C
Specific heat capacity of water (sw)
= 4.18 × 103 J kg–1 K–1
Specific heat capacity of copper calorimeter
= 0.386 × 103 J kg–1 K–1
The amount of heat gained by water and
calorimeter = m2 sw ∆T2 + m3scu∆T2
Fig. 11.9 A plot of temperature versus time showing
= (m2sw + m3scu) (∆T2) the changes in the state of ice on heating
= (0.25 kg × 4.18 × 103 J kg–1 K–1 + 0.14 kg × (not to scale).
0.386 × 103 J kg–1 K–1) (23 °C – 20 °C)
In the steady state heat lost by the aluminium The change of state from solid to liquid is
sphere = heat gained by water + heat gained by called melting and from liquid to solid is called
calorimeter. fusion. It is observed that the temperature
remains constant until the entire amount of the
So, 0.047 kg × sAl × 77 °C
solid substance melts. That is, both the solid
= (0.25 kg × 4.18 × 103 J kg–1 K–1+ 0.14 kg × and the liquid states of the substance coexist
0.386 × 103 J kg–1 K–1)(3 °C) in thermal equilibrium during the change of
sAl = 0.911 kJ kg –1 K–1 t states from solid to liquid. The temperature
at which the solid and the liquid states of the
11.8 CHANGE OF STATE substance is in thermal equilibrium with each
other is called its melting point. It is
Matter normally exists in three states: solid, characteristic of the substance. It also depends
liquid and gas. A transition from one of these on pressure. The melting point of a substance
states to another is called a change of state. Two at standard atomspheric pressure is called its
common changes of states are solid to liquid normal melting point. Let us do the following
and liquid to gas (and, vice versa). These changes activity to understand the process of melting
can occur when the exchange of heat takes place of ice.
between the substance and its surroundings. Take a slab of ice. Take a metallic wire and
To study the change of state on heating or fix two blocks, say 5 kg each, at its ends. Put
cooling, let us perform the following activity. the wire over the slab as shown in Fig. 11.10.
Take some cubes of ice in a beaker. Note the You will observe that the wire passes through
temperature of ice. Start heating it slowly on a the ice slab. This happens due to the fact that
constant heat source. Note the temperature after just below the wire, ice melts at lower
every minute. Continuously stir the mixture of temperature due to increase in pressure. When
water and ice. Draw a graph between the wire has passed, water above the wire freezes
temperature and time (Fig. 11.9). You will again. Thus, the wire passes through the slab
observe no change in the temperature as long and the slab does not split. This phenomenon
as there is ice in the beaker. In the above process, of refreezing is called regelation. Skating is
the temperature of the system does not change possible on snow due to the formation of water
even though heat is being continuously supplied. under the skates. Water is formed due to the
The heat supplied is being utilised in changing increase of pressure and it acts as a
the state from solid (ice) to liquid (water). lubricant.

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100 °C when it again becomes steady. The heat

supplied is now being utilised to change water
from liquid state to vapour or gaseous state.
The change of state from liquid to vapour (or
gas) is called vaporisation. It is observed that
the temperature remains constant until the
entire amount of the liquid is converted into
vapour. That is, both the liquid and vapour states
of the substance coexist in thermal equilibrium,
during the change of state from liquid to vapour.
The temperature at which the liquid and the
vapour states of the substance coexist is called
Fig. 11.10 its boiling point. Let us do the following activity
After the whole of ice gets converted into water to understand the process of boiling of water.
and as we continue further heating, we shall see
that temperature begins to rise (Fig.11.9). The Take a round-bottom flask, more than half
temperature keeps on rising till it reaches nearly filled with water. Keep it over a burner and fix a

Triple Point

The temperature of a substance remains constant during its change of state (phase change).
A graph between the temperature T and the Pressure P of the substance is called a phase
diagram or P – T diagram. The following figure shows the phase diagram of water and CO2.
Such a phase diagram divides the P – T plane into a solid-region, the vapour-region and the
liquid-region. The regions are separated by the curves such as sublimation curve (BO), fusion
curve (AO) and vaporisation curve (CO). The points on sublimation curve represent states
in which solid and vapour phases coexist. The point on the sublimation curve BO represent
states in which the solid and vapour phases co-exist. Points on the fusion curve AO represent
states in which solid and liquid phase coexist. Points on the vapourisation curve CO represent
states in which the liquid and vapour phases coexist. The temperature and pressure at which
the fusion curve, the vaporisation curve and the sublimation curve meet and all the three
phases of a substance coexist is called the triple point of the substance. For example the
triple point of water is represented by the temperature 273.16 K and pressure 6.11×10–3 Pa.

(a) (b)

Fig. 11.11: Pressure-temperature phase diagrams for (a) water and (b) CO2 (not to the scale).

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288 PHYSICS

thermometer and steam outlet through the cork cork. Keep the f lask turned upside down on the
of the flask (Fig. 11.11). As water gets heated in stand. Pour ice-cold water on the flask. Water
the flask, note first that the air, which was vapours in the flask condense reducing the
dissolved in the water, will come out as small pressure on the water surface inside the flask.
bubbles. Later, bubbles of steam will form at Water begins to boil again, now at a lower
the bottom but as they rise to the cooler water temperature. Thus boiling point decreases with
near the top, they condense and disappear. decrease in pressure.
Finally, as the temperature of the entire mass This explains why cooking is difficult on hills.
of the water reaches 100 °C, bubbles of steam At high altitudes, atmospheric pressure is lower,
reach the surface and boiling is said to occur. reducing the boiling point of water as compared
The steam in the flask may not be visible but as to that at sea level. On the other hand, boiling
it comes out of the flask, it condenses as tiny point is increased inside a pressure cooker by
droplets of water, giving a foggy appearance. increasing the pressure. Hence cooking is faster.
The boiling point of a substance at standard
atmospheric pressure is called its normal
boiling point.
However, all substances do not pass through
the three states: solid-liquid-gas. There are
certain substances which normally pass from
the solid to the vapour state directly and vice
versa. The change from solid state to vapour
state without passing through the liquid state
is called sublimation, and the substance is said
to sublime. Dry ice (solid CO2) sublimes, so also
iodine. During the sublimation process both the
solid and vapour states of a substance coexist
in thermal equilibrium.

