Using R and the psych package to find ω

William Revelle
Department of Psychology
Northwestern University

December 19, 2017

Contents
1 Overview of this and related documents 2
1.1 omegah as an estimate of the general factor saturation of a test . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1 But what about α . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Install R for the first time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.1 Install R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.2 Install relevant packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2 Reading in the data for analysis 7

2.1 Find a file and read from it . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Copy the data from another program using the copy and paste commands
of your operating system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3 Import from an SPSS or SAS file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3 Some simple descriptive statistics before you start 10

4 Using the omega function to find ω 10

4.1 Background on the ω statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.2 Yet another alternative: Coefficient β . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.3 Using the omega function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.4 Estimating ωh using Confirmatory Factor Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

1
1 Overview of this and related documents

To do basic and advanced personality and psychological research using R is not as compli-
cated as some think. This is one of a set of “How To” to do various things using R (R Core
Team, 2017), particularly using the psych (Revelle, 2017) package.
The current list of How To’s includes:
1. An introduction (vignette) of the psych package
2. An overview (vignette) of the psych package
3. Installing R and some useful packages
4. Using R and the psych package to find omegah and ωt (this document)..
5. Using R and the psych for factor analysis and principal components analysis.
6. Using the scoreItems function to find scale scores and scale statistics.
7. Using mediate and setCor to do mediation, moderation and regression analysis

1.1 omegah as an estimate of the general factor saturation of a test

Cronbach’s coefficient al pha (Cronbach, 1951) is pehaps the most used (and most misused)
estimate of the internal consistency of a test. α may be found in the psych package using
the alpha function. However, two alternative estimates of reliability that take into account
the hierarchical structure of the inventory are McDonald’s ωh and ωt (McDonald, 1999).
These may be found in R in one step using one of two functions in the psych package: the
omega function for an exploratory analysis (See Figure 1) or omegaSem for a confirmatory
analysis using the sem package solution based upon the exploratory solution from omega.
This guide explains how to do it for the non or novice R user. These set of instructions
are adapted from three different sets of notes that the interested reader might find helpful:
A set of slides developed for a two hour short course in R given for several years to the
Association of Psychological Science as well as a short guide to R for psychologists and the
vignette for the psych package.
McDonald has proposed coefficient omega (hierarchical) (ωh ) as an estimate of the general
factor saturation of a test. Zinbarg et al. (2005) and Revelle and Zinbarg (2009) compare
compare McDonald’s ωh to Cronbach’s α and Revelle’s β . They conclude that ωh is the
best estimate. (See also Zinbarg et al. (2006) and Revelle and Zinbarg (2009) .
By following these simple guides, you soon will be able to do such things as find ωh by
issuing just three lines of code:

2
 R code
library(psych)
my.data <- read.clipboard()
omega(my.data)

The resulting output will be both graphical and textual.

This guide helps the naive R user to issue those three lines. Be careful, for once you start
using R, you will want to do more.
One way to find ωh is to do a factor analysis of the original data set, rotate the factors
obliquely, factor that correlation matrix, do a Schmid-Leiman (schmid) transformation to
find general factor loadings, and then find ωh . This is done using the omega function in the
psych package in R. This requires installing and using both R as well as the psych package
(Revelle, 2017).

1.1.1 But what about α

To just find Guttman’s λ3 (Guttman, 1945) which is also known as coefficient α (Cronbach,
1951), you can use the alpha function or the scoreItems function. See the tutorial on
how to use the scoreItems function to find scale scores and scale statistics.

3
 Omega

Sentences

0.6
Vocabulary
0.6
F1*
0.5
0.7 Sent.Completion
0.7
0.7 First.Letters
0.6 0.6
g 0.6 4.Letter.Words 0.5 F2*
0.6 0.4
0.2
0.6 Suffixes
0.5
0.6 Letter.Series
0.6
F3*
0.5
Letter.Group
0.3

Pedigrees

Figure 1: ωh is a reliability estimate of the general factor of a set of variables. It is based

upon the correlation of lower order factors. It may be found in R by using the omega
function which is part of the psych package. The figure shows a solution for the Thurstone
9 variable data set.

