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By: Gebremariam Fisseha

Adigrat University, Ethiopia
2010E.C
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Chapter-2: Sensors and Applications
2.1. Passive and Active Sensors
Sensors are physical devices that convert a physical parameter or conditions into a signal that can be measured
electrically. In other words, a sensor is a device that detects a change in a physical phenomenon (temperature,
displacement, force, etc.) and responds proportional measurable output signal (electrical, mechanical, magnetic,
etc.) which can be measured or recorded.

Based on power requirement sensors can be classified as active and passive. Active sensors are those which do
not require external power source for their functioning. They generate power within themselves to operate and
hence called as self-generating type. The energy for functioning is derived from the quantity being measured.
For example piezoelectric crystal generate electrical output (charge) when subjected to acceleration. Passive
sensors require external power source for their functioning. Most of the resistive, inductive and capacitive
sensors are passive (just as resistors, inductors and capacitors are called passive devices).

2.2. Resistive, Capacitive, Inductive sensors

2.2.1. Resistive Sensors
Resistive displacement sensors are commonly termed potentiometers or “pots.” A pot is an electro-mechanical
device containing an electrically conductive wiper that slides against a fixed resistive element according to the position or
angle of an external shaft. Electrically, the resistive element is “divided” at the point of wiper contact. To measure either
linear or angular displacement, a pot is typically wired in a “voltage divider” configuration, as shown in Figure. The
circuit’s output, a function of the wiper’s position, is an analog voltage available for direct use or digitization. Calibration
maps the output voltage to units of displacement.

Figure 2.1: Potentiometer displacement sensors

The potentiometers for the measurement of (a) linear (rectilinear) and (b) angular (rotary) displacement consist
of a former with a cylindrical cross-section which is either a straight cylinder or an arc of a circle. Resistive

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material is then placed on the former so that the resistance per unit length is constant (the usual case). This
means that resistance is proportional to the distance d travelled by the wiper between A and B.

Thus;
Where:
 Vs-supply voltage
 ETh-Open ckt Voltage
 Resistance of CB = total resistance of potentiometer = Rp
 Resistance of AB = fractional resistance = RP d/dT = RP x
 x = fractional displacement = d/dT

Note: Voltage is proportional to displacement

2.2.2. Capacitive Sensors

Capacitive sensor is of non-contact type sensor and is primarily used to measure the linear displacements from
few millimeters to hundreds of millimeters.

The simplest capacitor or condenser consists of two parallel metal plates separated by a dielectric or insulating
material (Figure 2.2). The capacitance of this parallel plate capacitor is given by:
Where: ε0 is the permittivity of free space (vacuum) of magnitude 8.85 pF m −1 , ε or εr is the
relative permittivity or dielectric constant of the insulating material, A in m2 is the area of overlap
of the plates, and d in m is their separation

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Figure 2.2: Basics of Capacitive sensor

From [2.2] we see that C can be changed by changing either d, A or ε ; The Figure also shows capacitive
displacement sensors using each of these methods.

I. Variable separation displacement sensor

If the displacement x causes the plate separation to increase to d + x the capacitance of the sensor is:

II. Variable Area displacement Sensor

The displacement x causes the overlap area to decrease by ∆A = wx, where w is the width
of the plates, giving:

III. Variable dielectric displacement Sensor

The displacement x changes the amount of dielectric material ε2 (ε2 > ε1 ) inserted between the plates. The
total capacitance of the sensor is the sum of two capacitances, one with area A1 and dielectric constant ε1 ,
and one with area A2 and dielectric constant ε2 , i.e.

IV. Differential Capacitive displacement Sensor

The variable separation displacement sensor has the disadvantage of being non-linear (As shown in the
equation). This problem is overcome by using the three-plate differential displacement sensor. This consists

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of a plate M moving between two fixed plates F1 and F2; if x is the displacement of M from the center line
AB, then the capacitances C1 and C2 formed by MF1 and MF2 respectively are:

The relations between C1 , C2 and x are still non-linear, but when C1 and C2 are incorporated into the a.c.
deflection bridge the overall relationship between bridge output voltage and x is linear.