11.8.1 Latent Heat

In Section 11.8, we have learnt that certain
amount of heat energy is transferred between a
substance and its surroundings when it
undergoes a change of state. The amount of heat
per unit mass transferred during change of state
of the substance is called latent heat of the
substance for the process. For example, if heat
Fig. 11.11 Boiling process. is added to a given quantity of ice at –10 °C, the
temperature of ice increases until it reaches its
If now the steam outlet is closed for a few melting point (0 °C). At this temperature, the
seconds to increase the pressure in the flask, addition of more heat does not increase the
you will notice that boiling stops. More heat temperature but causes the ice to melt, or
would be required to raise the temperature changes its state. Once the entire ice melts,
(depending on the increase in pressure) before adding more heat will cause the temperature of
boiling begins again. Thus boiling point increases the water to rise. A similar situation
with increase in pressure. occurs during liquid gas change of state at the
Let us now remove the burner. Allow water to boiling point. Adding more heat to boiling water
cool to about 80 °C. Remove the thermometer and causes vaporisation, without increase in
steam outlet. Close the flask with the airtight temperature.

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THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 289

Table 11.5 Temperatures of the change of state and latent heats for various substances at
1 atm pressure

Substance Melting Lf Boiling Lv

Point (°C) (105J kg–1) Point (°C) (105J kg–1)
Ethanol –114 1.0 78 8.5
Gold 1063 0.645 2660 15.8
Lead 328 0.25 1744 8.67
Mercury –39 0.12 357 2.7
Nitrogen –210 0.26 –196 2.0
Oxygen –219 0.14 –183 2.1
Water 0 3.33 100 22.6

The heat required during a change of state Note that when heat is added (or removed)
depends upon the heat of transformation and during a change of state, the temperature
the mass of the substance undergoing a change remains constant. Note in Fig. 11.12 that the
of state. Thus, if mass m of a substance slopes of the phase lines are not all the same,
undergoes a change from one state to the other, which indicate that specific heats of the various
then the quantity of heat required is given by states are not equal. For water, the latent heat of
Q=mL fusion and vaporisation are Lf = 3.33 × 105 J kg–1
or L = Q/m (11.13) and Lv = 22.6 × 105 J kg–1, respectively. That is,
where L is known as latent heat and is a 3.33 × 105 J of heat is needed to melt 1 kg ice at
characteristic of the substance. Its SI unit is 0 °C, and 22.6 × 105 J of heat is needed to convert
J kg–1. The value of L also depends on the 1 kg water into steam at 100 °C. So, steam at
pressure. Its value is usually quoted at standard 100 °C carries 22.6 × 105 J kg–1 more heat than
atmospheric pressure. The latent heat for a solid- water at 100 °C. This is why burns from steam
liquid state change is called the latent heat of are usually more serious than those from
fusion (Lf), and that for a liquid-gas state change boiling water.
is called the latent heat of vaporisation (Lv).
These are often referred to as the heat of fusion Example 11.4 When 0.15 kg of ice at 0 °C
t

and the heat of vaporisation. A plot of is mixed with 0.30 kg of water at 50 °C in a

temperature versus heat for a quantity of water container, the resulting temperature is
is shown in Fig. 11.12. The latent heats of some 6.7 °C. Calculate the heat of fusion of ice.
substances, their freezing and boiling points, are (swater = 4186 J kg–1 K–1)
given in Table 11.5.

Answer
Heat lost by water = msw (θf–θi)w
= (0.30 kg ) (4186 J kg–1 K–1) (50.0 °C – 6.7 °C)
= 54376.14 J
Heat required to melt ice = m2Lf = (0.15 kg) Lf
Heat required to raise temperature of ice
water to final temperature = mIsw (θf–θi)I
= (0.15 kg) (4186 J kg–1 K –1) (6.7 °C – 0 °C)
= 4206.93 J
Heat lost = heat gained
Fig. 11.12 Temperature versus heat for water at 54376.14 J = (0.15 kg ) Lf + 4206.93 J
1 atm pressure (not to scale). Lf = 3.34×105 J kg–1. t

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290 PHYSICS

temperature difference. What are the different

Example 11.5 Calculate the heat required
t
ways by which this energy transfer takes
to convert 3 kg of ice at –12 °C kept in a place? There are three distinct modes of heat
calorimeter to steam at 100 °C at transfer: conduction, convection and radiation
atmospheric pressure. Given specific heat (Fig. 11.13).
capacity of ice = 2100 J kg–1 K–1, specific heat
capacity of water = 4186 J kg– 1 K–1, latent
heat of fusion of ice = 3.35 × 105 J kg –1
and latent heat of steam = 2.256 ×106 J kg–1.

Answer We have
Mass of the ice, m = 3 kg
specific heat capacity of ice, sice
= 2100 J kg–1 K–1
specific heat capacity of water, swater
= 4186 J kg–1 K–1
latent heat of fusion of ice, Lf ice
= 3.35 × 105 J kg–1
latent heat of steam, Lsteam Fig. 11.13 Heating by conduction, convection and
= 2.256 × 106 J kg–1 radiation.

