Sinusoids and phasors

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 A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine
or cosine function.

 A sinusoidal current is called alternating current

(ac). It reverses at regular time internals and has
alternately positive and negative values

 AC circuits are circuits driven by sinusoidal current

or voltages.

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3
 Considering a sinusoidal voltage,

v(t ) = Vm sin ωt
where
Vm = the amplitude of the sinusoid
ω = the angular frequency in radians/s
ωt = the argument of the sinusoid

𝝎𝝎 = 𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
𝑻=
𝝎
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A periodic function is one that satisfies v(t) = v(t + nT), for all t and for
all integers n

𝟏
𝒇=
𝑻
F is in Hertz (Hz)

𝝎 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐
ω is in radians per second

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A more general expression for a sinusoid

v(t ) = Vm sin(ωt + φ )
Ф = the phase

• Only two sinusoidal values with the same frequency can be compared by
their amplitude and phase difference.
• If phase difference is zero, they are in phase; if phase difference is not zero,
they are out of phase.

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• A sinusoid can be expressed in either sine or cosine form.
• When comparing two sinusoids, it is better to express both as either
sine or cosine with positive amplitudes.
• To achieve this, 2 approaches can be used:
1. Trigonometric identities
2. Graphical approach

sin 𝐴 ± 𝐵 = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 ± cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵

cos 𝐴 ± 𝐵 = cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵 ∓ sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵
sin 𝜔𝜔 ± 180𝑜 = − sin 𝜔𝜔
cos 𝜔𝜔 ± 180𝑜 = − cos 𝜔𝜔
sin 𝜔𝜔 ± 90𝑜 = ±𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜔𝜔
cos 𝜔𝜔 ± 90𝑜 = ∓𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜔𝜔

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Phase Relations

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Practice Problem 9.1
Given the sinusoid 5 sin(4𝜋𝜋 − 600 ) , calculate its amplitude,
phase, angular frequency, period and frequency.

Practice Problem 9.2

Find the phase angle between 𝑖1 = −4 sin 377𝑡 + 25𝑜 and
𝑖2 = 5 cos(377𝑡 − 40𝑜 ). Does 𝑖1 lead or lag 𝑖2 ?

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 A phasor is a complex number that represents the
amplitude and phase of a sinusoid.
 It can be represented in one of the following three
forms:
a. Rectangular z = x + jy = r (cos φ + j sin φ )
b. Polar z = r ∠φ
The image part with relationship ID rId8 was not found in the file.

c. Exponential

r= x2 + y2
where y
φ = tan −1
x

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Mathematic operation of complex number:
1. Addition z1 + z 2 = ( x1 + x 2 ) + j ( y1 + y 2 )

2. Subtraction z1 − z 2 = ( x1 − x2 ) + j ( y1 − y2 )

3. Multiplication z1 z 2 = r1r2 ∠ φ1 + φ2

Division
z1 r1
4. = ∠φ1 − φ 2
z 2 r2

1 1
= ∠ −φ
5. Reciprocal z r

6. Square root z = r ∠φ 2
− jφ
7. Complex conjugate z ∗
= x − jy = r ∠ − φ = re

8. Euler’s identity e ± jφ = cos φ ± j sin φ

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 Transform a sinusoid to and from the time
domain to the phasor domain:

v(t ) = Vm cos(ωt + φ ) V = Vm ∠φ
(time domain) (phasor domain)

• Amplitude and phase difference are two principal

concerns in the study of voltage and current sinusoids.
• Phasor will be defined from the cosine function in all our
proceeding study. If a voltage or current expression is in the
form of a sine, it will be changed to a cosine by subtracting
from the phase.

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Sinusoidal-Phasor Transformation

Time domain representation Phasor domain representation

𝑉𝑚 = cos (𝜔𝜔 + 𝜑) Vm ∠φ
𝑉𝑚 = sin (𝜔𝜔 + 𝜑) Vm ∠φ − 90 0

𝐼𝑚 = cos(𝜔𝜔 + 𝜑) I m ∠φ
𝐼𝑚 = sin(𝜔𝜔 + 𝜑) I m ∠φ − 90 0

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The differences between v(t) and V:
 v(t) is instantaneous or time-domain
representation
V is the frequency or phasor-domain
representation.
 v(t) is time dependent, V is not.
 v(t) is always real with no complex term, V is
generally complex.

Note: Phasor analysis applies only when frequency is constant;

when it is applied to two or more sinusoid signals only if
they have the same frequency.

