Biology Practical Instructions
Biology Practical Instructions
Biology Practical Instructions
(Advanced Level)
Biology
Biology
i
Guidance Prof. W.M. Abeyrathne Bandara, Director General,
National Institute of Education (NIE)
Mr. Lal Wijesinhge Assistant Director General
(Curriculum Development), NIE
Resource contribution:
Internal : Mr. C. M.R. Anthony - Director, Department of Science, Health
& Physical Education.
Ms. H.M. Mapagunaratne - Project Officer, NIE
Ms. S.M.C.G. Wijesekara - Assistant Project Officer, NIE
iii
Contents
Page
1) Parts and functions of the microscope , and using microscope to
observe materials .. .. .. .. 01
2) Simple laboratory tests for the identification of reducing and
non-reducing sugars ,starch ,proteins ,fats and oils. .. .. .. 03
3) Use of electron micrographs to understand the structure of
cellular components. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 04
4) Microscopic observation and identification of different types of
plant tissues .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 05
5) Microscopic observation and identification of different types of
animal tissues .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 06
6) Identification of different stages of mitosis and meiosis using
microscopic slides .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 07
7) Laboratory experiment to demonstrate enzyme activity and to
determine the rate of enzymatic reaction ( starch - amylase) .. .. .. 08
8) Determination of rate of photosynthesis by amount of oxygen released .. 09
9) Determination of rate of respiration using germinating seeds. .. .. 10
10) Observation of the characteristic features of typical Bacteria
and Cyanobacteria .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 11
11) Observation of the characteristic features of typical organisms of phyla
Ciliophora, Rhizopoda, Bacillariophyta, Phaeophyta,
Rhodophyta & Chlorophyta. .. .. .. .. .. .. 12
12) Observation of characteristic features of typical organisms of phyla .. 13
Chytridiomycota , Zygomycota, Ascomycota and Basidiomycota... ..
13) Observation of characteristic features of typical organisms of phyla Bryophyta,
Lycophyta, Pterophyta, Cycadophyta, Coniferophyta, Anthophyta and classes
Monocotyledoneae and Dicotyledoneae .. .. .. .. .. 14
14) Observation of characteristic features of the phyla Coelenterata, Platyhelminthes,
Nematoda,Annelida, Mollusca, Arthropoda and Echinodermata and the external
features of the typical organisms belonging to the classes of each of these phyla
except Nematoda .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 15
15) Observation of characteristic features of typical organisms of classes
Osteichthyes, Chondrichthyes, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves and Mammalia... 17
16) Study the basic histological structure of the alimentary canal of man and
relates the major variations in different regions to their functions. .. 18
17) Study of human respiratory system using models/diagrams and
observation of effects of exercise on respiratory rate and pulse rate. .. 19
18) Determination of solute potential of epidermal peels of Rhoeo .. .. 20
19) Determination of water potential of Colocasia petioles / Potato strips .. 23
vi
20) Determination of rates of transpiration from leaves and shoots .. .. 25
21) Study the circulatory system of man using specimens/models/diagrams .. 26
22) Study of patterns of nervous systems in animals using models/ diagrams/ charts 27
23) Study of selected sense organs of animals using diagrams / models /charts .. 28
24) Study the structure of the human eye and ear using diagrams /models/ charts 29
25) Study of major types of excretory organs in animals using
models/diagrams and charts .. .. .. .. .. .. 30
26) Study of the gross structure of the human skull and vertebral column in .
