Expert Systems with Applications 28 (2005) 93–103

www.elsevier.com/locate/eswa

Expert system methodologies and applications—a decade

review from 1995 to 2004
Shu-Hsien Liao*
Department of Management Sciences and Decision Making, Tamkang University, No. 151, Yingjuan Rd, Danshuei Jen, Taipei 251, Taiwan, ROC

Abstract
This paper surveys expert systems (ES) development using a literature review and classification of articles from 1995 to 2004 with a
keyword index and article abstract in order to explore how ES methodologies and applications have developed during this period. Based on
the scope of 166 articles from 78 academic journals (retrieved from five online database) of ES applications, this paper surveys and classifies
ES methodologies using the following eleven categories: rule-based systems, knowledge-based systems, neural networks, fuzzy ESs, object-
oriented methodology, case-based reasoning, system architecture, intelligent agent systems, database methodology, modeling, and ontology
together with their applications for different research and problem domains. Discussion is presented, indicating the followings future
development directions for ES methodologies and applications: (1) ES methodologies are tending to develop towards expertise orientation
and ES applications development is a problem-oriented domain. (2) It is suggested that different social science methodologies, such as
psychology, cognitive science, and human behavior could implement ES as another kind of methodology. (3) The ability to continually
change and obtain new understanding is the driving power of ES methodologies, and should be the ES application of future works.
q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Expert systems; Expert system methodologies; Expert system applications; Literature survey

1. Introduction are proving to be critical in the process of decision support

and problem solving.
Expert systems (ES) are a branch of applied artificial As a part of ES research, this paper surveys the
intelligence (AI), and were developed by the AI community development of ES through a literature review and
in the mid-1960s. The basic idea behind ES is simply that classification of articles from 1995 to 2004 as a basis,
expertise, which is the vast body of task-specific knowledge, exploring the ES methodologies and applications during
is transferred from a human to a computer. This knowledge that period. The reason for choosing this period is that the
is then stored in the computer and users call upon the Internet was opened to general users in 1994 and this new
computer for specific advice as needed. The computer can era of information and communication technology has
make inferences and arrive at a specific conclusion. Then played important roles, not only in the field of ES, but also
like a human consultant, it gives advices and explains, if in the ability to collect data from online database. This
necessary, the logic behind the advice (Turban & Aronson, literature survey started on March 2003 and it was based on
2001). ES provide powerful and flexible means for a search in the keyword index and article abstract for ‘ES’
obtaining solutions to a variety of problems that often on the Elsevier SDOS, IEEE Xplore, EBSCO (electronic
cannot be dealt with by other, more traditional and orthodox journal service), Ingenta, and Wiley InterScience online
methods. Thus, their use is proliferating to many sectors of database, for the period from 1995 to 2004, in which 10,439
our social and technological life, where their applications articles were updated and found on June 2004. After topic
filtering, there were 166 articles from 78 journals related to
the keyword ‘ES applications’, 98 of which were connected
to the methodology of keyword ‘ES methodology’. Based
* Tel.: C886-2947-2044; fax: C886-2945-3007. on the scope of 166 articles on ES applications, this paper
E-mail address: [email protected]. surveys and classifies ES methodologies using eleven
0957-4174/$ - see front matter q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2004.08.003
94 S.-H. Liao / Expert Systems with Applications 28 (2005) 93–103