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Relationship between differential, integral operation
in phasor listed as follow:

v(t ) V = V∠φ
dv jωV
dt

∫ vdt V
jω

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Practice Problem 9.4
Express these sinusoids as phasors:
a. 𝑣 = 7 cos 2𝑡 + 40𝑜 𝑉
b. 𝑖 = −4 sin 10𝑡 + 100 𝐴

Practice Problem 9.5

Find the sinusoids corresponding to these phasors:
a. V=-10∠30 V
b. j(5 – j12) A

Practice Problem 9.6

If 𝑣1 = −10 sin 𝜔𝜔 − 300 𝑉 and 𝑣2 = 20 cos 𝜔𝜔 + 450 𝑉 .
Find v = v1+v2

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Practice Problem 9.7
Find the voltage v(t) in a circuit described by the
integrodifferential equation

𝑑𝑑
2 + 5𝑣 + 10 � 𝑣 𝑑𝑑 = 50 cos(5𝑡 − 300 )
𝑑𝑑

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18
Summary of voltage-current relationship
Element Time domain Frequency domain

R
v = Ri V = RI

L v=L
di
V = jωLI
dt
C dv V =
I
i=C
dt j ωC

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Practice Problem 9.8
If 𝑣 = 10 cos 100𝑡 + 30𝑜 is applied to a 50𝜇𝜇 capacitor, calculate
the current through the capacitor.

Example 9.8
The voltage 𝑣 = 12 cos 60𝑡 + 45𝑜 is applied to a 0.1-H inductor.
Find the steady-state current through the inductor.

Practice Problem 9.3

Evaluate the following complex numbers:
(a) [ 5 + 𝑗2 −1 + 𝑗4 − 5∠60𝑜 )]∗
10+𝑗5+3∠40𝑜
(b) + 10∠30𝑜 + 𝑗5
−3+𝑗4

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 The impedance Z of a circuit is the ratio of the phasor voltage V to
the phasor current I, measured in ohms Ω. It is a frequency-
dependent quantity.
 It represents the opposition that the circuit exhibits to the flow of
sinusoidal current.
V
Z= = R + jX =| Z | ∠θ
I
where R = Re Z is the resistance and X = Im Z is the reactance.

 The admittance Y is the reciprocal of impedance, measured in

siemens (S).
1 I
Y= = = G + jB
Z V

where G = Re Y is the conductance and B = Im Y is the susceptance.

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Impedances and admittances of passive elements
Element Impedance Admittance
R 1
Z=R Y=
R
L 1
Z = j ωL Y=
j ωL
C 1
Z = Y = j ωC
j ωC

𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗 inductive/lagging (I lags V)
𝑍 = 𝑅 − 𝑗𝑗 capacitive/leading (I leads V)
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ω = 0; Z = 0

ω → ∞; Z → ∞

ω = 0; Z → ∞

ω → ∞; Z = 0

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Example 9.9
Find 𝑣(𝑡) and 𝑖(𝑡) in the circuit below:

Practice Problem 9.9

Determine 𝑣(𝑡) and 𝑖(𝑡) in the circuit below:

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 Both KVL and KCL are hold in the phasor domain
(frequency domain).
 Variables to be handled are phasors, which are
complex numbers.
 All the mathematical operations involved are now
in complex domain.
 The following principles used for DC circuit
analysis all apply to AC circuit:
a.voltage division
b.current division
c.circuit reduction
d.impedance equivalence
e.Y-Δ transformation

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𝑍𝑒𝑒 = 𝑍1 + 𝑍2 +……+𝑍𝑁

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 𝑍1 𝑍2
𝑉1 = 𝑉 𝑉2 = 𝑉
𝑍1 + 𝑍2 𝑍1 + 𝑍2

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 1 𝐼 1 1 1
= = + +……
𝑍𝑒𝑒 𝑉 𝑍1 𝑍2 𝑍𝑁

𝑌𝑒𝑒 = 𝑌1 + 𝑌2 +……+𝑌𝑁

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 𝑍2 𝑍1
𝐼1 = 𝐼 𝐼2 = 𝐼
𝑍1 + 𝑍2 𝑍1 + 𝑍2

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 𝑍1 𝑍2 + 𝑍2 𝑍3 + 𝑍3 𝑍1 𝑍𝑏 𝑍𝑐
𝑍𝑎 = 𝑍1 =
𝑍1 𝑍𝑎 + 𝑍𝑏 + 𝑍𝑐

