Introduction to Southeast Asia ranges.

These fertile plains are highly suited to rice-

growing ethnic groups, such as the Thais, the Burmese,
History, Geography, and Livelihood and the Vietnamese, who developed settled cultures
that eventually provided the basis for modern states. The
by Barbara Watson Andaya highlands were occupied by tribal groups, who displayed
their sense of identity through distinctive styles in
Southeast Asia consists of eleven countries that reach clothing, jewelry, and hairstyles. A third feature of
from eastern India to China, and is generally divided into mainland Southeast Asia is the long coastline. Despite a
“mainland” and “island” zones. The mainland (Burma, strong agrarian base, the communities that developed in
Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam) is actually an these regions were also part of the maritime trading
extension of the Asian continent. Muslims can be found network that linked Southeast Asia to India and to China.
in all mainland countries, but the most significant
populations are in southern Thailand and western Burma The islands of maritime Southeast Asia can range from
(Arakan). The Cham people of central Vietnam and the very large (for instance, Borneo, Sumatra, Java,
Cambodia are also Muslim. Luzon) to tiny pinpoints on the map (Indonesia is said to
comprise 17,000 islands). Because the interior of these
Island or maritime Southeast Asia includes Malaysia, islands were jungle clad and frequently dissected by
Singapore, Indonesia, the Philippines, Brunei, and the highlands, land travel was never easy. Southeast Asians
new nation of East Timor (formerly part of Indonesia). found it easier to move by boat between different areas,
Islam is the state religion in Malaysia and Brunei. and it is often said that the land divides and the sea
Although 85 percent of Indonesia’s population of over unites. The oceans that connected coasts and
234,000,000 are Muslims, a larger number than any neighboring islands created smaller zones where people
other country in the world, Islam is not the official state shared similar languages and were exposed to the same
religion. Muslims are a minority in Singapore and the religious and cultural influences. The modern borders
southern Philippines. created by colonial powers—for instance, between
Malaysia and Indonesia—do not reflect logical cultural
Geography, Environment, and Cultural Zones divisions.

Virtually all of Southeast Asia lies between the tropics, A second feature of maritime Southeast Asia is the seas
and so there are similarities in climate as well as plant themselves. Apart from a few deep underwater
and animal life throughout the region. Temperatures are trenches, the oceans are shallow, which means they are
generally warm, although it is cooler in highland areas. rather warm and not very saline. This is an ideal
Many sea and jungle products are unique to the region, environment for fish, coral, seaweeds, and other
and were therefore much desired by international products. Though the seas in some areas are rough, the
traders in early times. For example, several small islands region as a whole, except for the Philippines, is generally
in eastern Indonesia were once the world’s only source free of hurricanes and typhoons. However, there are
of cloves, nutmeg, and mace. The entire region is many active volcanoes and the island world is very
affected by the monsoon winds, which blow regularly vulnerable to earthquake activity.
from the northwest and then reverse to blow from the
southeast. These wind systems bring fairly predictable
rainy seasons, and before steamships were invented,
these wind systems also enabled traders from outside Lifestyle, Livelihood, and Subsistence
the region to arrive and leave at regular intervals.
Because of this reliable wind pattern, Southeast Asia A distinctive feature of Southeast Asia is its cultural
became a meeting place for trade between India and diversity. Of the six thousand languages spoken in the
China, the two great markets of early Asia. world today, an estimated thousand are found in
Southeast Asia. Archeological evidence dates human
There are some differences in the physical environment habitation of Southeast Asia to around a million years
of mainland and island Southeast Asia. The first feature ago, but migration into the region also has a long history.
of mainland geography is the long rivers that begin in the In early times tribal groups from southern China moved
highlands separating Southeast Asia from China and into the interior areas of the mainland via the long river
northwest India. A second feature is the extensive systems. Linguistically, the mainland is divided into three
lowland plains separated by forested hills and mountain important families, the Austro-Asiatic (like Cambodian
and Vietnamese), Tai (like Thai and Lao), and the Tibeto- Buddhism promoted a culture which combined imported
Burmese (including highland languages as well as ideas with aspects of local society.
Burmese). Languages belonging to these families can
also be found in northeastern India and southwestern Differences in the physical environment affected the
China. political structures that developed in Southeast Asia.
When people were nomadic or semi-nomadic, it was
Around four thousand years ago people speaking difficult to construct a permanent governing system with
languages belonging to the Austronesian family stable bureaucracies and a reliable tax base. This type of
(originating in southern China and Taiwan) began to state only developed in areas where there was a settled
trickle into island Southeast Asia. In the Philippines and population, like the large rice-growing plains of the
the Malay-Indonesian archipelago this migration mainland and Java. However, even the most powerful of
displaced or absorbed the original inhabitants, who may these states found it difficult to extend their authority
have been related to groups in Australia and New into remote highlands and islands.
Guinea. Almost all the languages spoken in insular
Southeast Asia today belong to the Austronesian family.

