Forklift Battery Basics

This material is a compendium of information from Power Designers USA LLC,

Battery Council International, and Battery University
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 Battery Functions in Different Applications
Why we are here

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 Battery Capacity
Nameplates and Decoding
Battery Nameplates provide information on the number of cells, the plate design capacity, and the number of plates.
These are separated by a dash and examples are 12-85-13, or 18-125-15, or 24-125-15
The first number tells us how many cells in series
The second number is the plate design capacity
The third number represents the number of plates in each cell, and is always odd
To decode the battery voltage and rated capacity is simple
Take the number of cells times 2 to get voltage
12 cells = 24 volts
18 cells = 36 volts
24 cells = 48 volts
36 cells = 72 volts
40 cells = 80 volts
Take the number of plates, subtract 1 and then divide by 2
13 plates becomes a multiplier of 6 (13-1)/2
15 plates becomes a multiplier of 7 (15-1)/2
Take the plate capacity times the multiplier to get rated ampere hour capacity
85*6 = 510 Ahr
125*7 = 875 Ahr
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 Battery Capacity
Nameplates
A Short Quiz
What is the voltage and nameplate capacity of an 18-125-15 battery?
36 volt 875 Ahr
Here are the steps for review
18*2=36
15-1=14
14/2=7
7*125=875

Let’s try one more, what is the voltage and nameplate capacity of an 12-85-13 battery?
24 volt 510 Ahr
Here are the steps for review
12*2=24
13-1=12
12/2=6
6*85=510

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 Battery Capacity
Usable Capacity
Usable Capacity for lead acid batteries is defined as the batteries ability to produce the rated number of ampere
hours when discharged at a constant current equal to 16 percent of the nameplate rating for a 6 hour period.
Full capacity for a lead acid battery is achieved by applying a charge, followed by a discharge and recharge. The
factory begins the process, which is completed in the field as part of regular use. Lead acid typically reaches the
full capacity potential after 50 to 100 cycles.

The Battery NOTE: A New Truck and

manufacturer Battery may initially not
typically delivers a have the performance
battery needing
and run time expected
only a few cycles to
due to the battery not
achieve full capacity
being fully formed

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 Battery Capacity
Life Cycle

Conventionally Charged Batteries have a life cycle of approximately 5 years based on single shift use
of the battery. That is 1 discharge of 80% of the battery nameplate capacity; and 1 charge cycle using
a charging current equal to 15% to 17% of battery nameplate capacity, returning slightly over 100% of
the nameplate capacity; in a 24 hour period, or approximately 1825 cycles. This is dependent on
proper battery care.
With some degraded capacity a lifetime of 8 to 10 years is possible.

Opportunity and Fast charged batteries have a life cycle of approximately 3 to 5 years. In this instance
a single battery replaces 2 or 3 batteries that are conventionally charged and used. To obtain this 3 to
5 year life care must be taken to provide the battery with a finish and equalize charge cycle on a once
a week basis. More to follow on this topic when we talk charging.

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 Battery Capacity
Degradation Over the Life Cycle
All batteries degrade with time the key to prolonged life is proper care!

We’ll say that again the key to prolonged life is proper care!
To keep lead acid in good condition, apply a fully saturated charge lasting 14 to 16 hours including
finish and equalize once a week.
If the weekly charge cycle does not allow this, give the battery a fully saturated charge once every
few weeks, or risk degraded performance.
+ If at all possible, operate at moderate temperature
+ Avoid deep discharges
+ Store only in a charged condition

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 Battery Capacity
Self Discharge
Batteries self discharge, as the conversion from Sulfuric Acid to Water continues even when no load is applied
to the battery. Lead is converted on a plate to Lead Sulfate as part of this process.
Self-discharge is not a manufacturing defect but a battery characteristic; although poor fabrication practices
and improper handling can increase the problem.

Self discharge can be thought of as energy leaking from your battery. Lead Acid
batteries leak about 5% of capacity per month.
The self-discharge of all battery chemistries increases at higher temperatures, and the
rate typically doubles with every 10°C (18°F). Store batteries cool when possible!
High cycle count and aging also increase self-discharge of all batteries.
Older batteries leak more energy in the form of self discharge.