relation to the functions of the various parts using models / diagrams /specimens 30
27) Study of the human pectoral and pelvic girdles and appendicular
skeleton using specimens/ models/ diagrams .. .. .. .. 32
28) Microscopic examination of cross sections of root , stem and leaf. .. 33
29) Study of male reproductive system using models or diagrams .. .. 34
30) Study of female reproductive system using models or diagrams .. .. 34
31) Study of cross section of primary stem and primary root of a Monocot
and a Dicot .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 35
32) Microscopic and macroscopic examination of secondary structure of
Dicotyledonous wood .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 37
33) Study of inheritance of some common Mendelian traits .. .. .. 38
34) Study of a small ecosystem and finding out the organization levels
of the environment .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 38
35) Identification of different types of microorganisms and observation of
bacteria and fungi.. .. .. .. .. . .. .. 40
36) Practice techniques for sterilization of water, culture media, glassware,
heat labile substances and inoculating needles. .. .. .. .. 41
37) Preparation of a simple culture medium (Nutrient Agar) and inoculation
with a sample of toddy/ yoghurt. .. .. .. .. .. .. 43
38) Staining of bacteria found in toddy or yoghurt using a simple stain
(Methylene Blue). .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 44
39) Identification of fish, prawn and aquatic plant species used in aquaculture .. 46
40) Study of common insect pests paddy and coconut in Sri Lanka .. .. 47
41) Observation of staes of life cycles and study of data on incidence and
distribution of the following parasites in Sri Lanka: malarial parasite,
filarial parasite and hook worm .. .. .. .. .. 48
42) Study of different kinds of weeds in a selected area and separation into
morpho-species .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 49
Appendix .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 50
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PRACTICAL NO.1
Parts and functions of the microscope, and using microscope to observe specimens.
Expected Learning Outcomes
1. Recognizes the parts and understands the functions of a student microscope.
2. Uses the microscope in the correct manner.
3. Prepares wet mounts of live tissues or cells.
4. Manipulates the microscope to observe specimens.
5. Calculates the magnification of objects.
6. Draws cells according to the appropriate size and the scale.
7. Determines the actual size of cells.
Materials and Equipments
• Simple student microscope with low, medium and high power objectives
• Clean dry slides and cover slips
• Beaker and watch glasses/ Petri dishes
• Water sample from paddy field, hay infusion , pond water sample, onion epidermal
peel
• Paint brush and a razor blade
• Graph paper
Instructions
• Instruct the students to follow the guidelines given below.
• Identify the major parts of the microscope: The body and base, ocular tube,
eyepieces (interchangeable), rotatable objective holder, low, medium and high
power objectives, (which can be screwed in), focusing knobs-coarse and fine
focus, stage with center circular opening, stage clips, adjustable mirror.
• Observe the samples employing proper microscopic techniques.
• Make thin epidermal peels of onion and place in water in a watch glass or
Petri dish.
• Transfer section of onion peel into a drop of water on the center of a clean
glass slide by using a fine paint brush.
• Hold the cover slip at the edge of the drop of water, with the help of a
mounting needle, and gently lower the cover slip, supporting it with the needle
onto the drop of water. Do not allow air bubbles to be trapped under the
cover slip.
• Place the slide on the stage of the microscope and move the low power
objective in to position.
1
• Looking through the eye piece, move the slide to bring the object into position for
study. Adjust the mirror to give optimum illumination to the object for clear viewing.
• Use the coarse focus knob to get the image as clear as possible.
• Study and note the structures visible.
• Rotate the objective holder and bring the medium power into position. Adjust the
focus to get a sharp image.
• Bring the high power into position.
• Use the fine focus knob to make the image sharp.
• Study and record what you observe under low, medium and high power.
• Demonstrate the determination of actual size of given cell and advice them to
determine the size of a cell.
• Study of other samples:
Follow the steps given above to study a drop of water from paddy field, hay infusion,
pond water and cells obtained from buccal cavity lining .
• Direct them to make notes and sketches on their observations.
PRACTICAL NO.2
Simple laboratory tests to identify starch, non –reducing sugars, reducing sugars ,
proteins, fats and oils.