Now, Q = heat required to convert 3 kg of 11.9.1 Conduction

ice at –12 °C to steam at 100 °C, Conduction is the mechanism of transfer of heat
Q1 = heat required to convert ice at between two adjacent parts of a body because
–12 °C to ice at 0 °C. of their temperature difference. Suppose, one end
= m sice ∆T1 = (3 kg) (2100 J kg–1. of a metallic rod is put in a flame, the other end
K–1) [0–(–12)]°C = 75600 J of the rod will soon be so hot that you cannot
Q2 = heat required to melt ice at hold it by your bare hands. Here, heat transfer
0 °C to water at 0 °C takes place by conduction from the hot end of
= m Lf ice = (3 kg) (3.35 × 105 J kg–1) the rod through its different parts to the other
= 1005000 J end. Gases are poor thermal conductors, while
Q3 = heat required to convert water liquids have conductivities intermediate between
at 0 °C to water at 100 °C. solids and gases.
= msw ∆T2 = (3kg) (4186J kg–1 K–1) Heat conduction may be described
(100 °C) quantitatively as the time rate of heat flow in a
= 1255800 J material for a given temperature difference.
Q4 = heat required to convert water Consider a metallic bar of length L and uniform
at 100 °C to steam at 100 °C. cross-section A with its two ends maintained at
= m L steam = (3 kg) (2.256×10 6 different temperatures. This can be done, for
J kg–1) example, by putting the ends in thermal contact
with large reservoirs at temperatures, say, TC and
= 6768000 J
TD, respectively (Fig. 11.14). Let us assume the
So, Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + Q4
ideal condition that the sides of the bar are fully
= 75600J + 1005000 J
insulated so that no heat is exchanged between
+ 1255800 J + 6768000 J the sides and the surroundings.
= 9.1×106 J t After sometime, a steady state is reached; the
temperature of the bar decreases uniformly with
11.9 HEAT TRANSFER distance from TC to TD; (TC>TD). The reservoir at
We have seen that heat is energy transfer C supplies heat at a constant rate, which
from one system to another or from one part transfers through the bar and is given out at
of a system to another part, arising due to the same rate to the reservoir at D. It is found

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THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 291

prohibited and keeps the room cooler. In some

situations, heat transfer is critical. In a nuclear
reactor, for example, elaborate heat transfer
systems need to be installed so that the
enormous energy produced by nuclear fission
in the core transits out sufficiently fast, thus
preventing the core from overheating.

Table 11.6 Thermal conductivities of some

material
Fig. 11.14 Steady state heat flow by conduction in
a bar with its two ends maintained at Material Thermal conductivity
temperatures TC and TD; (TC > TD). (J s–1 m–1 K–1 )
Metals
experimentally that in this steady state, the rate
of flow of heat (or heat current) H is proportional Silver 406
to the temperature difference (TC – TD) and the Copper 385
area of cross-section A and is inversely Aluminium 205
proportional to the length L : Brass 109
Steel 50.2
TC – TD Lead 34.7
H = KA (11.14)
L Mercury 8.3
The constant of proportionality K is called the
thermal conductivity of the material. The Non-metals
greater the value of K for a material, the more
rapidly will it conduct heat. The SI unit of K is Insulating brick 0.15
J s –1 m –1 K –1 or W m –1 K –1 . The thermal Concrete 0.8
conductivities of various substances are listed Body fat 0.20
in Table 11.6. These values vary slightly with Felt 0.04
temperature, but can be considered to be Glass 0.8
constant over a normal temperature range. Ice 1.6
Compare the relatively large thermal Glass wool 0.04
conductivities of good thermal conductors and, Wood 0.12
metals, with the relatively small thermal Water 0.8
conductivities of some good thermal insulators,
such as wood and glass wool. You may have Gases
noticed that some cooking pots have copper
coating on the bottom. Being a good conductor Air 0.024
of heat, copper promotes the distribution of heat Argon 0.016
over the bottom of a pot for uniform cooking. Hydrogen 0.14
Plastic foams, on the other hand, are good
insulators, mainly because they contain pockets Example 11.6 What is the temperature of
t
of air. Recall that gases are poor conductors, the steel-copper junction in the steady
and note the low thermal conductivity of air in state of the system shown in Fig. 11.15.
the Table 11.5. Heat retention and transfer are Length of the steel rod = 15.0 cm, length
important in many other applications. Houses of the copper rod = 10.0 cm, temperature
made of concrete roofs get very hot during of the furnace = 300 °C, temperature of
summer days because thermal conductivity of the other end = 0 °C. The area of cross
concrete (though much smaller than that of a section of the steel rod is twice that of the
metal) is still not small enough. Therefore, people, copper rod. (Thermal conductivity of steel
usually, prefer to give a layer of earth or foam = 50.2 J s – 1 m – 1 K – 1; and of copper
insulation on the ceiling so that heat transfer is = 385 J s–1m–1K–1).

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292 PHYSICS

Answer
Given, L1 = L2= L = 0.1 m, A1 = A2= A= 0.02 m2
K 1 = 79 W m –1 K –1 , K 2 = 109 W m –1 K –1 ,
T1 = 373 K, and T2 = 273 K.
Under steady state condition, the heat
current (H1) through iron bar is equal to the
Fig. 11.15
heat current (H2) through brass bar.
Answer The insulating material around the So, H = H1 = H2
rods reduces heat loss from the sides of the rods.
Therefore, heat flows only along the length of K1 A1 ( T1 – T0 ) K 2 A2 (T0 – T2 )
= =
the rods. Consider any cross section of the rod. L1 L2
In the steady state, heat flowing into the element For A1 = A2 = A and L1 = L2 = L, this equation
must equal the heat flowing out of it; otherwise leads to
there would be a net gain or loss of heat by the K1 (T1 – T0) = K2 (T0 – T2)
element and its temperature would not be Thus, the junction temperature T0 of the two
steady. Thus in the steady state, rate of heat bars is
flowing across a cross section of the rod is the
same at every point along the length of the ( K1T1 + K 2T2 )
T0 =
combined steel-copper rod. Let T be the ( K1 + K 2 )
temperature of the steel-copper junction in the
Using this equation, the heat current H through
steady state. Then,
either bar is
K1 A1 (300 − T ) K 2 A2 (T – 0) K1 A (T1 – T0 )
= K 2 A(T0 – T2 )
L1 L2 H= =
L L
where 1 and 2 refer to the steel and copper rod
respectively. For A1 = 2 A2, L1 = 15.0 cm,
L2 = 10.0 cm, K1 = 50.2 J s–1 m–1 K –1, K2 = 385 J
s–1 m–1 K –1, we have