A remarkable feature of Southeast Asia is the different The Arrival of Islam in Southeast Asia
ways people have adapted to local environments. In
premodern times many nomadic groups lived Islamic teachings began to spread in Southeast Asia from
permanently in small boats and were known as orang around the thirteenth century. Islam teaches the
laut, or sea people. The deep jungles were home to oneness of God (known to Muslims as Allah), who has
numerous small wandering groups, and interior tribes revealed his message through a succession of prophets
also included fierce headhunters. In some of the islands and finally through Muhammad (ca. 570-632 CE). The
of eastern Indonesia, where there is a long dry season, basic teachings of Islam are contained in the Qur’an
the fruit of the lontar palm was a staple food; in other (Koran), the revelation of Allah’s will to Muhammad, and
areas, it was sago. On the fertile plans of Java and in the hadith, reports of Muhammad’s statements or
mainland Southeast Asia sedentary communities grew deeds. There are several specific requirements of a
irrigated rice; along the coasts, which were less suitable Muslim, which are known as the “Five Pillars”. These are:
for agriculture because of mangrove swamps, fishing and 1) the confession of faith. “I testify that there is no god
trade were the principal occupations. Due to a number but Allah and Muhammad is his Prophet”; 2) prayers five
of factors—low populations, the late arrival of the world times a day, at daybreak, noon, afternoon, after sunset
religions, a lack of urbanization, descent through both and early evening; 3) fasting between sunrise and sunset
male and female lines—women in Southeast Asia are in the month of Ramadan, the ninth month of the lunar
generally seen as more equal to men that in neighboring year; 4) pilgrimage to Mecca (in modern Saudi Arabia), or
areas like China and India. hajj, at least once in a lifetime if possible; and 5) payment
of ¼º of income as alms, in addition to voluntary
Cultural changes began to affect Southeast Asia around donations. There are no priests in Islam, but there are
two thousand years ago with influences coming from two many learned teachers, known as ‘ulama, who interpret
directions. Chinese expansion south of the Yangtze River Islamic teachings according to the writings and
eventually led to the colonization of Vietnam. Chinese commentaries of scholars in the past, and the teachings
control was permanently ended in 1427, but Confucian of the four schools of law practiced within the majority
philosophy had a lasting influence when Vietnam Sunni tradition. Sunni Muslims, who comprise about 85
became independent. Buddhism and Taoism also percent of all Muslims, recognize the leadership of the
reached Vietnam via China. In the rest of mainland first four Caliphs and do not attribute any special
Southeast Asia, and in the western areas of the Malay- religious or political position to descendants of the
Indonesian archipelago, expanding trade across the Bay Prophet’s son-in-law Ali.
of Bengal meant Indian influences were more
pronounced. These influences were most obvious when After the Prophet’s death, Islam continued to expand. At
large sedentary populations were engaged in growing the height of its power between the eighth and fifteenth
irrigated rice, like northern Vietnam, Cambodia, centuries, a united Muslim Empire included all North
Thailand, Burma, Java, and Bali. Rulers and courts in Africa, Sicily, Egypt, Syria, Turkey, western Arabia, and
these areas who adopted Hinduism or forms of southern Spain. From the tenth century CE Islam was
subsequently brought to India by a similar moment of
conquest and conversion, and its dominant political
position was confirmed when the Mughal dynasty was
established in the sixteenth century. Change over Time