4
To use R obviously requires installing R on your computer. This is very easy to do (see
section 1.2.1) and needs to be done once. (The following sections are taken elaborated
in the “getting started” How To. If you need more help in installing R see the longer
version.)
The power of R is in the supplemental packages. There are at least 8,300 packages that
have been contributed to the R project. To do any of the analyses discussed in these “How
To’s”, you will need to install the package psych (Revelle, 2017). To do factor analyses or
principal component analyses you will also need the GPArotation (Bernaards and Jennrich,
2005) package. With these two packages, you will be be able to find ωh using Exploratory
Factor Analysis. If you want to find to estimate ωh using Confirmatory Factor Analysis,
you will also need to add the sem (Fox et al., 2013) package. To use psych to create
simulated data sets, you also need the mnormt (Azzalini and Genz, 2016) package. For
a more complete installation of a number of psychometric packages, you can install and
activate a package (ctv ) that installs a large set of psychometrically relevant packages. As
is true for R, you will need to install packages just once.

1.2 Install R for the first time

1. Download from R Cran (http://cran.r-project.org/)

2. Install R (current version is 3.4.2)
3. Start R.
Note that the R prompt > starts off every line. This is R’s way of indicating that
it wants input. In addition, note that almost all commands start and finish with
parentheses.
4. Add useful packages (just need to do this once) (see section 1.2.2)
R code
install.packages("psych",dependencies=TRUE) #the minimum requirement or
install.packages(c("psych","GPArotation"),dependencies=TRUE) #required for factor analysis

(a) or if you want to do CFA

R code

install.packages(c("psych","lavaan"), dependencies=TRUE)

(b) or if you want to install the psychometric task views

R code

install.packages("ctv") #this downloads the task view package

library(ctv) #this activates the ctv package
install.views("Psychometrics") #among others

5
 5. Take a 5 minute break while the packages are loaded.
6. Activate the package(s) you want to use (e.g., psych)
R code

library(psych) #Only need to make psych active once a session

psych will automatically activate the other packages it needs, as long as they are
installed. Note that psych is updated roughly quarterly, the current version is 1.7.12
7. Use R

1.2.1 Install R

Go to the Comprehensive R Archive Network (CRAN) at http://cran.r-project.org:

Choose your operating system and then download and install the appropriate version
Download and install the appropriate version – Mac, PC or Unix/Linux
Once you have installed R you probably, and particularly if you have a PC, you will want
to download and install the R Studio program. It is a very nice interface for PCs and Macs
that combines four windows into one screen.

1.2.2 Install relevant packages

Once R is installed on your machine, you still need to install a few relevant “packages”.
Packages are what make R so powerful, for they are special sets of functions that are de-
signed for one particular application. In the case of the psych package, this is an application
for doing the kind of basic data analysis and psychometric analysis that psychologists and
many others find particularly useful.
You may either install the minimum set of packages necessary to do the analysis using an
Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) approach (recommended) or a few more packages to do
both an EFA and a CFA approach. It is also possible to add many psychometrically relevant
packages all at once by using the “task views” approach. A particularly powerful package is
the lavaan (Rosseel, 2012) package for doing structural equation modeling. Another useful
one is the sem pacakge (Fox et al., 2013).

Install the minimum set This may be done by typing into the console or using menu
options (e.g., the Package Installer underneath the Packages and Data menu).

6
 R code

install.packages("psych", dependencies = TRUE)}

Install a few more packages If you want some more functionality for some of the
more advanced statistical procedures (e.g., omegaSem) you will need to install a few more
packages (e.g., sem.
R code

install.packages(c("psych","GPArotation","sem"),dependencies=TRUE)

Install a “task view” to get lots of packages If you know that there are a number of
packages that you want to use, it is possible they are listed as a “task view”. For instance,
about 50 packages will be installed at once if you install the “psychometrics” task view.
You can Install all the psychometric packages from the “psychometrics” task view by first
installing a package (“ctv”) that in turn installs many different task views. To see the list
of possible task views, go to https://cran.r-project.org/web/views/.
R code

install.packages("ctv") } #this downloads the task view package

library(ctv) #this activates the ctv package
install.views("Psychometrics") #one of the many Taskviews

Take a 5 minute break because you will be installing about 50 packages.

