Justice Addison

TASK 2

INPUT DEVICES:

Ultrasonic Sensors: These sensors are very cost efficient and they make
measurement of distance easier than the other. Ultrasonic sensors have
multi applicable use and they give fair measurement between moving
and stationary object.

Ultrasonic sensors are normally used for security systems. They have
certain features

They provide precise and non interactive distance measurement

between 2cm -3m

It has a led indicator that show measurement progress

Ultrasonic sensor consume as little as 20mAof power

Capacitance Sensors: This is an unattached sensor which is capable of

high resolution measurement and or change of position of any
conductive target. A nanometre resolution of high performance
capacitive sensors makes them indispensable. In today’s nano
technology world these sensors can be used to measure the position of
non conductive target compared to some .The Fig is an example of a
high performance capacitive sensor

Fig1
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Output devices

Directional Control valves: These are mainly used to

determine the direction of flow of fluids and the direction of the
operation of a hydraulic motor this valve is normally made of
cast iron and contains a coil of steel .Directional operational
valves can be operated by pressures acting on the opposite
sides of the valve element .Below is a picture of a Directional
control valve

Fig 2

Motor contactors: These have massive current capacity which

turn on/off motor with power supply .Majority of motor
contactors have multi pole devices in order to regulate all
power carrying contactors .Motor contactors work as a guard
for motors .Examples of motor contactors are three pole, two
pole and four pole
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Task 3
Twisted Pair Cables: Twisted pair cables are two separate
insulated wires twisted together. There are two main types of
this cable they are the shield and unshielded cables. The
shielded twisted pair has a very sooth wire coating surrounding
the wires to protect the transmission where as the unshielded
twisted pair does not have a wire coating around it .Shielded
twisted pair cables are used in older telephone networks and
data communications to reduce outside interference. Below are
the pictures of the various cables

Fig 4 (Shielded twisted

pair)

Fig 3 (Unshielded twisted pair)

Co axial Cables: Coaxial cables have a single conductor

insulated with a dielectric material and then surrounded by the
other conductor, usually referred to as the centre conductor and
shield.   Coaxial cables consist of double cylindrical conductors
with a common axis. The two conductors are separated by a
dielectric. The outer conductor, normally at ground-potential,
acts as a return path for current flowing through the centre
conductor and prevents energy radiation from the cable. The
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outer conductor, or shield, is also commonly used to prevent

external radiation from affecting the current flowing in the inner
conductor. The outer shield or conductor consists of woven
strands of wire or is a metal sheath.

Fig 5
( a): outer plastic sheath (b)woven copper shield(c) inner
dielectric insulator(d) copper core
Fibre Optics: Fibre optic cables are composed of single
or multiples of transparent fibres enclosed in protective
coverings and strength members. Cable types can include
simplex, duplex, multi fibre, patch cord, and bare fibre.  Simplex
cables are fibre optic cable with one optical fibre.  Duplex
cables are fibre optic cable with double optical fibres.  Multi
fibre cable is a fibre optic cable with more than two optical
fibres’.  Patch cords are short lengths of fibre optic cable with
connectors.  Bare fibre refers to a fibre optic core and cladding
only.  Fibre types can be single mode or multimode.  Single
mode describes a fibre with a small core, only a few times the
wavelength of light transmitted, which only allows one mode of
light to propagate. It is commonly used with laser sources for
high speed, long distance links.  Multimode describes a fibre
with core diameter much larger than the wavelength of light
transmitted that allows many modes of light to propagate.
Commonly used with LED sources for lower speed, short
distance links. Below is a picture of a fibre optic cable
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Fig 6(Fibre optic cable)

Task 4

A programmable logical controller has certain common

features to the computer .The controller CPU, Monitor .ROM,
RAM and others
The main components of a logical controller are the
processing unit, memory, power supply unit input/output
interface communication interface and programming device.
Below is the internal architecture of a PLC
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CPU: This is also known as the central processing unit

.this unit usually contains a logical unit. The CPU applies logical
operations such as adding subtracting multiplying etc.The
signals act as switches to separate the lines on both sides if
required .Inside the CPU are the ROM(Read Only Memory )and
RAM(Random Access Memory ) which store permanent and
temporally data .
ALU: This unit is responsible for performing all arithmetic
and logical operations required to implement various codes
.The logical unit is able to calculate i.e. (add subtract increase
and decrease quantities and perform a range of logical
operations .Arithmetic operations can done either signed or
unsigned data. Some machines can also work with Binary
coded decimal numbers .Logical unit functions normally include
AND,OR and Exclusive OR and are regulated bit by bit on the
corresponding bits of the two data words. Below are some
examples of some logical operations
A 10110110 A 10010110
B 01110001 B 01100111
A.B00110000 A+B111110111
(A) AND (B) OR
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OPTO- ISOLATORS: This consists of a Light emitting

diode (LED) and a phototransistor within a single group .When
no volt are applied to the inputs of the opto-isolator the LED is
switched off. The phototransistor receives light and is also
turned off. The Pull Up resistor therefore releases an output
voltage .If a single volt is applied to the inputs of the opto
isolator the LED will illuminated thus tuning on the photo
transistor .This will then pull down the output voltage to close
the 0V.Opto isolators have no electrical connection between
both inputs and output regions they are combined only by light.
A diagram of an opto isolator is shown below