2.2.3. Inducitive Sensors

Inductive sensors are primarily based on the principles of magnetic circuits. They can be classified as self-
generating or passive. The self-generating types utilize an electrical generator principle; that is, when there is a
relative motion between a conductor and a magnetic field, a voltage is induced in the conductor. Or, a varying
magnetic field linking a stationary conductor produces voltage in the conductor. In instrumentation applications,
the magnetic field may be varying with some frequency and the conductor may also be moving at the same
time. In inductive sensors, the relative motion between field and conductor is supplied by changes in the
measurand, usually by means of some mechanical motion. On the other hand, the passive transducer requires an
external source of power. In this case, the action of the transducer is simply the modulation of the excitation
signal.

In order to discuss the principles of these elements we must first introduce the concept of a magnetic circuit. In
an electrical circuit an electromotive force (e.m.f.) drives a current through an electrical resistance and the
magnitude of the current is given by: e.m.f. = current × resistance

Figure 2.3. Basic inductive sensor

A basic inductive sensor consists of a magnetic circuit made from a ferromagnetic core on which is wound a
coil of n turns carrying a current i. The coil acts as a source of magneto motive force (mmf) that drives the flux

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through the magnetic circuit and the air gap. The presence of the air gap causes a large increase in circuit
reluctance and a corresponding decrease in the flux. Hence, a small variation in the air gap results in a
measurable change in inductance so we have the basis of an inductive displacement sensor.
If one assumes that the air gap is zero, the equation for the magnetic circuit can be expressed as: m.m.f. = flux ×
reluctance = φ × R,such that the reluctance ℜ limits the flux in a magnetic circuit just as resistance limits the
current in an electric circuit. By writing the mmf=ni, in terms of current, the magnetic flux may be expressed as:

This is the flux linked by a single turn of the coil; the total flux N linked by the entire coil of n turns is

By definition the self-inductance L of the coil is the total flux per unit current, i.e.

The above equation enables us to calculate the inductance of a sensing element given the reluctance of the
magnetic circuit. The reluctance ℜ of a magnetic circuit is given by:

The arrangement illustrated in Figure 2.3 becomes a basic inductive sensor if the air gap is allowed to vary. In
this case, the ferromagnetic core is separated into two parts by the air gap. The total reluctance of the circuit
now is the addition of the reluctance of core and the reluctance of air gap. The relative permeability of air is
close to unity, and the relative permeability of the ferromagnetic material is of the order of a few thousand,
indicating that the presence of the air gap causes a large increase in circuit reluctance and a corresponding
decrease in the flux. Hence, a small variation in the air gap causes a measurable change in inductance. Most of
the inductive transducers are based on these principles.

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2.3. Temperature sensors and measurement
2.3.1. Thermocouples
It is a type of temperature sensor, which is made by joining two dissimilar metals at one end. If two different
metals A and B are joined together, there is a difference in electrical potential across the junction called the
junction potential. This junction potential depends on the metals A and B and the temperature T °C of the
junction, and is given by a power series of the form:

A thermocouple is a closed circuit consisting of two junctions (Figure 2.4), at different temperatures T1 and T2
°C. If a high-impedance voltmeter is introduced into the circuit, so that current flow is negligible, then the
measured e.m.f. is, to a close approximation, the difference of the junction potentials, i.e

Thus the measured e.m.f. depends on the temperatures T1,T2 of both junctions. In the following discussion T1
will be the temperature to be measured, i.e. the temperature of the measurement junction, and T2 will be the
temperature of the reference junction. In order to accurately infer T1 from the measured e.m.f., the reference
junction temperature T2 must be known.

Figure 2.4 Principles of Thermocouple

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2.3.2. Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)

The RTD is a temperature sensing device whose resistance of the metal changes with temperature. On heating
up metals, their resistance increases and follows a linear relationship as shown in Figure 2.5 The correlation is:

Where Rt is the resistance at temperature T (⁰C) and R0 is the temperature at 0⁰C and α is the constant for the
metal termed as temperature coefficient of resistance. The sensor is usually made to have a resistance of 100 Ω
at 0 °C.