categories: rule-based systems, knowledge-based systems, Table 1

neural networks, fuzzy ESs, object-oriented methodology, Rule-based systems and their applications
case-based reasoning (CBR), system architecture develop- Rule-based systems/applications Authors
ment, intelligent agent (IA) systems, modeling, ontology, State transition analysis Ilgun, Kemmerer, and Porras (1995)
and database methodology together with their applications Psychiatric treatment Goethe and Bronzino (1995)
for different research and problem domains. Production planning Hamada, Baba, Sato, and Yufu (1995)
The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Sections Advisory system Kose et al. (1995)
Teaching Chan, Ma, Chan, and Chen (1995)
2–12 present the survey results of ES methodologies and
Electronic power planning Rahman and Hazim (1996)
applications based on the above categories, respectively. Automobile process planning Sabourin and Villeneuve (1996)
Section 13 presents some discussion, extending to sugges- Hypergraph representation Ramaswamy, Sarkar, and Chen (1997)
tions for future development of ES methodologies and System development Mulvaney and Bristow (1997)
applications. Finally, Section 14 contains a brief conclusion. Knowledge verification/vali- Wu and Lee (1997)
dation
Alcohol production Guerreiro et al. (1997)
DNA histogram interpretation Marchevsky, Truong, and Tolmachoff
2. Rule-based systems and their applications (1997)
Knowledge base maintenance Higa and Lee (1998)
A rule-based ES is defined as one, which contains Scheduling strategy Zupan and Cheng (1998)
Management fraud assessment Deshmukh and Talluru (1998)
information obtained from a human expert, and represents
Knowledge acquisition Wu and Chen (1999)
that information in the form of rules, such as IF–THEN. The Communication system fault Leon, Mejias, Luque, and Gonzalo
rule can then be used to perform operations on data to diagnosis (1999)
inference in order to reach appropriate conclusion. These Bioseparation Lienqueo, Salgado, and Asenjo (1999)
inferences are essentially a computer program that provides Material processing design Kim and Im (1999)
Resource utilization McCoy and Levary (2000)
a methodology for reasoning about information in the rule
Biochemical nanotechnology Wasiewicz, Janczak, Mulawka, and
base or knowledge base, and for formulating conclusions. Plucienniczak (2000)
Applications of rule-based systems on ESs are including: Probabilistic fault diagnosis Leung and Romagnoli (2000)
state transition analysis, psychiatric treatment, production Agriculture planning Plant and Vayssieres (2000)
planning, advisory system, teaching, electronic power Load scheduling Croce et al. (2001)
Apiculture Mahaman et al. (2002)
planning, automobile process planning, hypergraph rep-
Agricultural diagnostic/advisory Mahaman, Passam, Sideridis, and
resentation, system development, knowledge verification/ Yialouris (2003)
validation, alcohol production, DNA histogram interpre- Geoscience Soh, Tsatsoulis, Gineris, and Bertoia
tation, knowledge base maintenance, scheduling strategy, (2004)
management fraud assessment, knowledge acquisition, Sensor control Valenzuela, Bentley, and Lorenz
(2004)
knowledge representation, communication system fault
Tutoring system Hatzilygeroudis and Prentzas (2004)
diagnosis, bioseparation, material processing design, Knowledge representation Hatzilygeroudis and Prentzas (2004)
resource utilization, biochemical nanotechnology, proba-
bilistic fault diagnosis, agriculture planning, load schedul-
ing, apiculture, tutoring system, geoscience, and sensor Some of these applications which are implemented by
control. The methodology of rule-based systems and their
knowledge-based systems include the following: medical
applications are categorized in Table 1.
treatment, personal finance planning, engineering failure
analysis, waste management, production management,
thermal engineering, decision support, knowledge manage-
3. Knowledge-based systems and their applications
ment, knowledge representation, power electronics design,
framed buildings evaluation, financial analysis, chemical
The most common definition of KBS is human-centered.
This highlights the fact that KBS have their roots in the field incident management, automatic tumor segmentation,
of artificial intelligence (AI) and that they are attempts to business game, climate forecasting, agricultural manage-
understand and initiate human knowledge in computer ment, steel composition design, strategic management,
systems (Wiig, 1994). The four main components of KBS environmental protection, wastewater treatment, decision
are usually distinguished as: a knowledge base, an inference making and learning, isokinetics interpretation, chemical
engine, a knowledge engineering tool, and a specific user process controlling, therapy planning, plant process control,
interface (Dhaliwal & Benbasat, 1996). On the other hand, outage locating planning, concurrent system design, case
the term KBS includes all the organizational information validation, chip design, agriculture planning, power trans-
technology applications that may prove helpful to manage mission protection, crop production planning, tropospheric
the knowledge assets of an organization, such as ESs, rule- chemistry modeling, planar robots, and urban design. The
based systems, groupware, and database management methodology of knowledge-based systems and their appli-
systems (DBMS) (Laudon & Laudon, 2002). cations are categorized in Table 2.
 S.-H. Liao / Expert Systems with Applications 28 (2005) 93–103 95

Table 2 Table 3
Knowledge-based systems and their applications Neural networks and their applications