The chronology of Islam’s arrival in Southeast Asia is not Islam’s success was primarily due to a process that
known exactly. From at least the tenth century, Muslims historians term “localization,” by which Islamic teachings
were among the many foreigners trading in Southeast were often adapted in ways that avoided avoid major
Asia, and a few individuals from Southeast Asia traveled conflicts with existing attitudes and customs. Local
to the Middle East for study. In the early stages of heroes often became Islamic saints, and their graves
conversion, trade passing from Yemen and the Swahili were venerated places at which to worship. Some
coast across to the Malabar Coast and then the Bay of aspects of mystical Islam resembled pre-Islamic beliefs,
Bengal was also influential, as well as the growing notably on Java. Cultural practices like cockfighting and
connections with Muslims in China and India. Muslim gambling continued, and spirit propitiation remained
traders from western China also settled in coastal towns central in the lives of most Muslims, despite Islam’s
on the Chinese coast, and Chinese Muslims developed condemnation of polytheism. Women never adopted the
important links with communities in central Vietnam, full face veil, and the custom of taking more than one
Borneo, the southern Philippines, and the Javanese wife was limited to wealthy elites. Law codes based on
coast. Muslim traders from various parts of India (e.g. Islam usually made adjustments to fit local customs.
Bengal, Gujarat, Malabar) came to Southeast Asia in
large numbers and they, too, provided a vehicle for the The changes that Islam introduced were often most
spread of Islamic ideas. visible in people’s ordinary lives. Pork was forbidden to
Muslims, a significant development in areas like eastern
As a result of its multiple origins, the Islam that reached Indonesia and the southern Philippines where it had long
Southeast Asia was very varied. The normal pattern was been a ritual food. A Muslim could often be recognized
for a ruler or chief to adopt Islam—sometimes because by a different dress style, like chest covering for women.
of a desire to attract traders, or to be associated with Male circumcision became an important rite of passage.
powerful Muslim kingdoms like Mamluk Egypt, and then Muslims in urban centers acquired more access to
Ottoman Turkey and Mughal India, or because of the education, and Qur’anic schools became a significant
attraction of Muslim teaching. Mystical Islam (Sufism), focus of religious identity.
which aimed at direct contact with Allah with the help of
a teacher using techniques such as meditation and Reforming tendencies gained strength in the early
trance, was very appealing. nineteenth century when a group known as the
Wahhabis captured Mecca. The Wahhabis demanded a
The first confirmed mention of a Muslim community stricter observance of Islamic law. Although their appeal
came from Marco Polo, the well-known traveler, who was limited in Southeast Asia, some people were
stopped in north Sumatra in 1292. Inscriptions and attracted to Wahhabi styles of teaching. There was a
graves with Muslim dates have been located in others growing feeling that greater observance of Islamic
coastal areas along the trade routes. A major doctrine might help Muslims resist the growing power of
development was the decision of the ruler of Melaka, on Europeans. Muslim leaders were often prominent in
the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, to adopt Islam anti-colonial movements, especially in Indonesia.
around 1430. Melaka was a key trading center, and the However, the influence of modernist Islamic thinking
Malay language, spoken in the Malay Peninsula and east that developed in Egypt meant educated Muslims in
Sumatra, was used as a lingua franca in trading ports Southeast Asia also began to think about reforming Islam
throughout the Malay-Indonesian archipelago. Malay is as a way of answering the Western challenge. These
not a difficult language to learn, and it was already reform-minded Muslims were often impatient with rural
understood by many people along the trade routes that communities or “traditionalists” who maintained older
linked the island world. Muslim teachers therefore had a pre-Islamic customs. Europeans eventually colonized all
common language through which they could Southeast Asia except for Thailand. Malaya, Burma,
communicate new concepts through oral presentations Singapore, and western Borneo were under the British;
and written texts. A modified Arabic script displaced the the Dutch claimed the Indonesian archipelago; Laos,
previous Malay script. Arabic words were incorporated Cambodia, and Vietnam were French colonies; East
into Malay, particularly in regard to spiritual beliefs, Timor belonged to Portugal; and the Spanish, and later
social practices, and political life. the Americans, controlled the Philippines.
After these countries gained their independence speak many unrelated languages employing a
following World War II, the major question for politically number of alphabets. Several sects of Buddhism,
active Muslims has concerned the relationship between Islam, and Christianity are widespread; other
Islam and the state. In countries where Muslims are in a religions, such as Hinduism, also have hundreds of
minority (like Thailand and the Philippines) this thousands of followers. At the same time, some
relationship is still causing tension. In Malaysia, Muslims have suggested that there are traits common to
are only around 55 percent of the population and there the cultures of Southeast Asia. Among these are
must be significant adjustments with the largest non- the relatively high status of women, a tendency to
place sacred sites on hills or mountains, and myths
Muslim group, the Chinese. In Indonesia, Muslims are
involving oppositions between beings associated
engaged in a continuing debate about different ways of with the sky or mountains and those associated
observing the faith, and hether Islam should assume a with the waters or coasts.
greater role in government.