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Figure 2.5 : Behaviour of RTD materials

Figure 2.6: Construction of RTD

Figure 2.6 shows the construction of a RTD. It has a resistor element connected to a Wheatstone bridge. The
element and the connection leads are insulated and protected by a sheath. A small amount of current is
continuously passing though the coil. As the temperature changes the resistance of the coil changes which is
detected at the Wheatstone bridge.

To measure the resistance across an RTD, apply a constant current, measure the resulting voltage, and
determine the RTD resistance. RTDs exhibit fairly linear resistance to temperature curves over their operating
regions, and any nonlinearity are highly predictable and repeatable.

The RTDs are biased using a constant current source. So as to reduce self-heat due to power dissipation, the
current magnitude is moderately low.

2.3.3. Thermistors
Thermistors: Similar to the RTD, the thermistor is a temperature sensing device whose resistance changes
with temperature.

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Thermistors are available in two different types: positive temperature coefficient (PTC) and negative
temperature coefficient (NTC). PTC devices exhibit a positive change or increase in resistance as
temperature rises, while NTC devices exhibit a negative change or decrease in resistance when temperature
increases. The change in resistance of NTC devices is typically quite large, providing a high degree of
sensitivity. They also have the advantage of being available in extremely small configurations for extremely
rapid thermal response.

The NTC thermistors, whose characteristics are more common. They follow the principle of decrease in
resistance with increasing temperature. The material used in thermistor is generally a semiconductor material
such as a sintered metal oxide (mixtures of metal oxides, chromium, cobalt, iron, manganese and nickel) or
doped polycrystalline ceramic containing barium titanate (BaTiO3) and other compounds. As the temperature of
semiconductor material increases the number of electrons able to move about increases which results in more
current in the material and reduced resistance.

The Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) thermistors have limited use and they are particularly used for
protection of motor and transformer widings. As shown in fig. 4(b), they have low and relatively constant

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resistance below a threshold temperature TR , beyond which the resistance increases rapidly. The PTC
thermistors are made from compound of barium, lead and strontium titanate.

2.3.4. LM 35
In general,a temperature sensor is a device which is designed specifically to measure the hotness or coldness of
an object.LM35 is a precision IC temperature sensor with its electrical output proportional to the temperature
(in °C).With LM35,the temperature can be measured more accurately than with a thermistor.It also generates a
higher output voltage than thermocouples and may not require that the output voltage be amplified. LM35
sensor can be powered by any DC voltage in the range 4 – 30v. The operating Temperature range is –55°C to
+150°c.It has find its applications on power supplies,battery management,appliances,etc
The output of the LM 35 is 10 mV (0.01 volts) per degree Celsius. This means at 20°C we will get 20 x 0.01 =
200 mV, or 0.2 volts.
 At 100°C we will get 100 x 0.01 = 1.0 volts out.
 At 50°C we will get 50 x 0.01 = 0.5v

2.3.5. Selecting Temperature Sensors-General Considerations

How to select the best temperature sensor? In general, all sensor types are useful temperature measurement
options, but each has its advantages and disadvantages. For example:

 Thermistors provide high resolution, have the widest range of applications, are the most sensitive, and
are low cost, but are nonlinear and have limited temperature range.
 Thermocouples have the highest temperature region and are durable for high- vibration and high-shock
applications, but require special extension wire.
 RTDs are nearly linear and are highly accurate and stable, but they are large and expensive.

2.4. Displacement, speed & acceleration sensors

Acceleration is a dynamic characteristic of an object, because, according to New- ton’s second law, it
essentially requires application of a force. In effect, the position, velocity, and acceleration are all related:
Velocity is a first derivative of position and acceleration is the second derivative. However, in a noisy
environment, taking derivatives may result in extremely high errors, even if complex and sophisticated signal
conditioning circuits are employed. Therefore, velocity and acceleration are not derived from the position
detectors, but rather measured by special sensors.