Knowledge-based systems/ Authors Neural networks/applications Authors

applications
Fault diagnosis Wang, Qu, Liu, and Cheng (2004),
Medical treatment Alonso-Amo, Perez, Gomez, and Yang, Han, and Kim, (2004)
Montes (1995) Optimal power flow
Personal finance planning Dirks, Kingston, and Haggith (1995) Decision making
Engineering failure analysis Graham-Jones and Mwllor (1995) Alarm processing system
Waste management Wei and Weber (1996) Inference mechanisms
Production management Dawood (1996) Diagnostic system
Thermal engineering Afgan and Carvalho (1996) Machine learning Fu (1998)
Decision support Keefe and Preece (1996) Power load forecasting
Knowledge management Dutta (1997) Facility layout design
Knowledge representation Mitra and Basu (1997) Process control
Framed buildings evaluation Lu and Simmonds (1997) Knowledge learning
Power electronics design Fezzani, Piquet, and Foch (1997) Gold mining process design
Financial analysis Matsatsinis, Doumpos, and Zopounidis Robotic systems
(1997) Parameter setting
Chemical incident management Finch and Lees (1997) Waste treatment
Automatic tumor segmentation Clark et al. (1998) Biomedical application
Business game Duan, Edwards, and Robins (1998) Mitigation processes control
Climate forecasting Rodionov and Martin (1999) Engineering ceramics
Agricultural management Girard and Hubert (1999) Acoustic signal diagnosing Li, Tasi, Tasi, and Chiu (2004)
Steel composition design Manohar, Shivathaya, and Ferry (1999) Crude oil distillation Liau et al. (2004)
Strategic management Volberda and Rutges (1999)
Environmental protection Gomolka and Orlowski (2000)
Wastewater treatment Baeza, Ferreira, and Laufuente (2000)
Decision making and learning Mockler, Dologite, and Gartenfeld
(2000) over its axon. These artificial signals can be changed
Isokinetics interpretation Alonso, Fuertes, Martinez, and Montes similarly to the physical changes occurring at neural
(2000)
synapses (Turban & Aronson, 2001).
Chemical process controlling Barrera-Cortes, Astruc, and Tufeu
(2001) Some of the applications that are implemented by neural
Physical therapy planning Tunez, Aguila, and Marin (2001) networks are the following: fault diagnosis, optimal power
Plant process control Acosta, Gonzalez, and Pulido (2001) flow, decision making, alarm processing system, inference
Outage locating planning Liu and Schulz (2002) mechanisms, diagnostic system, machine learning, power
Concurrent system design Mills and Gomaa (2002)
load forecasting, facility layout design, process control,
Case validation Knauf, Gonzalez, and Abel (2002)
Chip design Bourbakis, Mogzadeh, Mertoguno, and knowledge learning, gold mining process design, robotic
Koutsougeras (2002) systems, parameter setting, waste treatment, engineering
Agricultural planning Cohen and Shoshany (2002) ceramics, mitigation processes control, acoustic signal
Power transmission protection Orduna, Garces, and Handschin (2003) diagnosing, crude oil distillation, and biomedical appli-
Crop production planning Edrees, Rafea, Fathy, and Yahia (2003)
cation. The methodology of neural networks and their
Tropospheric chemistry model- Saunders, Pascoe, Johnson, Pilling, and
ing Jenkin (2003) applications are categorized in Table 3.
Urban design Xirogiannis, Stefanou, and Glykas
(2004)
Planar robots Sen, Minambres, Garrido, Almansa,
and Soto (2004) 5. Fuzzy expert systems and their applications

Fuzzy ESs are developed using the method of fuzzy

logic, which deals with uncertainty. This technique, which
4. Neural networks and their applications uses the mathematical theory of fuzzy sets, simulates the
process of normal human reasoning by allowing the
An artificial neural network (ANN) is a model that computer to behave less precisely and logically than
emulates a biological neural network. This concept is used conventional computers. This approach is used because
to implement software simulations for the massively decision-making is not always a matter of black and white,
parallel processes that involve processing elements inter- true or false; it often involves gray areas and the term may
connected in network architecture. The artificial neuron be. Accordingly, creative decision-making processes can be
receives inputs that are analogous to the electrochemical characterized unstructured, playful, contentious, and ram-
impulses that the dendrites of biological neurons receive bling (Jamshidi, Titli, Zadeh, & Boverie 1997).
from other neurons. The output of the artificial neuron Some applications implemented by fuzzy ESs are such
corresponds to signals sent out from a biological neuron as: power load forecasting, online scheduling, chemical
96 S.-H. Liao / Expert Systems with Applications 28 (2005) 93–103