𝑍1 𝑍2 + 𝑍2 𝑍3 + 𝑍3 𝑍1 𝑍𝑐 𝑍𝑎
𝑍𝑏 = 𝑍2 =
𝑍2 𝑍𝑎 + 𝑍𝑏 + 𝑍𝑐

𝑍1 𝑍2 + 𝑍2 𝑍3 + 𝑍3 𝑍1 𝑍𝑎 𝑍𝑏
𝑍𝑐 = 𝑍3 =
𝑍3 𝑍𝑎 + 𝑍𝑏 + 𝑍𝑐

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Practice Problem 9.10
Determine the input impedance of the circuit below at 𝜔 =
10 𝑟𝑟𝑟/𝑠

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Practice Problem 9.11
Calculate 𝑣𝑜 in the circuit below:

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Practice Problem 9.12
Find I in the circuit below:

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Problem 9.6
For the following pairs of sinusoids, determine which one leads
and by how much.
1. v(t) = 10 cos(4t - 60°) and i(t) = 4 sin(4t + 50°)
2. (b) v1(t) = 4 cos(377t + 10°) and v2(t) = -20 cos377t
3. (c) x(t) = 13 cos2t + 5 sin2t and y(t) = 15 cos(2t - 11.8°)

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1. Find the phasors corresponding to the following signals.
(a) v(t) = 21 cos(4t-15o) V
(b) i(t) =-8 sin(10t+70o) mA
(c) v(t) = 120 sin (10t –50o ) V
(d) i(t) = -60cos(30t +10o) mA

2. Using phasors, find:

(a) 3 cos(20t + 10°) -5 cos(20t - 30°)
(b) 40 sin50t + 30 cos(50t - 45°)
(c) 20 sin 400t + 10 cos (400t + 60°) - 5 sin(400t - 20°)

3. Find v(t) in the following integrodifferential equations using the

phasor approach:
(a) 𝑣 𝑡 + ∫𝑣 𝑑𝑑 = 5 cos(𝑡 + 45𝑜 ) V
𝑑𝑑
(b) + 5𝑣 𝑡 + 4 ∫𝑣 𝑑𝑑 = 20 sin(4𝑡 + 10𝑜 ) V
𝑑𝑑

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Problem 9.44
Calculate 𝑖 𝑡 in the circuit below:

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Problem 9.52
If 𝑉𝑜 = 20∠45𝑜 V in the circuit, find 𝐼𝑠 :

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Problem 9.55*
Given 𝑉𝑜 = 8∠0𝑜 V, find the Z. What are the elements are
contained in Z? Calculate the value of their
resistances/reactances if the system frequency is 50 Hz.

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 Instantaneous Value
• Instantaneous value is magnitude value of waveform at one
specific time.
• Symbol for Instantaneous value of voltage is v(t) and current
is i(t).
• Example of Instantaneous value for voltage is shown:
V/I

v (0.25) = 10V
10V

v(0.5) = 0V
0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.5 Time(s)
v(0.75) = −10V
v(1.0) = 0V
-10V

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 Average Value
• Average value is average value for all instantaneous value in half or
one complete waveform cycle.
• It can be calculate in two ways:
1. Calculate the area under the graph:
Average value = area under the function in a period
period
2. Use integral method

T
1
average _ value = ∫ v(t )dt
T 0

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 Average Value
• For example

Instantaneous power:

𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜔𝜔 + 𝜃𝑣 ) cos(𝜔𝜔 + 𝜃𝑖 )

Average power:
1 𝑇 1
𝑃 = � 𝑝 𝑡 𝑑𝑑 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 )
𝑇 0 2

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 Effective value
■ The most common method of specifying the amount of sine wave of
voltage or current by relating it into dc voltage and current that will
produce the same heat effect.
■ It is called root means square value, rms
■ The formula of effective value for sine wave waveform is

vm
Vrms = = 0.7071vm
2 where Im & Vm are peak values
im
I rms = = 0.7071im
2

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■ For example, if given a sine wave waveform

v(t ) = Vm cos(ωt + φ )V 0

■ It can be represent by a phasor diagram

V
Vm
V = Vm ∠φ 0

φo

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From the phase diagram above, it can be conclude that:
i) I leading V for θ° degree or V lagging I for θ° degree
ii) V leading V1 for Φ° degree or V1 lagging V for Φ° degree
iii) I leading V1 for (Φ° + θ° ) degree or V1 lagging I for (Φ° + θ° )
degree

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Example
Given the circuit below, sketch the phasor diagram of
𝑉𝑆 , 𝑉𝑅 , 𝑉𝐿 , 𝑉𝐶 , 𝐼𝑆 .

3Ω 7Ω 3Ω
IS

- -

+
VL
-

+
VR VC

VS(t) = 50 Sin 377t

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