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As a rule of thumb, in:
 Low-frequency applications (having a bandwidth on the order of 1 Hz), position and displacement
measurements generally provide good accuracy.
 Intermediate-frequency applications (less than 1 kHz), velocity measurement is usually favored.
 Measuring high-frequency motions with appreciable noise levels, acceleration measurement is
preferred.
A basic idea behind many sensors for the transduction of velocity or acceleration is a measurement of the
displacement of an object with respect to some reference object which, in many cases, is an integral part of the
sensor. Displacement here is a keyword. Many velocity or acceleration sensors contain components which are
sensitive to a displacement. Thus, the position and displacement sensors described are the integral parts of the
velocity sensors and accelerometers.

In some instances, however, velocity sensors and accelerometers do not use an intermediate displacement
transducer because their motions may be directly converted into electrical signals. For example, moving a
magnet though a coil of wire will induce a voltage in the coil according to Faraday’s law. This voltage is
proportional to the magnet’s velocity and the field strength. Linear velocity transducers use this principle of
magnetic induction, with a permanent magnet and a fixed geometry coil, so the output voltage of the coil is
directly proportional to the magnet’s relative velocity over its working range
Electromagnetic Velocity Sensor:
In the velocity sensor, both ends of the magnet are inside the coil. With a single coil, this would give a zero
output because the voltage generated by one end of the magnet would cancel the voltage generated by the other
end. To overcome this limitation, the coil is divided into two sections. The north pole of the magnet induces a
current in one coil, and the south pole induces a current in the other coil. The two coils are connected in a
series-opposite direction to obtain an output proportional to the magnet’s velocity. The maximum detectable
velocity depends primarily on the input stages of the interface electronic circuit. The minimum detectable
velocity depends on the noise floor and especially of transmitted noise from nearby high-ac-current equipment.

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(a) (b)
Tachogenerator works on the principle of variable reluctance. It consists of an assembly of a toothed wheel and
a magnetic circuit as shown in figure (a). Toothed wheel is mounted on the shaft or the element of which
angular motion is to be measured. Magnetic circuit comprising of a coil wound on a ferromagnetic material
core. As the wheel rotates, the air gap between wheel tooth and magnetic core changes which results in cyclic
change in flux linked with the coil. The alternating emf generated is the measure of angular motion. A pulse
shaping signal conditioner is used to transform the output into a number of pulses which can be counted by a
counter.
An alternating current (AC) generator can also be used as a techognerator. It comprises of rotor coil which
rotates with the shaft. Figure (b) shows the schematic of AC generator. The rotor rotates in the magnetic field
produced by a stationary permanent magnet or electromagnet. During this process, an alternating emf is
produced which is the measure of the angular velocity of the rotor. In general, these sensors exhibit nonlinearity
error of about ± 0.15% and are employed for the rotations up to about 10000 rev/min.
Optical Devices

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The simplest way for speed measurement of a rotating body is to mount a tachogenerator on the shaft and
measure the voltage generated by it that is proportional to the speed. However this is a contact type
measurement.

There are other methods also for noncontact type measurements. The first method is an optical method shown in
Figure. An opaque disc with perforations or transparent windows at regular interval is mounted on the shaft
whose speed is to be measured. A LED source is aligned on one side of the disc in such a way that its light can
pass through the transparent windows of the disc. As the disc rotates the light will alternately passed through the
transparent windows and blocked by the opaque sections. A photo detector fixed on the other side of the disc
detects the variation of light and the output of the detector after signal conditioning would be a square wave (as
shown) whose frequency is decided by the speed and the number of holes (transparent windows) on the disc.

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2.5. Pressure and Flow rate sensors

2.6. Discrete Output Sensors:

Sensors can be classified as digital or continuous.
 Digital sensors: The signal produced or reflected by thesensor is binary
 Analog sensors: The signal produced by the sensor is continuous and proportional to the measurand

2.6.1. Digital sensors

2.6.2. Quasi digital sensors

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