Table 4 Table 5
Fuzzy expert systems and their applications Object-oriented methodology and their applications

Fuzzy expert systems/ Authors Object-oriented methodology/ Authors

applications applications
Power load forecasting Kim, Park, Hwang, and Kim (1995) Industry diagnosis Batanov and Cheng (1995)
Online scheduling Chang and Thia (1996) Knowledge representation Vranes and Stanojevic (1995)
Chemical process fault diagnosis Ozyurt and Kandel (1996) Electronic power capacity planning Deb (1995)
Ecological planning Zhu, Band, Dutton, and Nimlos (1996) Knowledge learning Menzies (1997)
Power system diagnosis Cho and Park (1997) Power system maintenance Kawahara, Sasaki, Kubokawa,
Control systems Bugarin and Barro (1998) Asahara, and Sugiyama (1998)
Uncertainly reasoning Pan, DeSouza, and Kak (1998) Knowledge engineering Geymayr and Ebecken (1998)
Knowledge integration Lee, Han, Song, and Lee (1998) Manufacturing information network Lau, Tso, and Ho (1998)
Fault diagnosis Lee et al. (2000) and Soliman, Rizzoni, Syntactic programming Depradine (2003)
and Kim (1999)
Power system classification Dash, Mishra, Salama, and Liew
(2000) many different objects, but each will implement that
Fault detection EI-Shal and Morris (2000) message differently. An object’s data are encapsulated
Demand evaluation Benson and Asgarpoor (2000)
from other parts of the system, so each object is an
Wastewater treatment Carrasco, Rodriguez, Punal, Roca, and
Lema (2004), Punal, Rodriguez, Car- independent software building block that can be used in
rasco, Roca, and Lema (2002), and many different systems without changing the program code.
Punal et al. (2001) Some applications implemented by object-oriented
Machinability data selection Wong and Hamouda (2002, 2003) methodology include the following: industry diagnosis,
Water supply forecast Mahabir, Hicks, and Fayek (2003)
knowledge learning, manufacturing information network,
Radiography classification Liao (2003)
On-line analytic processing Leung, Lau, and Kwong (2003) power system maintenance, knowledge engineering, syn-
Hotel selection Ngai and Wat (2003) tactic programming, and knowledge representation. The
Dryer tool integration Lababidi and Baker (2003) methodology of object-oriented methodology and their
Medical diagnosis Meesad and Yen (2003) and Sendelj applications are categorized in Table 5.
and Devedzic (2004)
Pooled flood frequency analysis Shu and Burn (2004)
Medical consultation system Boegl, Adlassnig, Hayashi, Rothenfluh,
and Leitich (2004) 7. Case-based reasoning and their applications
Job matching Drigs et al. (2004)
Performance indexing Padilla-Medina and Sanchez-Marin
(2004) The basic idea of CBR is to adapt solutions that were
Computer security Reznik and Dabke (2004) used to solve previous problems and use them to solve new
Gesture recognition Frantti and Kallio (2004) problems. In CBR, descriptions of past experience of human
specialists, represented as cases, are stored in a database for
process fault diagnosis, ecological planning, control sys- later retrieval when the user encounters a new case with
tems, uncertainly reasoning, knowledge integration, fault similar parameters. The system searches for stored cases
diagnosis, power system classification, fault detection, with problem characteristics similar to the new one, finds
demand evaluation, wastewater treatment, machinability the closest fit, and applies the solutions of the old case to the
data selection, water supply forecast, radiography classifi- new case. Successful solutions are tagged to the new case
cation, on-line analytic processing, hotel selection, dryer and both are stored together with the other cases in the
tool integration, pooled flood frequency analysis, medical knowledge base. Unsuccessful solutions also are appended
consultation system, job matching, performance indexing, to the case base along with explanations as to why the
computer security, gesture recognition, and medical diag- solutions did not work (Kolonder, 1994).
nosis. The methodology of fuzzy ESs together with their Some of the applications implemented by CBR include
applications is categorized in Table 4. the following: manufacturing process design, knowledge
management, power system restoration training, ultrasonic
inspection, medical planning, medical application, fault
diagnosis, e-learning, and knowledge modeling. These CBR
6. Object-oriented methodology and their applications and their applications are categorized in Table 6.