A short quiz to review

Why is it important to store your batteries charged? Why is it important to store your batteries cool?
They self discharge! Self discharge increases with temperature.

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 Battery Care
Chemistry a Brief View

Batteries use a chemical reaction to produce

a voltage between their output terminals.
The reaction of lead and lead oxide with the
sulfuric acid electrolyte produces a voltage.
Supplying energy to an external load
discharges the battery. Charging the battery
reverses the reaction.

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 Battery Care
Specific Gravity
Specific Gravity in batteries is a measurement of the relative density or weight of the electrolyte compared to water.
The Hydrometer is a tool that measures specific gravity. Here is how it works: When a lead acid battery accepts a
charge, the ratio of sulfuric acid to water increases, and the electrolyte gets heavier, and specific gravity increases.

The table values represent a rested cool battery

Approximate state-of-charge Average specific gravity Open circuit voltage

100% 1.265 2.10

75% 1.225 2.08

50% 1.190 2.04

25% 1.155 2.01

0% 1.120 1.98

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 Battery Care
Watering
Outside of charging, Watering is the single most important step in maintaining a flooded lead acid
battery; a requirement that is all too often neglected. The frequency of watering depends on usage,
charge method and operating temperature. Over-charging also leads to water consumption.
+ All batteries should be checked every week after the equalization charge and cool down; then
water added. This assures that the top of the plates are never exposed. A naked plate will sustain
irreversible damage through oxidation, allowing lead sulfate to harden and leading to reduced
capacity and lower performance.
+ A battery should only be watered when fully charged to prevent diluting the electrolyte.
+ Water should only be added to a depth of approximately ¼ inch above the moss plate. In practice
a lot of battery technicians, approximate this to one-half the distance between the moss plate
and the bottom of the fill neck.
+ Automatic watering systems will best insure proper electrolyte level.

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 Battery Care
Stratification and Acid Addition
In normal use the electrolyte is evenly distributed. After prolonged storage the sulfuric acid will settle to the
bottom of the plates. Charging at a low current will cause the electrolyte to mix and evenly distribute.
Normal Electrolyte Distribution Stratified Electrolyte Distribution
Water and acid is evenly mixed Acid has settled, concentrating at the bottom

The electrolyte of a stratified battery concentrates at the bottom, starving the upper half of the cell. Acid
stratification occurs if the battery dwells at low charge below 80 percent.

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 Battery Care
Simple Guide to Battery Care and Life
+ When conventionally charging, allow a fully saturated charge of 14–16 hours, including an equalize charge once a
week.
+ For opportunity or fast charging, finish and equalize charge once a week to restore capacity and specific gravity
when, adding 6 to 12 hours to the cycle
+ Charge in a well-ventilated area.
+ Always keep a lead acid battery charged.
+ Avoid storage below 2.07V/cell or at a specific gravity level below 1.190.
+ Avoid deep discharges.
• The deeper the discharge, the shorter the battery life will be.
• A brief charge on a 1–2 hour break during heavy use prolongs battery life when conventionally charging
• A brief charge on every 10 minute or more break, is essential when opportunity or fast charging

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 Battery Care
Simple Guide to Battery Care and Life Continued
+ Never allow the electrolyte to drop below the tops of the plates.
• Exposed plates sulfate and become inactive.
• When low, add only enough water to cover the exposed plates before charging.
+ Always fill to the correct level after charge, approximately ¼” above the moss plate, check with the battery
manufacturer for specific depths.
+ Never add acid, unless attempting to repair or recover a bad cell
• This would raise the specific gravity too high causing excessive corrosion and sulfation.
+ When watering use distilled or deionized water.
• Tap water may be usable in some regions.

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 Battery Charging
Charge Curve

Charging a battery consists of several modes.

Trickle is used when a battery is overly discharged, the
output current is 3% of rated capacity, this restores the
battery to the level where it can accept charge at a
higher rate.
Constant Current is used to charge the battery from 20%
of capacity to 80% of capacity. The output current is 16%
to 17% of rated capacity for conventional charging, 25%
for opportunity charging, and 40% for fast charging.

