Functions of the integumentary system

 Protection
o Chemical:
 These include skin secretions and melanin
 The low pH of the skin secretions –the so called acid mantle- retards the multiplications of bacteria
 Dermicidin in sweat and bactericidal substances in sebum kill many bacteria outright
 Skin also secretes natural antibiotics called defensin that literally punches holes in bacteria
o Physical:
 The water resisting glycolipids of the epidermis block most diffusion of water and water soluble substances between
cell, preventing both their loss from entry into the body through the skin
o Biological:
 Dendritic cells of the epidermis, macrophages in the dermis, and DNA itself act as protective barriers
 Body temperature
o Constrictions and dilations of the blood
o Sweating
o Un-noticeable sweating is called insensible perspiration
o The visible output of sweat is called sensible perspiration
 Cutaneous sensation
o Richly supplied with cutaneous sensory receptors, which are actually apart of the nervous system, this function responds to
stimuli arising outside of the body

 Metabolic functions
o Fueled in part by the sun’s rays
o When sunlight bombards the skins it sets off a chain reactions in which modified cholesterol molecules are converted to a
vitamin D precursor, which is transported via the blood to other body areas to be ultimately converted to vitamin D
 Blood reservoir
o The dermis holds to about 5% of the body’s entire blood volume
 Excretion
o Eliminates limited amounts of nitrogen-containing wastes in sweat

Bones and skeletal tissue

Bone is a living dynamic tissue which responds to its environment:

1) Bone reacts to amount of force applied by increasing both the density and amount of roughening on bone or decreasing density when
force is reduced or eliminated (eg paralysis)
a. deposition vs resorption
i. Deposition – adding to bone
ii. Resorption – taking calcium from bone

2) Bone stores calcium-reabsorbed and transferred to bloodstream when needed

Function of bones

 Support:
o Bones provide a framework that supports the body and cradles its soft organs
 Protection:
o The fused bones of the skull protect the brain
 Movement:
o Skeletal muscles, which attach to the bones by tendons, use bones as levers to move the body and its parts
 Mineral and growth factor storage:
o Bones act as a reservoir for mineral, most importantly calcium and phosphate
 Blood cell formation:
o Most blood cell formation, or Hematopoiesis, occurs in the red bone marrow cavities of certain bones
 Triglyceride (fat) storage:
o Fat, a source of energy for the body, is stored in bone cavities
 Hormone production:
o Bones produce osteocalcin, a hormone which not only helps regulate bone formation, but also helps to regulate insulin
secretion, glucose homeostasis, and energy expenditure
  Point of origin is normally located on the bone that is not moving. Your point of insertion is located on the bone that will perform a
movement around the joint

Skeletal cartilages

features between dense CT & bone - tough, but flexible

(i) avascular, devoid of nerve fibers

(ii) ground substance contains lots of the glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) chondroitin sulfate & hyaluronic acid - also chondronectin (adhesive
protein)

(iii) collagen fibers (can have some elastic fibers)

(iv) up to 80% H2O

 Cartilage consists of primarily of water, which account for its resilience, that is, its ability to spring back into its original shape after being
compressed
 The perichondrium acts like a girdle to resist outward expansion when the cartilage is compressed
o Contains the blood vessels from which the nutrients diffuse through the matrix to reach the cartilage cells internally

perichondrium: In damaged areas, perichondrium can form scar tissue because poorly vascularized cartilage repairs badly; ossification of cartilage
with aging!!

chondroblasts: immature cartilage cells - actively form cartilage

chondrocytes: (come from blasts) mature cartilage cells  maintain cartilage

lacunae: localized clusters of chondrocytes in cartilage

- They work around and out cartilage down and then end up all together (painting around and end in middle example)

 There are three types of cartilage within the body: hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage
o All three of these cartilages have a set of the same structural components to them – cells called chondrocytes, encased in small
cavities (lacunae) within an extracellular matrix containing a jellylike ground substance and fibres
 Hyaline cartilage:
o most abundant; firm support + pliability
o lots of collagen
o appears glassy blue-white
o chondrocytes - only 1-10% of volume
o Function: supports and reinforces; resilient cushioning and resists compressive stress
o Skeletal hyaline cartilage fibres contain:
 Articular cartilages, which cover the heads of most bones at moveable joints
 Costal cartilages, which connect the ribs to the sternum (breastbone)
 Respiratory cartilages, which form the skeleton of the larynx and reinforce other respiratory passage ways
 Nasal cartilages, which support the external nose
 Elastic cartilage:
o Like hyaline cartilage, but more elastic fibers in between
o Maintains shape while giving lots of flexibility - They contain stretchy elastic fibres and so are better able to stand up to
repeated building
o Found only in two skeletal locations: the external ear and the epiglottis
 Fibrocartilages:
o Rows of chondrocytes alternating with rows of thick collagen fibers
o structural intermediate between hyaline cartilage and dense regular CT. Lots of thick collagen fibers
o Function: tensile strength with the ability to absorb compressive shock
o Location: invertebral discs, pubic symphysis, discs of knee joints where hyaline cartilage meets a ligament or a tendon