Make the psych package active. You are almost ready. But first, to use most of the
following examples you need to make the psych package active. You only need to do this
once per session.
R code
library(psych)

2 Reading in the data for analysis

2.1 Find a file and read from it

There are of course many ways to enter data into R. Reading from a local file using
read.table is perhaps the most preferred. You first need to find the file and then read it.
This can be done with the file.choose and read.table functions:

7
 R code

file.name <- file.choose() #note the open and closing parentheses

my.data <- read.table(file.name)

file.choose opens a search window on your system just like any open file command does.
It doesn’t actually read the file, it just finds the file. The read.table command is also
necessary. It assumes that the first row of your table has labels for each column. If this is
not true, specify names=FALSE, e.g.,
R code

file.name <- file.choose()

my.data <- read.table(file.name, names = FALSE)

2.2 Copy the data from another program using the copy and paste com-
mands of your operating system

However, many users will enter their data in a text editor or spreadsheet program and
then want to copy and paste into R. This may be done by using read.table and spec-
ifying the input file as “clipboard” (PCs) or “pipe(pbpaste)” (Macs). Alternatively, the
read.clipboard set of functions are perhaps more user friendly:
read.clipboard is the base function for reading data from the clipboard.
read.clipboard.csv for reading text that is comma delimited.
read.clipboard.tab for reading text that is tab delimited (e.g., copied directly from an
Excel file).
read.clipboard.lower for reading input of a lower triangular matrix with or without a
diagonal. The resulting object is a square matrix.
read.clipboard.upper for reading input of an upper triangular matrix.
read.clipboard.fwf for reading in fixed width fields (some very old data sets)
For example, given a data set copied to the clipboard from a spreadsheet, just enter the
command
R code
my.data <- read.clipboard()

This will work if every data field has a value and even missing data are given some values
(e.g., NA or -999). If the data were entered in a spreadsheet and the missing values
were just empty cells, then the data should be read in as a tab delimited or by using the
read.clipboard.tab function.

8
 R code
my.data <- read.clipboard(sep="\t") #define the tab option, or
my.tab.data <- read.clipboard.tab() #just use the alternative function

For the case of data in fixed width fields (some old data sets tend to have this format),
copy to the clipboard and then specify the width of each field (in the example below, the
first variable is 5 columns, the second is 2 columns, the next 5 are 1 column the last 4 are
3 columns).
R code
my.data <- read.clipboard.fwf(widths=c(5,2,rep(1,5),rep(3,4))

2.3 Import from an SPSS or SAS file

To read data from an SPSS, SAS, or Systat file, you can probably just use the read.file
function. However, if that does not work, use the foreign package. This should come with
Base R need to be loaded using the library command.
read.spss reads a file stored by the SPSS save or export commands.
read.spss(file, use.value.labels = TRUE, to.data.frame = FALSE,
max.value.labels = Inf, trim.factor.names = FALSE,
trim_values = TRUE, reencode = NA, use.missings = to.data.frame)

The read.spss function has many parameters that need to be set. In the example, I have
used the parameters that I think are most useful.
file Character string: the name of the file or URL to read.
use.value.labels Convert variables with value labels into R factors with those levels?
to.data.frame return a data frame? Defaults to FALSE, probably should be TRUE in
most cases.
max.value.labels Only variables with value labels and at most this many unique values
will be converted to factors if use.value.labels = T RUE.
trim.factor.names Logical: trim trailing spaces from factor levels?
trim values logical: should values and value labels have trailing spaces ignored when
matching for use.value.labels = T RUE?
use.missings logical: should information on user-defined missing values be used to set
the corresponding values to NA?