Strengths
INTRODUCTION TO SOUTHEAST ASIA: 11
Strengths are internal, positive attributes of your
company. These are things that are within your
COUNTRIES, 620 MILLION PEOPLE!
control.

Weaknesses Southeast Asia consists of 11 countries squeezed

between the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean.
Weaknesses are negative factors that detract from Around 620 million inhabitants make Southeast Asia
your strengths. These are things that you might one of the most populated regions in the world. The
need to improve on to be competitive. Southeast Asian countries in alphabetical order
consist of:
Opportunities
Opportunities are external factors in your business Brunei
environment that are likely to contribute to your A tiny oil-rich sultanate on the island of Borneo.
success. Officially the State of Brunei Darussalam or
the Nation of Brunei, the Abode of Peace. Brunei has
Threats the second highest Human Development Index
Threats are external factors that you have no among the South East Asian countries after
control over. You may want to consider putting in Singapore, and is classified as a Developed Country.
place contingency plans for dealing them if they According to the International Monetary Fund
occur. (IMF), Brunei is ranked 4th in the world by gross
domestic product per capita at purchasing power
parity.
An Introduction to the Geography of Southeast

Only in the past sixty years has “Southeast Asia” Capital: Bandar Seri Begawan
been used to refer to the region comprising
modern-day Burma (Myanmar), Thailand, Laos, Population: 400.000
Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, State religion: Islam
Indonesia, Brunei, and the Philippines. These ten
countries cover an area more than three times that Languages: Bahasa Melayu
of Great Britain, France, and Germany combined,
and they have a population about twice as great. Currency: Brunei Dollar (BND)

These countries have similar warm, wet climates, Cambodia

and they share many trees, flowers, and crops. But Cambodia is home to the Angkor Wat, the world’s
their hilly uplands are quite different from their lush largest religious building. The country is still
river valleys. Also, of course, life in the islands— recovering from decades of war and devastation
dominated as it is by the surrounding sea—is under the Khmer Rouge. Cambodia was colonized by
different from life on the mainland. Culturally, the France in the mid-19th century, and gained
region is extremely diverse. Its peoples independence in 1953. The Vietnam War extended
into Cambodia, giving rise to the Khmer Rouge, resulting in four million casualties as a result of
which took Phnom Penh in 1975. After years of famine and forced labor. Two days after the
isolation, the war-ravaged nation was reunited under surrender of Japan in August 1945, Sukarno, an
the monarchy in 1993. Cambodia is now quickly influential nationalist leader, declared independence
gaining reputation as a tourist destination. and was appointed president. The Netherlands tried
Rebuilding from decades of civil war, Cambodia has to reestablish their rule, and an armed and
seen rapid progress in the economical and human diplomatic struggle ended in December 1949, when in
resource areas. The country has had one of the best the face of international pressure, the Dutch formally
economic records in Asia, with economic growth recognized Indonesian independence. The island of
growing an average 6.0% for the last 10 years. Java is the most densely populated, its large, hectic
cities attracting labor migrants from far and wide.
Bali, the small Hinduistic island to the west of Java, is
the main port of call for most tourists.
Capital: Phnom Penh