Growth of cartilage:

o Unlike bone which has a hard matrix, cartilage has a flexible matrix that can accommodate mitosis
o Flexible matrix which can accommodate to mitosis
o Cartilage grows in two ways :
  Appositional growth: cartilage forming cells in the surround perichondrium secrete new matrix against the external
face of the existing cartilage tissue
 Interstitial growth: the lacunae bound chondrocytes divide and secrete new matrix, expanding the cartilage from
within

BONE

- calcium salts give hardness & strength for support/protection of softer tissues
- cavities for fat storage & synthesis of blood cells

Calcified tissue:

Compact bone: dense, outer layer

Spongy (trabecular) bone: trabeculae (red marrow found in spongy bone)

Linings:
Periosteum: outer fibrous layer + inner osteogenic layer
Endosteum: covers trabeculae of spongy bone and lines canals of compact bone

Classification of bone

- lots of variation in size/shapes of bones (eg: pisiform bone vs femur)

- unique shape of each bone fulfils a particular need (eg: femur maximum strength with minimum weight - achieves this with hollow
cylindrical design)
- bones classified by their SHAPE not SIZE (long, short, flat, irregular)
- structure the same for all bone shapes:
o compact bone provides the external surface
o spongy (trabecular) bone- a honeycomb of trabeculae

 The 206 bones of the human skeleton are divided into two groups : appendicular and axial
o Axial skeleton: forms along the axis of the body and includes the bones of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage.
 These bones protect, support and carry other body parts
o Appendicular skeleton: consists of the bones of the upper and lower limbs and the girdles (shoulder and hip bones) that
attach to the limbs of the axial skeleton
 Help us move from place to place and manipulate the environment around us

There are different sizes and shapes of bones. There are 5 different kinds of bones: Long bones, Short bones, Irregular bones, Flat bones,
sesamoid bones

o Long bones: a long bone consists of a shaft (diaphysis) and two ends which are usually expanded (epiphysis)
 long bones are named due to their long elongated shape, not their overall size
 much longer than wide  a shaft + 2 ends mostly compact bone with marrow cavity; spongy bone near joint
ends
o Short bones: these bones are roughly cube shaped (wrist and ankles)
 Sesamoid bones are a type of short bone that form within a tendon (the patella)
 They vary in size
 roughly cube-shaped; eg: wrist, ankle, primarily spongy bone + thin outer layer of compact bone
o Flat bones: are thin, flattened, and usually a bit curved
 The sternum, scapulae, ribs, and most skill bones are flat bones
 includes skull bones, ribs & breastbone
 o Irregular bones: have complicated shapes that fit none of the proceeding classes. These normally consist of the vertebrae
and hip bones
 leftovers: e.g. vertebrae & hip bones
 complicated shapes: primarily spongy bone + thin covering layer of compact bone

Bone Structure

 Because they contain different types of tissue, bones are considered to be organs
 Structure of short, irregular and flat bones:
o They all consist of thin plates of spongy bones covered in compact
o These plates are covered outside and inside by connective tissue membranes, respectively the periosteum and endosteum
o These bones do not have a diaphysis or epiphysis
o They contain bone marrow
o Hyaline cartilage covers their surface

Structure of typical long bone:

With a few exception all long bones have a general structure:

- A shaft, bone ends, and membranes

1. Diaphysis:
o tubular shaft of a long bone = long axis of the bone
o collar of compact bone surrounding marrow cavity (medullary cavity)
o in adults, medullary cavity contains fat (yellow marrow or yellow bone marrow cavity)
2. Epiphyses:
o The bone ends
o Broader than the diaphysis
o Outer shell of compact bone forms the epiphysis exterior and the interior contains spongy bone
o Expanded for articulation with other bones
o A thin layer of hyaline cartilage covers the joint surface of each epiphysis, cushioning the opposing bone ends during movement
and absorbing stress
3. Epiphyseal Line
o Between diaphysis and each epiphysis; remnant of epiphyseal plate (a disc of hyaline cartilage that grows during childhood to
lengthen the bone)
4. Membranes
o Cover outer (periosteum) and inner (endosteum) surfaces of long bones
o Both contain osteoblast and osteoclasts