Expected Learning Outcomes
1. Conducts tests to identify given food materials.
2. Follows laboratory procedures accordingly.
3. Conducts experiments with due care.
4. Records procedures and observations.
5. Presents the obtained results creatively.
2
• 1cm 3 syringe
• Iodine in Potassium Iodide solution
• Dilute HCl/H2SO4
• Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate (NaHCO3 )
• 1% Starch solution (corn flour is recommended)
• Benedict’s reagent
• Sudan III
• 5% Potassium hydroxide solution
• 1% Copper sulphate solution
• 1% Glucose solution
• 1% Sucrose solution (Analar sucrose)
• Coconut oil or Sesame oil
• Egg albumin
• 1% lactose solution
• 1% fructose solution
Instructions
• Demonstrate simple laboratory tests to identify starch, non-reducing sugars, reducing
sugars, proteins, fats and oils by using pure forms.
• Provide relevant pure forms of food materials and equipments for the students.
• Guide students wherever necessary.
• Instruct the students to record the observations
3
PRACTICAL NO.3
Use of electron micrographs to understand the structure of cellular components.
Expected Learning Outcomes
1. Interprets the electron micrograph.
2. Identifies the cellular components as seen by an electron micrograph.
3. Draws the cellular components accurately.
4. Determines the size of each cellular component.
4
• Wherever prepared slides are not available prepare suitable slides (wet mounts) in
the classroom.
• Slides and coverslips
Instructions
• Allow students to examine the slides under low power.
• Direct them to identify the areas /zones which show the distribution of different
tissues.
• Let students identify the characters of each tissue under medium and high powers.
• Provide students with other suitable prepared slides for further identification of a
variety of plant tissues.
• Let students make suitable diagrams to show the observed characters of the tissue.
PRACTICAL NO.5
Instructions
• Allow students to examine the slides of epithelial tissues, smooth and striated
muscles, cardiac muscles, connective tissues such as cartilage, bones and human
blood cells under low power.
• Let students identify the characters of each tissue under medium and high powers.
• Let students make suitable drawings to show the observed characteristics of above
tissues.
• Instruct the students to record highlighting the identification features of each tissue.
5
PRACTICAL NO.6
Instructions
• Let the students observe each of the slides under low, medium and high powers of
the microscope respectively.
• Ask them to identify the cells which show the main stages of mitosis and meiosis
using the positions and shapes of the chromosomes.
• Direct students to draw the observed stages of mitosis and meiosis in correct
sequence.
• Direct students to identify, carefully the various positions and shapes of the
chromosomes and the changes that take place.
• Instruct the students to record highlighting the changes that occur in the nucleus and
centrioles of cells undergoing mitosis and meiosis.
6
PRACTICAL NO.7
Instructions
• Instruct students to set up the experiments as given below.
• Measure definite volumes (5 ml) of amylase solution and (10 ml) of starch
solution into separate test tubes.
• Allow the solutions to attain the same temperature.
• Mix up the two solutions and start the stop watch.
• Test a drop of reaction mixture with a drop of Iodine solution on the white
porcelain tile at 2 minute intervals.
• Continue the test until a colour change of blue- violet will not appear.
• Observe the time taken.
• Tabulate the results indicating time elapsed and colour change.
• Repeat the above procedure for different temperatures (5 0C, room
temperature, 40 0C, 60 0C) (Temperature can be maintained by adding cold
or hot water to the water bath).
• Let students comment on the results obtained.
7
PRACTICAL NO.8
8
PRACTICAL NO.9
Instructions
• Guide the students to germinate the green gram seeds, by soaking in water for at
least 8 hours and to spread it on wet paper for one day.
• Guide the students to set up two respirometers according to the diagram given in the
Annex and to follow the instructions given below.
• Add equal weights (25 g) of germinating seeds to each.
• Insert an ignition tube with KOH solution
• Make the apparatus airtight.
• Keep the flask of the respirometer in a water bath.
• Level the coloured liquid columns in A and B by using C stopper.
• Note the initial positions of the water column in each of the tubes.
• Start the stop watch.