Object-oriented methodology combines into one object

data together with the specific procedures that operate on 8. Modeling and their applications
this data, where the object combines data and program code.
Instead of passing data to procedures, programs send a Modeling methodology becomes an interdisciplinary
message for an object to perform a procedure that is already methodology of ES in order to build formal relationships
embedded in it. Then, the same message may be sent to with logical model design in different knowledge/problem
 S.-H. Liao / Expert Systems with Applications 28 (2005) 93–103 97

Table 6 Table 8
Case-based reasoning and their applications System architecture and their applications

Case-based reasoning/applications Authors System architecture/applications Authors

Manufacturing process design Takahashi, Oono, and Saitog Material evaluation and selection Mahmoud and AL-Hammad (1996)
(1995) Computer aided design Tucho, Sierra, Fernandez, Vijande,
Knowledge management Noh, Lee, Kim, Lee, and Kim and Moris (2003) and Vranes and
(2000) Stanojevic (1999)
Power system restoration training Islam and Chowdhury (2001) Ergonomics design Gilad and Karni (1999)
Ultrasonic inspection Jarmulak, Kerckhoffs, and Veen ISO system implementation Khan and Hafiz (1999)
(2001) Corporate recovery decision sup- Collier, Leech, and Clark (1999)
Medical planning Abidi and Manickam (2002) port
Medical application Montani and Bellazzi (2002) Concurrent engineering Reidsema and Szczerbicki (2001)
Knowledge modeling Gardan and Gardan (2003) Military application Liao (2001)
Fault diagnosis Yang et al. (2004) Training simulator Lopez, Flores, and Garcia (2003)
E-learning Fu and Shen (2004) Ferryboat configuration Shaalan, Rizk, Abdelhamid, and
Bahgat (2004)
Liquid retaining structure design Chau and Albermani (2004)
domains. Furthermore, modeling technology can provide
quantitative methods to analyze data to represent or acquire
expert knowledge with inductive logic programming or architecture design and implementation are completed,
algorithms so that AI, cognitive science and other research users can manipulate and control system functions on the
fields could have broader platforms to implement techno- system architecture.
logies for ES development. Some of the applications implemented by system
The applications implemented by modeling are such as: architecture illustrate the following: material evaluation
process control, medical analysis, management decision- and selection, computer aided design, ergonomics design,
making, software evaluation, medical system validation, ISO system implementation, corporate recovery decision
assembly task planning and simulation, transport terminal support, concurrent engineering, military application, train-
design, project allocation, and endometrial hyperplasia ing simulator, liquid retaining structure design, and ferry-
classification. The methodology of modeling and their boat configuration. These System architectures and their
applications are categorized in Table 7. applications are categorized in Table 8.

9. System architecture and their applications 10. Intelligent agents and their applications

System architecture of an ES is similar to an architectural An IA is a computer program that helps a user with
sketch of a house. It gives users a general idea of what the routine computer tasks. This is a new technology, and as
system will look like and how it is going to implement such there are several definitions, database capabilities, and
systems. The architecture shows the general capabilities of different applications in autonomous programs. Several of
the system, the users’ interfaces, system functions, system the names used to describe IAs are include software agents,
(data) flow, system management, DBMS, necessary proto- wizards, and multi-agent (Turban & Aronson, 2001).
col, and specific programming language, such as blackboard Some of the applications implemented by IAs are such
architecture, CommonKADS, etc. Once the system as: tutoring systems, system analysis and design, electronic
service maintenance, carbon contamination rules, know-
Table 7 ledge representation, adaptive systems, air pollution control,
Modeling and their applications building architecture design, agricultural decision support,
Modeling/applications Authors industry simulation, and knowledge engineering on the
WWW platform. The methodology of IAs together with
Process control
Medical analysis Peng, Xiao, Nie, Wang, and Wang their applications is categorized in Table 9.
(1996)
Management decision-making Mookerjee and Mannino (1997)
Software evaluation Vlahavas, Stamelos, Refanidis, and
11. Ontology and their applications
Tsoukias (1999)
Medical system validation Martin-Baramera et al. (2000)
Assembly task planning and Zha and Lim (2000) Ontology is a system of vocabulary, which is used as a
simulation fundamental concept for describing the task/domain know-
Endometrial hyperplasia classi- Morrison et al. (2002) ledge to be identified. This vocabulary is used as a
fication
communication basis between domain experts and know-
Transport terminal design Abacoumkin and Ballis (2004)
Project allocation Cheung, Hong, and Ang (2004) ledge engineers. Accordingly, a reusable task/domain model
can be represented and a computer program code is
98 S.-H. Liao / Expert Systems with Applications 28 (2005) 93–103