STRUCTURE OF OTHER BONE TYPES

- all 3 other types have similar structure

- compact bone outside; spongy bone inside

- compact covered with periosteum & spongy lined with endosteum

- not cylindrical so no shaft, marrow cavity or epiphyses - but do contain bone marrow between trabeculae

MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF COMPACT BONE

OSTEON (HAVERSIAN) SYSTEM:

- this is the structural unit of compact bone

- osteon: an elongated cylinder oriented parallel to the long axis of bone - think of an osteon as a tiny, weight-bearing pillar

- a single osteon is a group of hollow tubes of bone matrix - think of the rings of a tree; each of the matrix tubes is called lamellar bone

OSTEOCYTES: mature bone cells; sit within small cavities (lacunae) within bony matrix in areas where adjacent lamellae meet

CANALICULI: small canals that connect the lacunae with each other; also connected to central canal of Haversian system

INTERSTITIAL LAMELLAE: fill the gaps between forming osteons or are leftovers of osteons that were partially destroyed by bone remodeling
CIRCUMFERENTIAL LAMELLAE: sheets of bone located just deep to periosteum; extend around entire circumference of shaft

MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF SPONGY BONE

• contains trabeculae, lamellarly arranged osteocytes & canaliculi

• trabeculae arranged along lines of stress; helps bone to resist stress

• trabeculae only a few cell layers thick; contain irregularly arranged lamellae & osteocytes interconnected by canaliculi

• there are no osteons

• nutrients diffuse through canaliculi from the marrow spaces between the trabeculae to reach the osteocytes

Ossification and Osteogenesis

• Synonyms meaning the process of bone formation

• In embryos this process leads to the formation of the bony skeleton

• Later, another form of ossification known as bone growth goes on until early adulthood as the body increases in size

• Bones are capable of growing thicker throughout life. However, ossification in adults serves mainly for bone remodelling or
repair

Before week 8, the embryonic skeleton is constructed entirely from fibrous membranes and hyaline cartilage, Bone tissue begins to develop at
about this time and eventually replaces most of the existing fibrous or cartilage structures

1) intramembranous ossification

• Bone develops from a fibrous CT membrane containing mesenchymal cells

• Cranial bones of the skull and the clavicles – these are flat bones

• Begins at ~ week 8 of embryonic development

2) Endocranial ossification

• Bone development via the replacement of a hyaline cartilage model

• All bones below the skull (except the clavicles)

• Begins in 2nd month of development

• More complex than intramembranous ossification because the hyaline cartilage must be broken down as ossification proceeds

Endochondral ossification in a long bone^

** in short bones, only the primary ossification centre is formed; most irregular bones are formed using several distinct ossification centres
When secondary ossification is complete, hyaline cartilage remains:

1) on the epiphyseal surfaces as the articular cartilages

2) at the junctions of diaphysis and epiphyses where it forms the epiphyseal plates this is the area where long bones continue to grow

Bone Growth

- During infancy and youth, long bones lengthen entirely by interstitial growth of the epiphyseal plate cartilage and its replacement by
bone, and all bones grown in thickness by appositional growth
- Most bones stop growing during adolescence. However, some facial bones, such as those of the nose and lower jaw continue to grow
throughout life

Growth in length of a long bone at the epiphyseal plate^

- As the long bone lengthens, the ends must be reshaped(remodeling)

- Remember that the ends are wider than the shaft
- As length increases, external surface of ends made slimmer while internal surface is thickened

In summary, bone is destroyed by osteoclasts and laid down by osteoblasts on both the inner and outer surfaces of a growing long bone

- Epiphyseal plate stays ~ same size throughout childhood and adolescence (why>>)
- Epiphyseal plate then becomes thinner (cartilage cells in zone 1 multiply more and more slowly)
- Longitudinal growth ends when bone of the epiphysis & diaphysis fuses = epiphyseal plate closure (about age 18 in females; age 21 in
males)

Growth in Width

- Growth in width = appositional growth

- Layers of bone are laid down on top of one another
1) osteoblasts on periosteal side secrete bone matrix

2) osteoclasts on the endosteal side remove bone matrix

**Do these 2 processes occur at exactly the same rate?

Homeostatic Imbalance: Osteoporosis

- bone resorption outpaces bone formation -> bone becomes porous

- Some areas of skeleton especially vulnerable: spine, neck of femur
- Age a factor: estrogen and testosterone promote bone health by restraining osteoclast activity and promoting deposition of new bone
- Other contributing factors include: insufficient exercise, diet poor in calcium and protein, abnormal vit D receptors, smoking
(reduces estrogen levels)