9
The following is an example of reading from a remote SPSS file and then describing the
data set to make sure that it looks ok (with thanks to Eli Finkel).
R code
datafilename <- "http://personality-project.org/r/datasets/finkel.sav"
eli <-read.file(datafilename)

describe(eli,skew=FALSE)

var n mean sd median trimmed mad min max range se

USER* 1 69 35.00 20.06 35 35.00 25.20 1 69 68 2.42
HAPPY 2 69 5.71 1.04 6 5.82 0.00 2 7 5 0.13
SOULMATE 3 69 5.09 1.80 5 5.32 1.48 1 7 6 0.22
ENJOYDEX 4 68 6.47 1.01 7 6.70 0.00 2 7 5 0.12
UPSET 5 69 0.41 0.49 0 0.39 0.00 0 1 1 0.06

3 Some simple descriptive statistics before you start

Although you probably want to jump right in and find ω, you should first make sure
that your data are reasonable. Use the describe function to get some basic descriptive
statistics. This next example takes advantage of a built in data set.
my.data <- sat.act #built in example -- replace with your data
describe(my.data)

var n mean sd median trimmed mad min max range skew kurtosis se
gender 1 700 1.65 0.48 2 1.68 0.00 1 2 1 -0.61 -1.62 0.02
education 2 700 3.16 1.43 3 3.31 1.48 0 5 5 -0.68 -0.07 0.05
age 3 700 25.59 9.50 22 23.86 5.93 13 65 52 1.64 2.42 0.36
ACT 4 700 28.55 4.82 29 28.84 4.45 3 36 33 -0.66 0.53 0.18
SATV 5 700 612.23 112.90 620 619.45 118.61 200 800 600 -0.64 0.33 4.27
SATQ 6 687 610.22 115.64 620 617.25 118.61 200 800 600 -0.59 -0.02 4.41

There are, of course, all kinds of things you could do with your data at this point, but read
about them in the vignette for the psych package,

4 Using the omega function to find ω

Two alternative estimates of reliability that take into account the hierarchical structure of
the inventory are McDonald’s ωh and ωt . These may be found using the omega function
for an exploratory analysis (See Figure 1) or omegaSem for a confirmatory analysis using
the sem based upon the exploratory solution from omega.

10
4.1 Background on the ω statistics

McDonald (1999) has proposed coefficient omega (hierarchical) (ωh ) as an estimate of

the general factor saturation of a test. Zinbarg et al. (2005) compare McDonald’s ωh to
Cronbach’s α and Revelle’s β . They conclude that ωh is the best estimate. (See also
Zinbarg et al. (2006) and Revelle and Zinbarg (2009) ).
One way to find ωh is to do a factor analysis of the original data set, rotate the factors
obliquely, factor that correlation matrix, do a Schmid-Leiman (schmid) transformation to
find general factor loadings, and then find ωh .
ωh differs slightly as a function of how the factors are estimated. Three options are available,
the default will do a minimum residual factor analysis, fm=“pa” does a principal axes factor
analysis (factor.pa), and fm=“mle” provides a maximum likelihood solution.
For ability items, it is typically the case that all items will have positive loadings on the
general factor. However, for non-cognitive items it is frequently the case that some items
are to be scored positively, and some negatively. Although probably better to specify which
directions the items are to be scored by specifying a key vector, if flip =TRUE (the default),
items will be reversed so that they have positive loadings on the general factor. The keys
are reported so that scores can be found using the score.items function. Arbitrarily
reversing items this way can overestimate the general factor. (See the example with a
simulated circumplex).
The omega function uses exploratory factor analysis to estimate the ωh coefficient. It is
important to remember that “A recommendation that should be heeded, regardless of the
method chosen to estimate ωh , is to always examine the pattern of the estimated general
factor loadings prior to estimating ωh . Such an examination constitutes an informal test
of the assumption that there is a latent variable common to all of the scale’s indicators
that can be conducted even in the context of EFA. If the loadings were salient for only a
relatively small subset of the indicators, this would suggest that there is no true general
factor underlying the covariance matrix. Just such an informal assumption test would have
afforded a great deal of protection against the possibility of misinterpreting the misleading
ωh estimates occasionally produced in the simulations reported here.” (Zinbarg et al., 2006,
p 137).
Although ωh is uniquely defined only for cases where 3 or more subfactors are extracted, it
is sometimes desired to have a two factor solution. By default this is done by forcing the
schmid extraction to treat the two subfactors as having equal loadings.
There are three possible options for this condition: setting the general factor loadings
√
between the two lower order factors to be “equal” which will be the rab where rab is the
oblique correlation between the factors) or to “first” or “second” in which case the general
factor is equated with either the first or second group factor. A message is issued suggesting