50.2 × 2 ( 300 − T )
Using these equations, the heat current H′
385 T
= through the compound bar of length L1 + L2 = 2L
15 10
and the equivalent thermal conductivity K′, of
which gives T = 44.4 °C t the compound bar are given by

Example 11.7 An iron bar (L1 = 0.1 m, A1

K ′ A (T1 – T2 )
H′= = H
t
= 0.02 m 2 , K 1 = 79 W m –1 K –1) and a 2L
brass bar (L 2 = 0.1 m, A 2 = 0.02 m 2 ,
2 K1 K 2
K2 = 109 W m–1K–1) are soldered end to end K′ =
as shown in Fig. 11.16. The free ends of K1 + K 2
the iron bar and brass bar are maintained ( K1T1 + K 2T2 )
at 373 K and 273 K respectively. Obtain (i) T0 =
expressions for and hence compute (i) the
( K1 + K 2 )
temperature of the junction of the two bars,
=
(79 W m –1
) (
K –1 (373 K ) + 109 W m –1 K –1 (273 K ) )
(ii) the equivalent thermal conductivity of 79 W m K –1 –1
+ 109 W m K –1 –1

the compound bar, and (iii) the heat

current through the compound bar. = 315 K
2K 1 K 2
(ii) K ′ = K + K
1 2

2 × (79 W m –1 K –1 ) × (109 W m –1 K –1 )
=
79 W m –1 K –1 +109 W m –1 K –1
Fig 11.16 = 91.6 W m–1 K–1

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THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 293

of water do. This occurs both because water has

K ′ A (T1 – T2 )
(iii) H ′ = H = a greater specific heat capacity and because
2L mixing currents disperse the absorbed heat
throughout the great volume of water. The air
=
(91.6 W m –1
) ( )
K –1 × 0.02 m 2 × (373 K–273 K )
in contact with the warm ground is heated by
2× (0.1 m ) conduction. It expands, becoming less dense
= 916.1 W t than the surrounding cooler air. As a result, the
warm air rises (air currents) and the other air
11.9.2 Convection moves (winds) to fill the space-creating a sea
breeze near a large body of water. Cooler air
Convection is a mode of heat transfer by actual
descends, and a thermal convection cycle is set
motion of matter. It is possible only in fluids.
up, which transfers heat away from the land.
Convection can be natural or forced. In natural
At night, the ground loses its heat more quickly,
convection, gravity plays an important part.
and the water surface is warmer than the land.
When a fluid is heated from below, the hot part
As a result, the cycle is reveresed (Fig. 11.17).
expands and, therefore, becomes less dense.
Because of buoyancy, it rises and the upper The other example of natural convection is
colder part replaces it. This again gets heated, the steady surface wind on the earth blowing
rises up and is replaced by the relatively colder in from north-east towards the equator, the
part of the fluid. The process goes on. This mode so-called trade wind. A resonable explanation
of heat transfer is evidently different from is as follows: the equatorial and polar regions of
conduction. Convection involves bulk transport the earth receive unequal solar heat. Air at the
of different parts of the fluid. earth’s surface near the equator is hot, while
In forced convection, material is forced to move the air in the upper atmosphere of the poles is
by a pump or by some other physical means. The cool. In the absence of any other factor, a
common examples of forced convection systems convection current would be set up, with the
are forced-air heating systems in home, the air at the equatorial surface rising and moving
human circulatory system, and the cooling out towards the poles, descending and
system of an automobile engine. In the human streaming in towards the equator. The rotation
body, the heart acts as the pump that circulates of the earth, however, modifies this convection
blood through different parts of the body, current. Because of this, air close to the equator
transferring heat by forced convection and has an eastward speed of 1600 km/h, while it
maintaining it at a uniform temperature. is zero close to the poles. As a result, the air
Natural convection is responsible for many descends not at the poles but at 30° N (North)
familiar phenomena. During the day, the latitude and returns to the equator. This is
ground heats up more quickly than large bodies called trade wind.

Fig. 11.17 Convection cycles.