**red versus yellow marrow

 Anatomy of the skeletal system
 Foramen magnum-brainstem
 Temporal bone:
o Squamous: zygomatic process to the cheek bone.
 mandibular fossa receives condyle of mandible
o Tympanic: surround your external auditory canal
 Styloid process point inferiorly
 Attachment area for muscles of the tongue
o Mastoid: mainly mastoid process
 Major attachment area for neck muscles (SCM)
o Petrous : internal aspect of the temporal bone
 Sensory receptor for hearing and balance
 Sphenoid bone:
o Known as a keystone bones as it articulates with the other bones
o 3 pairs of processes
 Greater and lesser wing
 Body of the sphenoid bone
 Pterygoid processes
o Optic canal: optic nerves
o Superior orbital fissure between greater and lesser wings ( cranial nerves for eye movement)

Joints
 Function:
o Synarthroses – immovable
o Amphiarthroses – slightly moveable
o Diarthroses – Freely moveable
 Structures:
o Fibrous (no joint cavity)
 Sutures
 Syndesmosis
 Gomphoses
o Cartilaginous
 Synchondroses
 Symphysis
o Synovial
 Characteristics
 Articulating (hyaline) cartilage
 Joint (synovial) cavity
 Articulating capsule
 Synovial fluid
 Rich nerve and blood vessel supply
 Intrinsic/extrinsic ligaments

JOINTS

Classification of Joints:

• a joint is a site where 2 or more bones meet

• classified by structure (what holds the joint together? Is there a cavity?) & by function (how much freedom of movement is allowed at that
joint?)

• structurally – 3 types:

fibrous

cartilaginous

synovial

• functionally – 3 types:

synarthroses
 amphiarthroses

diarthroses

Fibrous: bones joined by fibrous CT; no joint cavity so very little to no movement at joint

- (=Synostoses; NO movement):
o • seams only found between bones of skull
o • overlapping or interlocking of 2 bones; junction filled with very short CT fibers
- Syndesmoses (very LIMITED movment): cord (ligament) or sheet (interosseous membrane) of fibrous CT
- Gomphoses: (gompho = nail [Greek])
o • peg-in-socket; only example = tooth in bony socket

Cartilagenous:

- Synchondroses:
o areas of growth: eg: epiphyseal plates, between each of 1st 7 ribs & sternum
- Symphyses:
o articular surfaces covered with hyaline cartilage - linking plate of fibrocartilage
o strength with flexibility: eg: pubic symphysis, intervertebral joints

Synovial:

most joints - lots of movement

5 characteristics:

1. Articular cartilage: covers opposing bone surfaces cushioning so bone not crushed

2. Joint cavity: synovial cavity; fluid-filled

3. Articular capsule: double-layered

4. Synovial fluid: fills joint cavity; reduces friction

5.Reinforcing ligaments: restrict movement of joint

- some synovial joints have fatty pads for cushioning (hip/knee joints) or articular discs to improve fit (knee/jaw joints)

Bursae & tendon sheaths: bags of lubricant reduce friction

(1) bursa is a sac lined with synovial membrane & containing a thin film of synovial fluid; found where ligaments, muscles, skin or muscle
tendons overlie & rub against bone

(2) tendon sheath = elongated bursa that wraps around a tendon

* What is a bunion? Enlarged bursa at base of big toe

Factors that influence stability of synovial joints

• synovial joints allow lots of movement, so not as stable as fibrous/cartilaginous joints

3 factors influence joint stability:

(1) articular surfaces:

• shapes of articular surfaces of many joints do not contribute to joint stability

• deep ball & socket joints have good shape for stability

(2) ligaments:

• more ligaments = more strength

• ligaments can only stretch ~6% of length before they break - stretched ligaments stay stretched

(3) muscle tone:

• tendons of muscles crossing joints usually most important stabilizing factor - kept taut by muscle tone

• esp: shoulder, knee, arches of foot

Common Joint Injuries

Cartilage injuries:

usually the knee - because cartilage has no blood supply, cannot repair itself

pieces break off / interfere with joint function »» arthroscopic surgery

Dislocations:

bones forced out of their normal positions at a joint; need to be reduced

repeat dislocations common because joint capsule & ligaments get stretched

Sprains:

partially torn ligaments repair themselves (slowly due to poor vascularization)

completely torn ligaments require surgery

Movements allowed by synovial joints:

- gliding (waving hand), flexion, extension, hyper extension

1.plane joint: 2 flat opposing surfaces gliding e.g. intercarpal joints

2. Hinge joint: cylinder into trough – flexion / extension at elbow joint

3. Pivot joint: insertion into a ring – between atlas and dens of axis

4. Condylar joint: “knuckle like” – both articulating surfaces oval all planes of motion

5. Saddle joint: similar to condylar, but saddle shape permits even more freedom of movement

6. Ball & Socket joint: shoulder and hip joints