• Observe and record changes in the water column after two hours.
• Calculate the volume of O2 intake/ the volume of CO2 released and
determine the rate of respiration.
9
PRACTICAL NO.10
Instructions
• Allow students to examine the charts/ diagrams of Bacteria.
• Let students observe and identify the characteristic features of above Cyanobacteria
using microscopes.
• Let students to record observations.
Note
• Prepare charts/ diagrams / large drawings to facilitate observation of micro organisms
by students.
10
PRACTICAL NO.11
Instructions
• Allow students to examine the diagrams/ slides/ specimens of Paramecium,
Amoeba, Diatoms, Sargassum, Gelidium and Chlamydomonas.
• Let the students observe and identify characteristic features of above mentioned
organisms.
• Let students record the observations.
Note
• Arrange field visits to study above specimens.
11
PRACTICAL NO.12
Instructions
1. Allow students to examine the diagrams/ slides/ specimens of Allomyces, Mucor,
Aspergillus and Agaricus.
2. Let the students observe and identify the characteristic features of above mentioned
organisms.
3. Let students record the observations.
Note
• Fungal growth rate is higher in dark places.
• Mycelia of Mucor can be obtained by making a thin layer on a glass slide with
moistened flour or keeping moistened bread covered with a glass jar.
12
PRACTICAL NO.13
Instructions
• Allow students to examine the diagrams /specimens of Marchantia, Pogonatum,
Selaginella, Nephrolepis,Cycas, Pinus and flowering plants-a monocot and a dicot.
• Let the students observe and identify the characteristic features of above mentioned
organisms.
• Let students record the observations.
Note
Arrange field visits to study above specimens.
13
PRACTICAL NO.14
Instructions
• Make the students observe the following organisms belonging to classes given
below.
• Classes of Phylum Coelenterata
• Class Hydrozoa: Hydra, Obelia, Soft coral
• Class Scyphozoa: Aurelia (jelly fish)
• Class Anthozoa: Sea anemone, Hard coral
• Classes of phylum Platyhelminthes
• Class Turbellaria: Planaria, Bipalium
• Class Trematoda: Fasciola (Liver fluke )
• Class Cestoda : Taenia (Tape worm )
• Classes of phylum Annelida
• Class Polychaeta: Nereis
• Class Oligochaeta: Earth worm
• Class Hirudenia: Leech
14
• Classes of phylum Mollusca
• Class Polyplacophora: Chiton
• Class Bivalvia: Mussels, Oyster
• Class Gatropoda: Snail, Slug
• Class Cephalopoda: Squid, Octopus
• Classes of phylum Arthropoda
• Class Crustacea: Prawn, crab
• Class Insecta: Cockroach ( any insect)
• Class Chilopoda: Centepede
• Class Diplopoda: Millipede
• Class Arachnida: Scorpion, Spider
• Classes of phylum Echinodermata
• Class Asteroidea: Star fish
• Class Ophiuroidea: Brittle star
• Class Echinoidea: Sea urchin, Sand dollar
• Class Holothuroidea: Sea cucumber
• Class Crinoidea: Sea lily
• Let the students observe and identify the characteristic features of the phyla and
classes to which the above organisms belong.
• Let the students observe and record the external features of the above animals.
• Let students prepare a dichotomous key to distinguish the above animals.
Note
• Maintain a collection of biological specimens and arrange field visits
15
PRACTICAL NO.15
Instructions
• Allow students to examine the diagrams/ specimens of shark/ skate, grey mullet/tuna/
carangids, toad/frog/salamander/Ichthyophis ,lizard/ cobra /crocodile, parrot/crow,
a common mammal
• Let the students observe and identify the characteristic features of above
mentioned organisms.
• Let the students record the observations.
16
PRACTICAL NO.16
Study the basic histological structure of the alimentary canal of man and relates the
major variations in different regions to their functions.