11
that the model is not really well defined. This solution discussed in Zinbarg et al., 2007.
To do this in omega, add the option=“first” or option=“second” to the call.
Although obviously not meaningful for a 1 factor solution, it is of course possible to find
the sum of the loadings on the first (and only) factor, square them, and compare them to
the overall matrix variance. This is done, with appropriate complaints.
In addition to ωh , another of McDonald’s coefficients is ωt . This is an estimate of the total
reliability of a test.
McDonald’s ωt , which is similar to Guttman’s λ6 , (see guttman) uses the estimates of
uniqueness u2 from factor analysis to find e2j . This is based on a decomposition of the
variance of a test score, Vx into four parts: that due to a general factor, g, that due to
a set of group factors, f , (factors common to some but not all of the items), specific
factors, s unique to each item, and e, random error. (Because specific variance can not be
distinguished from random error unless the test is given at least twice, some combine these
both into error).
Letting x = cg + A f + Ds + e then the communality of item j , based upon general as well as
group factors, h2j = c2j + ∑ fi2j and the unique variance for the item u2j = σ 2j (1 − h2j ) may be
used to estimate the test reliability. That is, if h2j is the communality of item j , based upon
general as well as group factors, then for standardized items, e2j = 1 − h2j and

1cc0 1 + 1AA0 10 ∑(1 − h2j ) ∑ u2

ωt = = 1− = 1−
Vx Vx Vx

Because h2j ≥ rsmc

2 , ω ≥λ .
t 6

It is important to distinguish here between the two ω coefficients of McDonald, 1978 and
Equation 6.20a of McDonald, 1999, ωt and ωh . While the former is based upon the sum of
squared loadings on all the factors, the latter is based upon the sum of the squared loadings
on the general factor.
1cc0 1
ωh =
Vx

Another estimate reported is the omega for an infinite length test with a structure similar
to the observed test. This is found by

1cc0 1
ωinf =
1cc0 1 + 1AA0 10

It can be shown In the case of simulated variables, that the amount of variance attributable
to a general factor (ωh ) is quite large, and the reliability of the set of items is somewhat
greater than that estimated by α or λ6 .

12
4.2 Yet another alternative: Coefficient β

β , an alternative to ω, is defined as the worst split half reliability. It can be estimated by

using iclust (Item Cluster analysis: a hierarchical clustering algorithm). For a very com-
plimentary review of why the iclust algorithm is useful in scale construction, see Cooksey
and Soutar (2006).

4.3 Using the omega function

This is R. Just call it. For the next example, we find ω for a data set from Thurstone. To
find it for your data, replace Thurstone with my.data.
R code
omega(Thurstone)

Omega
Call: omega(m = Thurstone)
Alpha: 0.89
G.6: 0.91
Omega Hierarchical: 0.74
Omega H asymptotic: 0.79
Omega Total 0.93

Schmid Leiman Factor loadings greater than 0.2

g F1* F2* F3* h2 u2 p2
Sentences 0.71 0.57 0.82 0.18 0.61
Vocabulary 0.73 0.55 0.84 0.16 0.63
Sent.Completion 0.68 0.52 0.73 0.27 0.63
First.Letters 0.65 0.56 0.73 0.27 0.57
4.Letter.Words 0.62 0.49 0.63 0.37 0.61
Suffixes 0.56 0.41 0.50 0.50 0.63
Letter.Series 0.59 0.61 0.72 0.28 0.48
Pedigrees 0.58 0.23 0.34 0.50 0.50 0.66
Letter.Group 0.54 0.46 0.53 0.47 0.56

With eigenvalues of:

g F1* F2* F3*
3.58 0.96 0.74 0.71

general/max 3.71 max/min = 1.35

mean percent general = 0.6 with sd = 0.05 and cv of 0.09

The degrees of freedom are 12 and the fit is 0.01

The root mean square of the residuals is 0

The df corrected root mean square of the residuals is 0.01

Compare this with the adequacy of just a general factor and no group factors
The degrees of freedom for just the general factor are 27 and the fit is 1.48