Population: 14.8 million

Capital: Jakarta
State religion: Theravada Buddhism
Population: 240 million
Languages: Khmer
State religion: Islam
Currency: Riel (KHR)
Languages: Bahasa Indonesia
East Timor
One of the world’s newest and poorest states, at the Currency: Indonesian Rupiah (RP)
eastern tip of Timor. The country was colonized by
Portugal (in the 16th century), but declared its Laos
independence in 1975. East Timor was subsequently Laos is the forgotten, but growing, country of
invaded by Indonesia, and ruled as Indonesia’s 27th Southeast Asia, landlocked by Cambodia, China,
province until 1999. East Timor is the youngest state Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam. It is a
in Southeast Asia. East Timor became the first new mountainous country that is becoming more and
sovereign state of the 21st century on May 20, 2002. more popular on the backpacker trail. Laos traces its
East Timor is one of the only two Roman Catholic history to the Kingdom which existed from the 14th
Southeast Asian countries, the other being the to the 18th century when it split into three separate
Philippines. The country continues to suffer the kingdoms. In 1893, it became a French protectorate.
aftereffects of a decades-long independence struggle It briefly gained independence in 1945 after Japanese
against Indonesia, which damaged infrastructure and occupation, but returned to French rule until it was
displaced thousands of civilians. granted autonomy in 1949. Laos became independent
in 1953, with a constitutional monarchy under
Sisavang Vong. Shortly after independence, a long
civil war ended the monarchy, when the Communist
Capital: Dili
Pathet Lao movement came to power in 1975.
Population: 1 million