Fig 8

SHIFT REGISTERS: `Shift registers are normally used in the

conversion of parallel words of information into a pile of bits and
single line .An application of this method is in long distance
communication where parallel words of information can be
change to into serial form to be sent down a single wire rather
than needing a number of parallel wires
Shift registers can also be used to take a serial data stream
and also produce a parallel data word from it
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Shift registers are usually applied in serial communication

systems thus involving parallel conversion into it serial form at
the transmitter, conveying the serial data over a certain
distance and then turning it back into a parallel form at the
receiver

CONTINUOUS UPDATING: The process of reading outputs,

solving logic and updating outputs is called continuous updated
in CPU or scanning. The CPU is designed to perform certain
specific functions in a specific manner and then repeat such
sequence. The CPU operating cycle is call the processor
scan .A scan consist of a series and a sequential operation that
include housekeeping data input program execution updating
the program device etc .Scanning or updating is normally done
when the CPU is run mode .This mode can stay on for days
week and months.
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TASK 5

(B) The range between 4-20mA=20-4

=16mA
^2m=^16mA
^3.6m=16/2*3.6
^=28.8mA i.e if the starting current is 0
But the starting point is 4mA
Therefore the current flow at the liquid level at 3.6=28.8+4mA
32.8mA

TASK 6:

a): Analogue signals are normally converted into digital signals

with the use of an analogue to digital converter or in short
ADC.This device is normally situated on an analogue input
chips which are used on rack mounted system
Normally the competence and accuracy of an analogue
converter is determined by it resolution
 8 bits is almost equivalent to 256 digital values
 For every step of bit with a signal variance of 0V-10v
 1 bit =2^-8=(0.004)
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 =10-0)/256
=39.1mV

 10 bits is almost equivalent to 1024 digital values

 For every step of bit with a signal variance of 0V-10v
 1 bit =2^-10=(0.001)
 10-0)/1024
 9.76mV

 12 bits is almost equivalent to 4096 digital values

 For every step of bit with a signal variance of 0V-10v
 1 bit =2^12=4096
 10-0)/4096
 2.44mV

The resolution is mainly determined by the data bits used

the converter .The higher the data bit the better accuracy
you achieve
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B) Sensor outputs =0.6mV /c

Starting at 0c =0mV
At160c =160*0.6
=96mV

ADC

 8 bits is almost equivalent to 256 digital values

 For every step of bit with a signal variance of 0V-10v
 1 bit =2^-8=(0.004)
 =10-0)/256
=39.1mV
Nearest step =96/ 39.1
= 2.45
=Aprox 2.5
The voltage at 2.5 steps =39.1 *2.5
=97.75mV

Temperature at 97.75mV =(160c/96)*97.75

Possible error =162.91c - 160

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= 2.91 c
2.
 10 bits is almost equivalent to 1024 digital values
 For every step of bit with a signal variance of 0V-10v
 1 bit =2^-10=(0.001)
 10-0)/1024
 9.76mV

Nearest step =96/ 9.76

= 7.06
=Aprox 7
The voltage at 7.0 steps =9.76 *7.0
=68.32mV

Temperature at 68.32mV =(160c/96)*68.32

Possible error =113.86 - 160

= -46c
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 12 bits is almost equivalent to 4096 digital values

 For every step of bit with a signal variance of 0V-10v
 1 bit =2^12=4096
 10-0)/4096
 2.44mV

Nearest step =96/ 2.44

= 39.34
=Aprox 39
The voltage at 2.44 steps =39*2.44
=95.16

Temperature at 95.16mV =(160c/96)*95.16

Possible error =158.6 - 160

= -1.4c

From the above calculations we can conclude that the higher

the resolution the higher the accuracy and this is determined by
using the higher bit rate
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TASK 7:

RS 232:The RS 232 communication is normally the standard in

short distance computer communications .Major computer
hardware and peripherals such as printers and VDU’s have
RS232 interfaces and connections There is a D 25way
connector associated with the RS232 communications which
provided on most logical controllers computers and peripherals
devices. There are three main aspects considered in serial
communication. They are rate of speed of the transmission i.e.
number of bits per second and the duration of each bits .Also
,they can considered by their logical levels .Finally the can be
determined by synchronizing the data to enable the receiving
device understand the transmission
The RS 232 allows a selection of 6-8 bits at transmission
speeds from 75-19000bps

RS422: This is an advanced version of the RS232 .The RS422

uses two wires for each signal a balanced electrical interface
with different inputs and outputs lines provide a larger distance
and a higher rate than the RS232.The RS422 has a much
smaller signal transmission region than the RS232 allowing the
interface to be implemented using a supplement of 5v supply
from microprocessors based equipment.Rs422 ports are
normally derived from RS232 lines.
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20mA current loop: This is another mode of transmitting

data and protocols .The 20mA loop is mostly recommended for
long distance use than the RS232 and is used mainly in
industrial systems in which the communication path is in very
loud environment because of it high sound immunity. A
switched loop is used to produce the serial data .20mA loop
can be used as far as 300 m at the same data rate of
9*600baud .They are normally fitted by opto isolators to give
electrical isolation between the transmitting and receiving
nodes .

IEEE488: This is a transmitting and protocol device by

Hp(Hewlett Packard )a microchip manufacture for some
computers built year back this system is out of date and it is no
used any longer

BIBLIOPGRAPHY :
http://www.lincolncollege.ac.uk/courses/plc-programmable-
logic-controllers-introductory-short-course
http://www.globalspec.com
http://www.maplin.co.uk/
http://www.bitpipe.com/tlist/Twisted-Pair-Cable.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twisted_pair#Unshielded_twisted_p
air_.28UTP.29
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References are taken from lectures had out Wikipedia,

Electronics (a systems approach by Neil Storey) Programmable
Controllers (by Ian Warnock)