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294 PHYSICS

11.9.3 Radiation contents of the bottle. The outer wall similarly

reflects back any incoming radiation. The space
Conduction and convection require some
between the walls is evacuted to reduce
material as a transport medium. These modes
conduction and convection losses and the flask
of heat transfer cannot operate between bodies
is supported on an insulator, like cork. The
separated by a distance in vacuum. But the
device is, therefore, useful for preventing hot
earth does receive heat from the Sun across a contents (like, milk) from getting cold, or
huge distance. Similarly, we quickly feel the alternatively, to store cold contents (like, ice).
warmth of the fire nearby even though air
conducts poorly and before convection takes 11.9.4 Blackbody Radiation
some time to set in. The third mechanism for We have so far not mentioned the wavelength
heat transfer needs no medium; it is called content of thermal radiation. The important
radiation and the energy so transferred by thing about thermal radiation at any
electromagnetic waves is called radiant energy. temperature is that it is not of one (or a few)
In an electromagnetic wave, electric and wavelength(s) but has a continuous spectrum
magnetic fields oscillate in space and time. Like from the small to the long wavelengths. The
any wave, electromagnetic waves can have energy content of radiation, however, varies for
different wavelengths and can travel in vacuum different wavelengths. Figure 11.18 gives the
with the same speed, namely the speed of light experimental curves for radiation energy per unit
i.e., 3 × 108 m s–1 . You will learn these matters area per unit wavelength emitted by a blackbody
in more detail later, but you now know why heat versus wavelength for different temperatures.
transfer by radiation does not need any medium
and why it is so fast. This is how heat is
transferred to the earth from the Sun through
empty space. All bodies emit radiant energy,
whether they are solid, liquid or gas. The
electromagnetic radiation emitted by a body by
virtue of its temperature, like radiation by a red
hot iron or light from a filament lamp is called
thermal radiation.
When this thermal radiation falls on other
bodies, it is partly reflected and partly absorbed.
The amount of heat that a body can absorb by
radiation depends on the colour of the body.
We find that black bodies absorb and emit
radiant energy better than bodies of lighter Fig. 11.18: Energy emitted versus wavelength
colours. This fact finds many applications in our for a blackbody at different
daily life. We wear white or light coloured clothes temperatures
in summer, so that they absorb the least heat Notice that the wavelength λm for which energy
from the Sun. However, during winter, we use is the maximum decreases with increasing
dark coloured clothes, which absorb heat from temperature. The relation between λm and T is
the sun and keep our body warm. The bottoms of given by what is known as Wien’s Displacement
utensils for cooking food are blackened so that Law:
they absorb maximum heat from fire and transfer λm T = constant (11.15)
it to the vegetables to be cooked.
Similarly, a Dewar flask or thermos bottle is The value of the constant (Wien’s constant)
a device to minimise heat transfer between the is 2.9 × 10–3 m K. This law explains why the
contents of the bottle and outside. It consists colour of a piece of iron heated in a hot flame
of a double-walled glass vessel with the inner first becomes dull red, then reddish yellow, and
and outer walls coated with silver. Radiation finally white hot. Wien’s law is useful for
from the inner wall is reflected back to the estimating the surface temperatures of celestial

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THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 295

bodies like, the moon, Sun and other stars. Light For a body with emissivity e, the relation
from the moon is found to have a maximum modifies to
intensity near the wavelength 14 µm. By Wien’s
H = eσ A (T 4 – Ts4) (11.18)
law, the surface of the moon is estimated to have
a temperature of 200 K. Solar radiation has a As an example, let us estimate the heat
maximum at λm = 4753 Å. This corresponds to radiated by our bodies. Suppose the surface area
T = 6060 K. Remember, this is the temperature of a person’s body is about 1.9 m2 and the room
of the surface of the sun, not its interior. temperature is 22°C. The internal body
The most significant feature of the temperature, as we know, is about 37 °C. The
blackbody radiation curves in Fig. 11.18 is that skin temperature may be 28°C (say). The
they are universal. They depend only on the emissivity of the skin is about 0.97 for the
temperature and not on the size, shape or relevant region of electromagnetic radiation. The
material of the blackbody. Attempts to explain rate of heat loss is:
blackbody radiation theoretically, at the
beginning of the twentieth century, spurred the H = 5.67 × 10–8 × 1.9 × 0.97 × {(301)4 – (295)4}
quantum revolution in physics, as you will = 66.4 W
learn in later courses.
Energy can be transferred by radiation over which is more than half the rate of energy
large distances, without a medium (i.e., in production by the body at rest (120 W). To
vacuum). The total electromagnetic energy prevent this heat loss effectively (better than
radiated by a body at absolute temperature T ordinary clothing), modern arctic clothing has
is proportional to its size, its ability to radiate an additional thin shiny metallic layer next to
(called emissivity) and most importantly to its the skin, which reflects the body’s radiation.
temperature. For a body, which is a perfect
radiator, the energy emitted per unit time (H) 11.9.5 Greenhouse Effect
is given by The earth’s surface is a source of thermal
H = AσT 4 (11.16) radiation as it absorbs energy received from the
Sun. The wavelength of this radiation lies in the
where A is the area and T is the absolute long wavelength (infrared) region. But a large
temperature of the body. This relation obtained portion of this radiation is absorbed by
experimentally by Stefan and later proved greenhouse gases, namely, carbon dioxide
theoretically by Boltzmann is known as Stefan- (CO2); methane (CH 4); nitrous oxide (N 2O);
Boltzmann law and the constant σ is called chlorofluorocarbon (CFxClx); and tropospheric
Stefan-Boltzmann constant. Its value in SI units ozone (O3). This heats up the atmosphere which,
is 5.67 × 10–8 W m–2 K–4. Most bodies emit only a in turn, gives more energy to earth, resulting in
fraction of the rate given by Eq. 11.16. A substance warmer surface. This increases the intensity of
like lamp black comes close to the limit. One, radiation from the surface. The cycle of
therefore, defines a dimensionless fraction e processes described above is repeated until no
called emissivity and writes, radiation is available for absorption. The net
H = AeσT 4 (11.17) result is heating up of earth’s surface and
Here, e = 1 for a perfect radiator. For a tungsten atmosphere. This is known as Greenhouse
lamp, for example, e is about 0.4. Thus, a tungsten Effect. Without the Greenhouse Effect, the
lamp at a temperature of 3000 K and a surface temperature of the earth would have been –18°C.
area of 0.3 cm2 radiates at the rate H = 0.3 × Concentration of greenhouse gases has
10–4 × 0.4 × 5.67 × 10–8 × (3000)4 = 60 W. enhanced due to human activities, making the
A body at temperature T, with surroundings earth warmer. According to an estimate, average
temperature of earth has increased by 0.3 to
at temperatures Ts, emits, as well as, receives
0.6°C, since the beginning of this century
energy. For a perfect radiator, the net rate of
because of this enhancement. By the middle of
loss of radiant energy is
the next century, the earth’s global temperature
H = σA (T 4 – Ts4) may be 1 to 3°C higher than today. This global