Instructions
• Provide students with wall charts/ models/computer illustrations to observe the major
parts of the alimentary canal.
• Let students observe the position of each part of the alimentary canal with respect to
other organs.
• Ask the students to observe the prepared slides and identify the four layers.
• Direct students to examine the gross external morphology and internal structure of
the stomach, small intestine, large intestine and rectum.
• Let students to observe charts/slides/ models /computer illustrations of T.S of
stomach, T.S of small intestine, T.S of liver and T.S of large intestine.
17
• Instruct students to make appropriate notes and illustrative sketches in respect of all
above observations.
• Direct them to make line diagrams to show the histology of the wall of different parts
of the alimentary canal of man using charts/models/microscopic slides.
• Provide students with prepared slides of the T.S of stomach , small intestine to
identify four basic layers that form the wall of the stomach / small intestine.
• Guide them to identify different types of tissues that form each of the four layers.
PRACTICAL NO. 17
Instructions
• Allow students to study the model or chart and note the relative positions and gross
structure of different components of respiratory system.
• Let students observe the status of the thorax during full inspiration, full expiration and
during normal uncontrolled breathing.
• Instruct the students to hold the back of their hand immediately below their nostrils to
count the number of expirations during normal breathing over a period of five
minutes.
• Ask them to count pulse during one minute, at rest.
18
• Instruct the students to stand up and step-march, to a rhythm set by the teacher for a
period of three minutes.
• Direct the students to determine pulse rate over a period of one minute and breathing
rate over a period of three minutes.
• Advice students to repeat at five minute intervals and determine time taken by each
pupil to return to resting values.
• Ask students to tabulate and analyze the results for the entire class as well as for
each individual.
PRACTICAL NO.18
20
Solute potentials of given sucrose solutions at 200C
21
PRACTICAL NO.19
Instructions
• Instruct students to prepare 20 ml solutions of different concentrations as given
above.
• Direct the students to follow the instructions given below.
• Take six pieces of 6 cm long Colocasia petioles having uniform diameter and
mark the centre of each piece.
• Split each of them radially in to 4 strips of equal size.
22
• Place each piece on blank paper and mark the three points as given in the diagram.
23
• Test tube rack
• Two ( 10 cm3 or 25 cm3 ) graduated pipettes
• Distilled water
• 1M sucrose solution
• Cork borer
• Two 100 cm 3 beakers
• Graph paper
Instructions
• Direct the students to follow the instructions given below.
• Cut 12 strips of tissue (5cm in length) using the cork borer.
• Keep a graph paper below each petri dish.
• Completely immerse at least 2 strips in each Petri dish. Immediately measure
their lengths against the graph paper seen through the bottom of the Petri
dishes.
• Leave in covered Petri dish for 30 minutes to 60 minutes ( depending on the
diameter of the tubers) to achieve osmotic equilibrium.
• Measure the lengths again and calculate the mean percentage change in length.
Then plot a graph of the mean percentage change in length versus molarity
of the sucrose solution.
• Determine the concentration of the solution which caused no change in length
from the graph.
• Determine the water potential of potato tissue using the given table.
PRACTICAL NO.20
Determination of rates of transpiration from leaves and shoots
24
Materials and Equipments
• Healthy leaves from a plant like Hibiscus/Betel/Colocasia to get epidermal peel
• Light microscope
• Ganong’s potometer
• Vaseline
• Slides and coverslips
Instructions
• Let the students examine epidermal peel under the microscope and estimate the
relative abundance of stomata.
• Guide the students to set up the potometer as follows:
• Fix a shoot of a plant which is cut underwater to the Ganong’s potometer.
• Apply Vaseline on the rubber stopper to make it air tight.
• Introduce an air bubble into the capillary tube of potometer.
• Record the time taken for air bubble to travel a particular distance in the
capillary tube.
• Correlate the rate of movement to the rate of transpiration.
• Change the environmental factors and note the change in rate of movement of
the air bubble.