The root mean square of the residuals is 0.1

The df corrected root mean square of the residuals is 0.16

13
Measures of factor score adequacy
g F1* F2* F3*
Correlation of scores with factors 0.86 0.73 0.72 0.75
Multiple R square of scores with factors 0.74 0.54 0.52 0.56
Minimum correlation of factor score estimates 0.49 0.08 0.03 0.11
>

4.4 Estimating ωh using Confirmatory Factor Analysis

The omegaSem function will do an exploratory analysis and then take the highest loading
items on each factor and do a confirmatory factor analysis using the sem package. These
results can produce slightly different estimates of ωh , primarily because cross loadings are
modeled as part of the general factor.
R code
omegaSem(r9,n.obs=500)

Call: omegaSem(m = r9, n.obs = 500)

Omega
Call: omega(m = m, nfactors = nfactors, fm = fm, key = key, flip = flip,
digits = digits, title = title, sl = sl, labels = labels,
plot = plot, n.obs = n.obs, rotate = rotate, Phi = Phi, option = option)
Alpha: 0.75
G.6: 0.74
Omega Hierarchical: 0.66
Omega H asymptotic: 0.84
Omega Total 0.78

Schmid Leiman Factor loadings greater than 0.2

g F1* F2* F3* h2 u2 p2
V1 0.70 0.53 0.47 0.93
V2 0.70 0.52 0.48 0.94
V3 0.54 0.32 0.68 0.91
V4 0.53 0.46 0.50 0.50 0.57
V5 0.44 0.44 0.39 0.61 0.50
V6 0.40 0.32 0.26 0.74 0.59
V7 0.31 0.31 0.21 0.79 0.48
V8 0.34 0.44 0.30 0.70 0.37
V9 0.24 0.36 0.19 0.81 0.32

With eigenvalues of:

g F1* F2* F3*
2.18 0.52 0.08 0.44

general/max 4.21 max/min = 6.17

mean percent general = 0.62 with sd = 0.24 and cv of 0.39

The degrees of freedom are 12 and the fit is 0.03

The number of observations was 500 with Chi Square = 14.23 with prob < 0.29
The root mean square of the residuals is 0.01
The df corrected root mean square of the residuals is 0.03
RMSEA index = 0.02 and the 90 % confidence intervals are NA 0.052
BIC = -60.35

14
Compare this with the adequacy of just a general factor and no group factors
The degrees of freedom for just the general factor are 27 and the fit is 0.21
The number of observations was 500 with Chi Square = 103.64 with prob < 6.4e-11
The root mean square of the residuals is 0.05
The df corrected root mean square of the residuals is 0.08

RMSEA index = 0.076 and the 90 % confidence intervals are 0.06 0.091
BIC = -64.15

Measures of factor score adequacy

g F1* F2* F3*
Correlation of scores with factors 0.86 0.63 0.25 0.59
Multiple R square of scores with factors 0.74 0.39 0.06 0.35
Minimum correlation of factor score estimates 0.48 -0.21 -0.88 -0.30

Omega Hierarchical from a confirmatory model using sem = 0.68

Omega Total from a confirmatory model using sem = 0.78
With loadings of
g F1* F2* F3* h2 u2
V1 0.73 0.54 0.46
V2 0.68 0.29 0.54 0.46
V3 0.51 0.22 0.31 0.69
V4 0.54 0.47 0.51 0.49
V5 0.45 0.42 0.38 0.62
V6 0.39 0.31 0.25 0.75
V7 0.34 0.34 0.23 0.77
V8 0.36 0.39 0.28 0.72
V9 0.26 0.33 0.18 0.82

With eigenvalues of:

g F1* F2* F3*
2.21 0.49 0.14 0.38

15
References
Azzalini, A. and Genz, A. (2016). The R package mnormt: The multivariate normal and t
distributions (version 1.5-5).
Bernaards, C. and Jennrich, R. (2005). Gradient projection algorithms and software for
arbitrary rotation criteria in factor analysis. Educational and Psychological Measurement,
65(5):676–696.
Cooksey, R. and Soutar, G. (2006). Coefficient beta and hierarchical item clustering - an
analytical procedure for establishing and displaying the dimensionality and homogeneity
of summated scales. Organizational Research Methods, 9:78–98.
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