Constant Voltage is used to fill the battery from 80% of capacity to >95% of capacity. The desired voltage is set and
current is allowed to decrease as the battery nears the full capacity state.
Finish has an output current of 3% to 5% of rated capacity to bring the battery to 100% of capacity.
Equalize has an output current of 3% of rated capacity and is used to force additional conversion of lead sulfate and
lead oxide to sulfuric acid, raising gravity and insuring full capacity is available

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 Battery Charging
Recovery Charging Cycle
A unique feature of all Power Designers chargers is the Battery Recovery /
Desulfation Cycle. While trickle charging allows an over discharged battery, in most
cases, to charge to a state where faster charging is possible, a more tailored
approach is needed for soft sulfated batteries and batteries that are unable to reach
full specific gravity when charged.

+ Battery Recovery / Desulfation Cycle is an extended period of a constant low output current over
a period of 6 to 18 hours

+ The Battery Recovery / Desulfation Cycle is programmed from the front panel and can be run on
demand as needed

+ In general use of the Battery Recovery / Desulfation Cycle will increase specific gravity by 0.010
to 0.012, this is an increase of 5% to 10% in capacity over an unrecovered battery

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 Battery Charging
Conventional Charging
Conventional charging
+ more than one battery is available per truck, typically one battery for each shift of operation
+ constant current rate of 16% to 17% of rated battery capacity
+ always brings the battery to full capacity by providing a finish charge
+ requires weekly equalization
+ lowest temperature of the charging types
+ centralized charging, all chargers in a single location
+ requires the greatest labor of the charging types, it requires changing the battery in and out of
the charging station; and in and out of the truck, taking up to 15 minutes per change
+ is the least environmentally friendly of the charging types, requiring the greatest number of
batteries to be present. Each battery adds lead and acid to the facility both of which are
considered to be environmental and health concerns

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 Battery Charging
Opportunity and Fast Charging
Opportunity and Fast charging
+ are a variation on the same theme, higher constant current rate than conventional

+ Opportunity charging typically uses a constant current rate of 25% of battery nameplate capacity
+ Fast charging typically uses a constant current rate of 40% of battery nameplate capacity
+ is used only when only one battery is available per truck.

+ maintains the battery between 20% ad 80% state of charge by charging on every scheduled break

+ is point of use charging, chargers are distributed throughout the facility

+ requires analysis ahead of installation to determine

+ how much capacity is used per day relative to battery capacity

+ how much charging time is available, essentially can I replace what was removed

+ is time available during the week or weekend to finish and equalize

+ results in higher battery temperature, as the increased current contributes to resistive heating

+ temperature feedback, for monitoring, is required for fast charging

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 Battery Charging
Opportunity and Fast Charging
Opportunity and Fast charging
+ means fewer batteries, less lead and less acid, and is more environmentally friendly

+ eliminates the labor to change batteries

+ requires disciplined truck operators to make sure charging happens on every break

+ requires down time once a week to finish and equalize charge, more on this in the next slide

+ Fast charging requires a battery designed with thicker connectors between the cells to reduce
resistance and heating

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 Battery Charging
Opportunity and Fast Charging Finish and Equalize
Opportunity and Fast charging require a finish charge once a week
Finish has an output current of 3% to 5% of rated capacity to bring the battery to 100% of
capacity.
+ Finish charging more than once a week can increase gas production and loss of electrolyte
+ Chargers can be programmed to finish charge at the end of the last shift of the day, the
battery is fully charged and cool by morning

Opportunity and Fast charging require an equalize cycle once a week

Equalize has an output current of 3% of rated capacity and is used to force additional
conversion of lead sulfate and lead oxide to sulfuric acid, raising gravity and insuring full
capacity is available
+ Equalize cycling more than once a week increase gas production and loss of electrolyte
+ Equalize cycling is needed to restore capacity and gravity
+ Water levels should always be checked after an equalize cycle and water added if low