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warming may cause problem for human life, From the graph you can infer how the cooling
plants and animals. Because of global warming, of hot water depends on the difference of its
ice caps are melting faster, sea level is rising, temperature from that of the surroundings. You
and weather pattern is changing. Many coastal will also notice that initially the rate of cooling
cities are at the risk of getting submerged. The is higher and decreases as the temperature of
enhanced Greenhouse Effect may also result in the body falls.
expansion of deserts. All over the world, efforts The above activity shows that a hot body loses
are being made to minimise the effect of global heat to its surroundings in the form of heat
warming. radiation. The rate of loss of heat depends on
the difference in temperature between the body
11.10 NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING and its surroundings. Newton was the first to
study, in a systematic manner, the relation
We all know that hot water or milk when left on
between the heat lost by a body in a given
a table begins to cool, gradually. Ultimately it
enclosure and its temperature.
attains the temperature of the surroundings. To
According to Newton’s law of cooling, the rate
study how slow or fast a given body can cool on
of loss of heat, – dQ/dt of the body is directly
exchanging heat with its surroundings, let us
proportional to the difference of temperature
perform the following activity. ∆T = (T2–T1) of the body and the surroundings.
T a k e s o m e w a t e r, s a y 3 0 0 m L , i n a The law holds good only for small difference of
calorimeter with a stirrer and cover it with a temperature. Also, the loss of heat by radiation
two-holed lid. Fix the stirrer through one hole depends upon the nature of the surface of the
and fix a thermometer through another hole body and the area of the exposed surface. We
in the lid and make sure that the bulb of can write
thermometer is immersed in the water. Note
the reading of the thermometer. This reading – (11.19)
T1 is the temperature of the surroundings.
Heat the water kept in the calorimeter till it where k is a positive constant depending upon
attains a temperature, say 40 °C above room the area and nature of the surface of the body.
temperature (i.e., temperature of the Suppose a body of mass m and specific heat
surroundings). Then, stop heating the water capacity s is at temperature T2. Let T1 be the
by removing the heat source. Start the temperature of the surroundings. If the
stop-watch and note the reading of the temperature falls by a small amount dT2 in time
thermometer after a fixed interval of time, say dt, then the amount of heat lost is
after every one minute of stirring gently with dQ = ms dT2
the stirrer. Continue to note the temperature ∴ Rate of loss of heat is given by
(T2) of water till it attains a temperature about
5 °C above that of the surroundings. Then, plot dQ dT
= ms 2 (11.20)
a graph by taking each value of temperature dt dt
∆T = T2 – T1 along y-axis and the coresponding From Eqs. (11.15) and (11.16) we have
value of t along x-axis (Fig. 11.19). dT2
–m s = k (T2 – T1 )
dt
dT2 k
=– dt = – K dt (11.21)
T2 – T1 ms
where K = k/m s
∆
On integrating,
log e (T2 – T1) = – K t + c (11.22)
or T2 = T1 + C′ e –Kt; where C′ = e c (11.23)
Equation 11.23 enables you to calculate the
Fig. 11.19 Curve showing cooling of hot water time of cooling of a body through a particular
with time. range of temperature.

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THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 297

For small temperature differences, the rate time. A graph is plotted between log e (T2–T1)
of cooling, due to conduction, convection, and [or ln(T2–T1)] and time (t). The nature of the
radiation combined, is proportional to the graph is observed to be a straight line having
difference in temperature. It is a valid a negative slope as shown in Fig. 11.20(b). This
approximation in the transfer of heat from a is in support of Eq. 11.22.
radiator to a room, the loss of heat through the
Example 11.8 A pan filled with hot food
t
wall of a room, or the cooling of a cup of tea on
the table. cools from 94 °C to 86 °C in 2 minutes when
the room temperature is at 20 °C. How long
will it take to cool from 71 °C to 69 °C?

Answer The average temperature of 94 °C and

86 °C is 90 °C, which is 70 °C above the room
temperature. Under these conditions the pan
cools 8 °C in 2 minutes.
Using Eq. (11.21), we have
Change in temperature
= K ∆T
Time
8 °C
= K ( 70 °C)
2 min
The average of 69 °C and 71 °C is 70 °C, which
Fig. 11.20 Verification of Newton’s Law of cooling.
is 50 °C above room temperature. K is the same
Newton’s law of cooling can be verified with for this situation as for the original.
the help of the experimental set-up shown in
2 °C
Fig. 11.20(a). The set-up consists of a double- = K (50 °C)
walled vessel (V) containing water between Time
the two walls. A copper calorimeter (C) When we divide above two equations, we
containing hot water is placed inside the have
double-walled vessel. Two thermometers
through the corks are used to note the 8 °C/2 min K (70 °C)
=
temperatures T2 of water in calorimeter and 2 °C/time K (50 °C)
T1 of hot water in between the double walls,
respectively. Temperature of hot water in the Time = 0.7 min
calorimeter is noted after equal intervals of = 42 s t

SUMMARY
1. Heat is a form of energy that flows between a body and its surrounding medium by
virtue of temperature difference between them. The degree of hotness of the body is
quantitatively represented by temperature.
2. A temperature-measuring device (thermometer) makes use of some measurable property
(called thermometric property) that changes with temperature. Different thermometers
lead to different temperature scales. To construct a temperature scale, two fixed points
are chosen and assigned some arbitrary values of temperature. The two numbers fix
the origin of the scale and the size of its unit.
3. The Celsius temperature (tC) and the Farenheit temperare (tF)are related by
tF = (9/5) tC + 32
4. The ideal gas equation connecting pressure (P), volume (V) and absolute temperature (T)
is :
PV = µRT
where µ is the number of moles and R is the universal gas constant.