State religion: Roman Catholic

Capital: Vientiane
Languages: Tetum and Portuguese
Population: 7 million
Currency: US Dollar (USD)
State religion: Theravada Buddhism
Indonesia
Languages: Lao
Southeast Asia and the world’s largest archipelago:
Over 240 million Indonesians inhabit over 18.000 Currency: Kip (LAK)
islands, spanning three time zones. 300 languages are
spoken, although the lingua franca Bahasa Indonesia,
is spoken by almost everybody. Indonesia bore the
grunt of over 350 years of colonization by the Dutch. Malaysia
Japanese occupation during World War II ended Malaysia is a multicultural country covering the
Dutch rule, but subsequently took over the reins, skyscrapers of Kuala Lumpur and the jungle
headhunters of Borneo. Malaysia spans a peninsular Population: 60 million
area bordered by Thailand in the north and two
states (Sarawak and Sabah) on the island of Borneo, State religion: Buddhism
which it shares with Brunei and Indonesia. The large
Languages: Burmese
majority of the population (over 20 million) live on
the Peninsula. Malaysia has its origins in the Malay Currency: Kyat (MMK/K)
Kingdoms present in the area which, from the 18th
century, became subject to the British Empire. The
territories on Peninsular Malaysia were first unified
as the Malayan Union in 1946. Malaya was Philippines
restructured as the Federation of Malaya in 1948, This Southeast Asian country is a unique fusion of
and achieved independence on 31 August 1957. the Asian traditions of hierarchy combined with the
Malaya united with Sabah, Sarawak, and Singapore Spanish culture of romance and sophistication. It is
on 16 September 1963, with sibeing added to give the the largest Christian nation in the region with over
new country the name Malaysia. However, less than 7,107 islands and an estimated population of about
two years later in 1965, Singapore was expelled from 94 million people. Its location in the Pacific Ring of
the federation. Since independence, Malaysia has had Fire and its tropical climate make the Philippines
one of the best economic records in Asia, with GDP prone to earthquakes and typhoons but have also
growing an average 6.5% for almost 50 years. endowed the country with natural resources and
made it one of the richest areas of biodiversity in the
world. The Philippines is categorized broadly into
Capital: Kuala Lumpur three main geographical divisions: Luzon, Visayas,
and Mindanao. Its capital city is Manila. Multiple
Population: 28 million ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the
islands. The Philippines were ruled by Spain for over
State religion: Islam
300 years. In the 20th century, the Philippines in
Languages: Bahasa Melayu quick succession went through the Philippine
Revolution which spawned the short-lived First
Currency: Malaysian Ringgit (MYR) Philippine Republic, the Spanish-American War, and
the Philippine–American War. In the aftermath, the
United States emerged as the dominant power. Aside
from the period of Japanese occupation, the United
Myanmar (Burma)
States retained sovereignty over the islands until the
Myanmar/ Burma is the second largest country in
end of World War II when the Philippines gained
Southeast Asia. Burma is probably the least known
independence. Since independence the Philippines
country in Southeast Asia. Thanks to decades of
has had an often tumultuous experience with
military dictatorship it is also the least developed
democracy, with popular “People Power” movements
country with a population of 60 million people.
overthrowing a dictatorship in one instance but also
Burma is home to some of the early civilizations of
underlining the institutional weaknesses of its
Southeast Asia including the Pyu and the Mon. In the
constitutional republic in others.
19th century, following three Anglo-Burmese Wars,
Burma was colonized by Britain. Since independence
in 1948, the country has been in one of the longest Capital: Manila
running civil wars among the country’s myriad
ethnic groups that remains unresolved. From 1962 to Population: 94 million
2011, the country was under military rule. The
military junta was dissolved in 2011 following a Religion: Roman Catholic
general election in 2010 and a civilian government
Languages: Filipino (based on Tagalog) & English
installed. Burma is a resource rich country. However,
since the reformations of 1962, the Burmese economy Currency: Peso (PHP)
has become one of the least developed in the world.
Burma’s GDP stands at $42.953 billion and grows at
an average rate of 2.9% annually.
Singapore
Singapore is a clean and orderly island-city state.
Multicultural shopping paradise & gastronomic
Capital: Naypyidaw/Nay Pyi Taw melting pot offset by stringent rules and regulations.
Made up of 63 islands, Singapore is the smallest economies. One of the more popular tourist
country in Southeast Asia, yet highly urbanized. destinations in the area. Ho Chi Minh, Hanoi,
Population is around 5 million, Chinese, Malay and wondrous scenery at Ha Long bay. Its gruesome past
Tamil are the official languages. Singapore had been is displayed in museums and the countryside.
a part of various local empires since it was first
inhabited in the second century AD. Modern
Singapore was founded as a trading post of the East
Capital: Hanoi
India Company by Sir Stamford Raffles in 1819 with
permission from the Sultanate of Johor. The British Population: 90.5 million
obtained full sovereignty over the island in 1824 and
Singapore became one of the British Straits State religion: none
Settlements in 1826. Singapore was occupied by the
Japanese in World War II and reverted to British Languages: Vietnamese
rule after the war. It became internally self-
governing in 1959. Singapore united with other Currency: Vietnamese Dong (VND)
former British territories to form Malaysia in 1963
and became a fully independent state two years later
after separation from Malaysia.

Capital: Singapore

Population: 5.2 million

Religion: Buddhism, Islam, Christianity, Taoism and

Hinduism.

Languages: English, Malay, Chinese, Tamil

Currency: Singapore Dollar (SGD)

Thailand
Thailand is officially known as the Kingdom of
Thailand, formerly known as Siam. The Land of
Smiles with frenetic cities and chilled-out beaches,
the most popular destination in the region with
probably the most well established tourist
infrastructure. Bangkok is a cosmopolitan city dotted
with temples. The islands in the southeast and west
are proven holidaymakers.

Capital: Bangkok

Population: 64 million

State religion: Buddhism

Languages: Thai

Currency: Thai Baht (TB)

Vietnam
Vietnam is firmly marching down the road to
capitalism as one of the world’s fastest growing