Table 9 Table 11
Intelligent agents and their applications Database methodology and their applications

Intelligent agents/applications Authors Database methodology/ Authors

applications
Tutoring systems Cruces and Arriaga (2000)
Supply chain Gjerdrum, Shah, and Papageorgiou Power system planning Park and Lee (1995)
(2001) Geography planning Kirkby (1996)
System analysis and design Gruer, Hilaire, Koukam, and Cet- Geographical information Filis, Sabrakos, Yialouris, Sideridis,
narowicz (2002) system and Mahaman (2003)
Electronic service maintenance Yu, Iung, and Panetto (2003) Sedimentary rock interpretation Abel, Silva, Ros, Mastella, and Camp-
Carbon contamination rules Vegh (2003) bell (2004)
Knowledge representation Qian, Li, Jiang, and Wen (2003) Traditional Chinese medicine Wang et al. (2004)
Industry simulation Aldea et al. (2004) diagnosis
Adaptive systems Juuso (2004) Medical expert system Yan et al. (2004)
Air pollution control Zhou, Huang, and Chan (2004)
Building architecture design Alibaba and Ozdeniz (2004)
Olive oil automation Bonstre et al. (2004) knowledge from large databases, such as data mining and
Agricultural decision support Thomson and Willoughby (2004) searching approach.
Knowledge engineering on the Shaalan, EI-Badry, and Rafea Some applications implemented by database method-
WWW platform (2004)
ology present as the following: power system planning,
geography planning, geographical information system,
generated in that ontology for knowledge acquisition, reuse, sedimentary rock interpretation, traditional Chinese medi-
heuristic learning. cine diagnosis, and medical ES. The methodology of
Some applications implemented by ontology include the database methodology and their applications are categor-
following: medical decision support, knowledge reuse, ized in Table 11.
preventive control, landscape assessment, knowledge
acquisition, and chess heuristic pruning. These ontology
and their applications are categorized in Table 10.
13. Discussions, limitations, and suggestions

13.1. Discussions
12. Database methodology and their applications
ES methodologies and applications are a broad category
A database is a collection of data organized to efficiently of research issues on ES Some specific methodologies and
serve many applications by centralizing the data and methods are presented as examples for exploring the
minimizing redundant data (McFadden, Hoffer, & Prescott, suggestions and solutions to specific ES problem domains.
2000). A DBMS is the software that permits an organization Therefore, methodologies and applications of ES are
to centralize data, manage them efficiently, and provide attracting much attention and efforts, both academic and
access to the stored data by application programs (Laudon & practical. From this literature review, we can see that ES
Laudon, 2002). However, some large databases make methodologies and applications developments are diversi-
knowledge discovery computationally expensive because fied due to their authors’ backgrounds, expertise, and
some domains or background knowledge, hidden in the problem domains. This is why some authors can appear in
database may guide and restrict the search for important the literature on different methodologies and applications.
knowledge. Therefore, modern database methodologies On the other hand, some methodologies have common
need to process large volumes, multiple hierarchies, and concepts, and types of methodology. For example, rule-
different data formats to discover in-depth expert based systems and knowledge-based systems, or fuzzy logic
versus ANN methodology. However, a few authors work in
Table 10
Ontology and their applications different methodologies and applications. This indicates that
the trend of development on methodology is also diversified
Ontology/applications Authors
due to author’s research interests and abilities in the
Medical decision support Tu, Eriksson, Gennari, Shahar, and Musen methodology and problem domain. This may indicate that
(1995) the development of ES methodologies is directed toward
Knowledge reuse Takaoka and Mizoguchi (1996)
Preventive control Thukaram and Parthasarathy (1997)
expertise orientation.
Landscape assessment Martinez-Bejar, Ibanez-Cruz, Compton, and Furthermore, some applications have a high degree of
Cao (2001) overlap in different methodologies. For example,
Knowledge acquisition Ruiz-Sanchez, Valencia-Garcia, Fernandez- teaching/ training, knowledge acquisition, knowledge
Breis, Martinez-Bejar, and Compton (2003) representation, knowledge learning, fault diagnosis/detec-
Chess heuristic pruning Montani and Bellazzi (2002)
Knowledge modelling Gardan and Gardan 2(003)
tion, medical applications, production planning, system
design/development, modeling, process control, decision
 S.-H. Liao / Expert Systems with Applications 28 (2005) 93–103 99