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5. In the absolute temperature scale, the zero of the scale corresponds to the temperature
where every substance in nature has the least possible molecular activity. The Kelvin
absolute temperature scale (T ) has the same unit size as the Celsius scale (Tc ), but
differs in the origin :
TC = T – 273.15

6. The coefficient of linear expansion (αl ) and volume expansion (αv ) are defined by the
relations :

∆l
= α l ∆T
l

∆V
= αV ∆T
V

where ∆l and ∆V denote the change in length l and volume V for a change of temperature
∆T. The relation between them is :
αv = 3 αl
7. The specific heat capacity of a substance is defined by

1 ∆Q
s=
m ∆T
where m is the mass of the substance and ∆Q is the heat required to change its
temperature by ∆T. The molar specific heat capacity of a substance is defined by

1 ∆Q
C=
µ ∆T
where µ is the number of moles of the substance.
8. The latent heat of fusion (Lf) is the heat per unit mass required to change a substance
from solid into liquid at the same temperature and pressure. The latent heat of
vaporisation (Lv) is the heat per unit mass required to change a substance from liquid
to the vapour state without change in the temperature and pressure.
9. The three modes of heat transfer are conduction, convection and radiation.
10. In conduction, heat is transferred between neighbouring parts of a body through
molecular collisions, without any flow of matter. For a bar of length L and uniform
cross section A with its ends maintained at temperatures TC and TD, the rate of flow of
heat H is :

T −T
C D
H=K A
L
where K is the thermal conductivity of the material of the bar.

11. Newton’s Law of Cooling says that the rate of cooling of a body is proportional to the
excess temperature of the body over the surroundings :

dQ
= – k (T2 – T1 )
dt
Where T1 is the temperature of the surrounding medium and T2 is the temperature of
the body.

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THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 299

POINTS TO PONDER
1. The relation connecting Kelvin temperature (T ) and the Celsius temperature tc
T = tc + 273.15
and the assignment T = 273.16 K for the triple point of water are exact relations (by
choice). With this choice, the Celsius temperature of the melting point of water and
boiling point of water (both at 1 atm pressure) are very close to, but not exactly equal
to 0 °C and 100 °C respectively. In the original Celsius scale, these latter fixed points
were exactly at 0 °C and 100 °C (by choice), but now the triple point of water is the
preferred choice for the fixed point, because it has a unique temperature.
2. A liquid in equilibrium with vapour has the same pressure and temperature throughout
the system; the two phases in equilibrium differ in their molar volume (i.e. density).
This is true for a system with any number of phases in equilibrium.
3. Heat transfer always involves temperature difference between two systems or two parts
of the same system. Any energy transfer that does not involve temperature difference
in some way is not heat.
4. Convection involves flow of matter within a fluid due to unequal temperatures of its
parts. A hot bar placed under a running tap loses heat by conduction between the
surface of the bar and water and not by convection within water.

EXERCISES

11.1 The triple points of neon and carbon dioxide are 24.57 K and 216.55 K respectively.
Express these temperatures on the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales.
11.2 Two absolute scales A and B have triple points of water defined to be 200 A and 350
B. What is the relation between TA and TB ?
11.3 The electrical resistance in ohms of a certain thermometer varies with temperature
according to the approximate law :
R = Ro [1 + α (T – To )]
The resistance is 101.6 Ω at the triple-point of water 273.16 K, and 165.5 Ω at the
normal melting point of lead (600.5 K). What is the temperature when the resistance
is 123.4 Ω ?
11.4 Answer the following :
(a) The triple-point of water is a standard fixed point in modern thermometry.

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Why ? What is wrong in taking the melting point of ice and the boiling point of
water as standard fixed points (as was originally done in the Celsius scale) ?
(b) There were two fixed points in the original Celsius scale as mentioned above
which were assigned the number 0 °C and 100 °C respectively. On the absolute
scale, one of the fixed points is the triple-point of water, which on the Kelvin
absolute scale is assigned the number 273.16 K. What is the other fixed point
on this (Kelvin) scale ?
(c) The absolute temperature (Kelvin scale) T is related to the temperature tc on
the Celsius scale by
tc = T – 273.15
Why do we have 273.15 in this relation, and not 273.16 ?
(d) What is the temperature of the triple-point of water on an absolute scale
whose unit interval size is equal to that of the Fahrenheit scale ?
11.5 Two ideal gas thermometers A and B use oxygen and hydrogen respectively. The
following observations are made :

Temperature Pressure Pressure

thermometer A thermometer B

Triple-point of water 1.250 × 105 Pa 0.200 × 105 Pa

Normal melting point 1.797 × 105 Pa 0.287 × 105 Pa
of sulphur
(a) What is the absolute temperature of normal melting point of sulphur as read
by thermometers A and B ?
(b) What do you think is the reason behind the slight difference in answers of
thermometers A and B ? (The thermometers are not faulty). What further
procedure is needed in the experiment to reduce the discrepancy between the
two readings ?
11.6 A steel tape 1m long is correctly calibrated for a temperature of 27.0 °C. The
length of a steel rod measured by this tape is found to be 63.0 cm on a hot day
when the temperature is 45.0 °C. What is the actual length of the steel rod on that
day ? What is the length of the same steel rod on a day when the temperature is
27.0 °C ? Coefficient of linear expansion of steel = 1.20 × 10–5 K–1 .
11.7 A large steel wheel is to be fitted on to a shaft of the same material. At 27 °C, the
outer diameter of the shaft is 8.70 cm and the diameter of the central hole in the
wheel is 8.69 cm. The shaft is cooled using ‘dry ice’. At what temperature of the
shaft does the wheel slip on the shaft? Assume coefficient of linear expansion of
the steel to be constant over the required temperature range :
αsteel = 1.20 × 10–5 K–1.
11.8 A hole is drilled in a copper sheet. The diameter of the hole is 4.24 cm at 27.0 °C.
What is the change in the diameter of the hole when the sheet is heated to 227 °C?
Coefficient of linear expansion of copper = 1.70 × 10–5 K–1.
11.9 A brass wire 1.8 m long at 27 °C is held taut with little tension between two rigid
supports. If the wire is cooled to a temperature of –39 °C, what is the tension
developed in the wire, if its diameter is 2.0 mm ? Co-efficient of linear expansion
of brass = 2.0 × 10–5 K–1; Young’s modulus of brass = 0.91 × 1011 Pa.
11.10 A brass rod of length 50 cm and diameter 3.0 mm is joined to a steel rod of the same
length and diameter. What is the change in length of the combined rod at 250 °C, if
the original lengths are at 40.0 °C? Is there a ‘thermal stress’ developed at the
junction ? The ends of the rod are free to expand (Co-efficient of linear expansion of
brass = 2.0 × 10–5 K–1, steel = 1.2 × 10–5 K–1 ).