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 Battery Sulfation
Causes and Cures
Soft Sulfation occurs each time a battery is discharged and is a normal part of battery operation
Negative plate reaction Positive plate reaction
Pb(s) + HSO4(aq) → PbSO4(s) + H+(aq) + 2e− PbO2(s) + HSO4(aq) + 3H+(aq) + 2e− → PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
This soft sulfation reaction is reversible when the battery is charged

Hard Sulfation occurs when the soft sulfation hardens due to

+ Excessive discharge
+ Storage in a discharged state
+ Acid addition drives sulfation that cannot be recovered during charge
+ Plates are exposed due to low water allowing the crystal to solidify

A unique feature of ALL Power Designers chargers is the Battery Recovery / Desulfation Cycle

Power Designers also offers a Battery Cycler that allows

+ Battery capacity testing
+ Automated battery cycling to break sulfation; recover capacity and gravity

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 Battery Quiz with Answers
What are the three most important thing to insure battery life?
1. Keep the Battery charged
2. Keep the battery watered
3. Keep the battery cool
What is are the 5 parts of a charge cycle?
HINT Here is the curve
1. Trickle
2. Constant Current
3. Constant Voltage
4. Finish
5. Equalize
Conventionally charged batteries typically last?
5 years
Sulfation naturally occurs when the battery is charged or discharged?
Discharged
What charging feature is common to all Power Designers chargers
The Recovery / Desulfation cycle

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 Thank You
On Behalf of
Power Designers
For Your
Participation
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 Additional Slides with Detail on
Chemistry in Case of Questions

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 Battery Care
Chemistry a Brief View
Batteries use a chemical reaction to produce a voltage between their output terminals. The reaction of lead and lead
oxide with the sulfuric acid electrolyte produces a voltage. Supplying of energy to an external load discharges the
battery. Charging the battery reverses the reaction.
Discharge
Negative plate reaction Positive plate reaction
Pb(s) + HSO4(aq) → PbSO4(s) + H+(aq) + 2e− PbO2(s) + HSO4(aq) + 3H+(aq) + 2e− → PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
Charge
Negative plate reaction Positive plate reaction
PbSO4(s) + H+(aq) + 2e− → Pb(s) + HSO4(aq) PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l) → PbO2(s) + HSO4(aq) + 3H+(aq) + 2e−

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 Battery Care
Stratification and Acid Addition
In normal use the electrolyte is evenly distributed, after prolonged storage the sulfuric acid will settle to the bottom
of the plates. Charging at a low current will cause the electrolyte to mix and evenly distribute
Normal Electrolyte Distribution Stratified Electrolyte Distribution
Water and acid is evenly mixed Acid has settled, concentrating at the bottom

Stratification can produce false low specific gravity readings. The electrolyte of a stratified battery concentrates at
the bottom, starving the upper half of the cell. Acid stratification occurs if the battery dwells at low charge (below 80
percent), never receives a full charge and has shallow discharges. Adding acid to a battery especially if performed on
a discharged or stratified battery reduces battery life.
Excessive acid concentration, forces more lead sulfate to form on the plates reducing capacity and promoting hard
sulfation. Excess acid promotes corrosion of the plates and the connections inside the battery.

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 Battery Care
Specific Gravity
Specific Gravity in batteries is a measurement of the relative density or weight of the electrolyte compared to
water. When a battery is charged lead sulfate on the negative plate is converted to lead and sulfuric acid, lead
sulfate on the positive plate is converted to lead oxide and sulfuric acid. Both these reactions convert the water
in the electrolyte that was part of the original mixture and that created during discharge.
The Hydrometer is a tool that measures specific gravity. Here is how it works: When the lead acid battery accepts
charge, the sulfuric acid gets heavier, causing the specific gravity to increase. As the SoC decreases through
discharge, the sulfuric acid is removed from the electrolyte, binds to the plate, forming lead sulfate, water is
produced. The density of the electrolyte becomes lighter and more water-like, and the specific gravity gets lower.
The table values represent a rested cool battery

Approximate state-of-charge Average specific gravity Open circuit voltage

100% 1.265 2.10
75% 1.225 2.08
50% 1.190 2.04
25% 1.155 2.01
0% 1.120 1.98

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