making, waste treatment, resource management, biomedical the development of ES methodologies and applications. We
application, robotic systems, forecasting, ecological plan- believe that ES methodologies and applications in addition
ning, agriculture planning, geoscience, power system to those discussed in this article have also been developed
planning, chemical application, industry planning, manage- and published in other areas and languages.
ment issues, and knowledge reuse, are all topics of different
methodologies, which implement ES in a common problem 13.3. Suggestions
domain. This indicates that those applications are the major
trend of ES development, and many methodologies focus on (1) Other social science methodologies. In this article, the
these problems. This may direct development of ES definition of ES methodology is not complete because
applications toward problem domain orientation. other methodologies, such as social science method-
In this paper, most of the articles discussed were from ologies, were not included in the survey. However,
different categories including agriculture, agronomy, auto- qualitative questionnaires and statistical methods are
mation, biochemistry, biology, chemistry, computer another research technology to solve problems in social
science, biology, ecology, education, energy, engineering, studies. For example, cognitive science, psychology and
entomology, environmental sciences, genetics, geochemis- human behavior are used to implement different
try, geology, geosciences, health care sciences, hematology, methods for exploring specific human expert problem.
hydrology, materials, mathematics, mechanics, medical, Therefore, other social sciences methodologies may
military, operation research/management sciences, onto- include ES methodology categories in future works.
logy, plant science, remote sensing, robotics, and water (2) Integration of methodologies. ES is an interdisciplinary
resources, which retrieved from Elsevier SDOS, IEEE research topic. Thus, future ES developments need
Xplore, EBSCO (electronic journal service), Ingenta, and integration with different methodologies, and this
Wiley InterScience online database. We do not conclude integration of methodologies and cross-interdisciplin-
that ES methodologies and applications are not developed in ary research may offer more technologies to investigate
other science fields. However, we would like to see more ES ES problems.
methodologies and applications of different research fields (3) Change is a source of future ES development. The
published in order to broaden our horizon of academic and change due to social and technical reasons may either
practice works on ES. enable or inhibit ES methodologies and application
development. This means that inertia, stemming from
13.2. Limitations the use of routine problem solving procedures, stagnant
knowledge sources, and following past experience or
Firstly, a literature review for the broad category of ES knowledge may impede changes in terms of learning
methodologies and applications is a difficult task due to the and innovation for individuals and organizations.
extensive background knowledge needed for collecting, Therefore, to continue creating, sharing, learning, and
studying, and classifying these articles. Although limited in storing knowledge on different methodologies and
background knowledge, this paper makes a brief literature application domains may also become a source of ES
review of ES from 1995 to 2004 in order to explore how ES development.
methodologies and applications have developed in this
period. Indeed, the categorization of methodologies and
their applications is based on the keyword index and article
abstract in this research. Some other articles may have
implemented similar ES methodologies in their applications 14. Conclusions
without an ES index, so this paper might not find these
reference sources. Therefore, the first limitation of this This paper is based on a literature review of ES
article is the author’s limited knowledge in presenting an methodologies and applications from 1995 to 2004 using a
overall picture of this subject. keyword index and article title search. We conclude that ES
Secondly, although 166 articles from 78 academic methodologies are tending to develop towards expertise
journals (five online databases) cited in this paper, there orientation and that ES applications development is a
are other academic journals listed in the science citation problem-oriented domain. It is suggested that different
index (SCI) engineering index (EI), and the social science social science methodologies, such as psychology, cognitive
citation index (SSCI), as well as other academic journals/ science, and human behavior could implement ES as
magazines, practical articles and reports are not included in another kind of methodology. Integration of qualitative,
this survey. These would have provided more complete quantitative and scientific methods and integration of ES
information to explore the development of ES methodo- methodologies studies may broaden our horizon on this
logies and applications. subject. Finally, the ability to continually change and obtain
Thirdly, non-English publications are not considered in new understanding is the power of ES methodologies, and
this survey to determine the effects of different cultures on will be the ES application of future works.
100 S.-H. Liao / Expert Systems with Applications 28 (2005) 93–103

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