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11.11 The coefficient of volume expansion of glycerine is 49 × 10–5 K–1. What is the
fractional change in its density for a 30 °C rise in temperature ?
11.12 A 10 kW drilling machine is used to drill a bore in a small aluminium block of
mass 8.0 kg. How much is the rise in temperature of the block in 2.5 minutes,
assuming 50% of power is used up in heating the machine itself or lost to the
surroundings. Specific heat of aluminium = 0.91 J g–1 K–1.
11.13 A copper block of mass 2.5 kg is heated in a furnace to a temperature of 500 °C and
then placed on a large ice block. What is the maximum amount of ice that can
melt? (Specific heat of copper = 0.39 J g –1 K –1; heat of fusion of water
= 335 J g–1 ).
11.14 In an experiment on the specific heat of a metal, a 0.20 kg block of the metal at
150 °C is dropped in a copper calorimeter (of water equivalent 0.025 kg) containing
150 cm3 of water at 27 °C. The final temperature is 40 °C. Compute the specific
heat of the metal. If heat losses to the surroundings are not negligible, is your
answer greater or smaller than the actual value for specific heat of the metal ?
11.15 Given below are observations on molar specific heats at room temperature of some
common gases.
Gas Molar specific heat (Cv )
(cal mo1–1 K–1)
Hydrogen 4.87
Nitrogen 4.97
Oxygen 5.02
Nitric oxide 4.99
Carbon monoxide 5.01
Chlorine 6.17
The measured molar specific heats of these gases are markedly different from
those for monatomic gases. Typically, molar specific heat of a monatomic gas is
2.92 cal/mol K. Explain this difference. What can you infer from the somewhat
larger (than the rest) value for chlorine ?
11.16 A child running a temperature of 101°F is given an antipyrin (i.e. a medicine that
lowers fever) which causes an increase in the rate of evaporation of sweat from his
body. If the fever is brought down to 98 °F in 20 minutes, what is the average rate
of extra evaporation caused, by the drug. Assume the evaporation mechanism to
be the only way by which heat is lost. The mass of the child is 30 kg. The specific
heat of human body is approximately the same as that of water, and latent heat of
evaporation of water at that temperature is about 580 cal g–1.
11.17 A ‘thermacole’ icebox is a cheap and an efficient method for storing small quantities
of cooked food in summer in particular. A cubical icebox of side 30 cm has a
thickness of 5.0 cm. If 4.0 kg of ice is put in the box, estimate the amount of ice
remaining after 6 h. The outside temperature is 45 °C, and co-efficient of thermal
conductivity of thermacole is 0.01 J s–1 m–1 K–1. [Heat of fusion of water = 335 × 103
J kg–1]
11.18 A brass boiler has a base area of 0.15 m2 and thickness 1.0 cm. It boils water at the
rate of 6.0 kg/min when placed on a gas stove. Estimate the temperature of the part
of the flame in contact with the boiler. Thermal conductivity of brass = 109 J s–1 m–1
K–1 ; Heat of vaporisation of water = 2256 × 103 J kg–1.
11.19 Explain why :
(a) a body with large reflectivity is a poor emitter
(b) a brass tumbler feels much colder than a wooden tray on a chilly day
(c) an optical pyrometer (for measuring high temperatures) calibrated for an ideal
black body radiation gives too low a value for the temperature of a red hot
iron piece in the open, but gives a correct value for the temperature when the
same piece is in the furnace

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(d) the earth without its atmosphere would be inhospitably cold

(e) heating systems based on circulation of steam are more efficient in warming
a building than those based on circulation of hot water
11.20 A body cools from 80 °C to 50 °C in 5 minutes. Calculate the time it takes to cool
from 60 °C to 30 °C. The temperature of the surroundings is 20 °C.

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES

11.21 Answer the following questions based on the P-T phase diagram of carbon dioxide:
(a) At what temperature and pressure can the solid, liquid and vapour phases of
CO2 co-exist in equilibrium ?
(b) What is the effect of decrease of pressure on the fusion and boiling point of
CO2 ?
(c) What are the critical temperature and pressure for CO 2 ? What is their
significance ?
(d) Is CO2 solid, liquid or gas at (a) –70 °C under 1 atm, (b) –60 °C under 10 atm,
(c) 15 °C under 56 atm ?
11.22 Answer the following questions based on the P – T phase diagram of CO2:
(a) CO2 at 1 atm pressure and temperature – 60 °C is compressed isothermally.
Does it go through a liquid phase ?
(b) What happens when CO2 at 4 atm pressure is cooled from room temperature
at constant pressure ?
(c) Describe qualitatively the changes in a given mass of solid CO2 at 10 atm
pressure and temperature –65 °C as it is heated up to room temperature at
constant pressure.
(d) CO2 is heated to a temperature 70 °C and compressed isothermally. What
changes in its properties do you expect to observe ?

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