• Comment on influence of changed environmental factors.
PRACTICAL NO. 21
Study the circulatory system of man using specimens/models/diagrams
25
Materials and Equipments
• A model/chart / computer illustrations showing gross external morphology including
pericardium, main vessels entering and leaving the heart and the main coronary
vessels.
• A model/chart showing gross internal structure in sectional view including chambers,
valves, origin of main vessels, position of pacemaker and Bundle of His.
• Chart showing the cardiac cycle, directions of blood flow, pattern of transmission of
neuro- muscular impulse.
• Computer simulations/ animations of cardiac cycle.
• Charts showing the main pattern of arterial and venous circulation and diffusion in
capillary beds.
Instructions
• Instruct the students to study the external and internal structure of the heart using the
models and charts.
• Direct them to relate the cardiac cycle to the transmission of neuro- muscular
impulses.
• Make the students listen to and identify the heart sounds by simulations/computer
animations.
• Direct the students to learn to feel the pulse at the wrist or neck.
• Instruct the students to record their observations.
PRACTICAL NO. 22
26
Materials and Equipments
• Chart/diagram of the nerve net of a Hydra.
• Prepared slide/chart /diagram of the nervous system of a Planaria.
• Model/Chart/diagram showing the nervous system of an earth worm.
• Model/Chart /diagram showing the nervous system of cockroach.
• Model/Chart/diagram showing the human brain and nervous system.
Instructions
• Get students to observe the diversity of nervous systems of Hydra, Planaria, earth
worm, cockroach and human brain and nervous system.
• Direct the students to observe the following in the charts/models/diagrams of the
human brain and nervous system.
• Observe the gross external morphology of the brain and the spinal cord.
• Observe the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
• In the chart/model of the human brain note:-
a. the shape and the surface features, convoluted nature and sulci.
b. identify the main lobes of the brain
c. study a diagram showing the major regions of the brain in relation to their
function.
• Instruct the students to record the observations.
PRACTICAL NO. 23
27
Instructions
• Instruct the students to observe the eye spots of the planarian with special reference
to appearance and location.
• Direct them to observe the simple eyes of the spider, location and appearance.
• Direct them to observe the eye of the insect with a hand lens.
• Allow them to make appropriate sketches of the sense organs studied and of
important parts.
PRACTICAL NO. 24
Study the structure of the human eye and ear using diagrams /models /charts.
Instructions
• Allow students to observe the location and structure of the human eye.
• Direct the students to relate the main parts of the human eye to their functions.
• Instruct students to study the various parts and functions in balance and in hearing of
the human ear.
28
PRACTICAL NO. 25
Study of major types of excretory organs in animals using diagrams and charts
Instructions
• Allow students to examine the nephridium of earthworm.
• Make them observe the structure and location of the malphigian tubules of
cockroach.
• Instruct students to observe the kidney, ureters, urinary bladder of man.
• Make them observe the L.S of the kidney; recognize cortex and medulla, distribution
of nephrons and parts of a nephron.
• Instruct them to make labeled line diagrams of observed structures.
29
PRACTICAL NO. 26
Study of the gross structure of the human skull and vertebral column in relation to
their functions of the various parts using models/diagrams/specimens.
Instructions
• Make the students observe the following features in the skull:-
a. Shape, smooth surface and volume
b. Frontal view with prominent forehead, flattened face, forwardly directed
orbits, well formed chin.
c. Mandible, articulation with skull and dentition.
d. Inferior, superior, posterior and anterior views of the skull, position of foramen
magnum, occipital condyles and articulation with atlas vertebra
e. Location of auditory apparatus
f. Nasal region and turbinals
• Ask students to make observations on themselves and on other students and note
a. three dimensional range of mobility of head and how it moves in relation to the
atlas and axis vertebrae
b. Range of movement of mandible and movements during mastication of solid
food material
• Instruct them to observe the following features of the vertebral column
a. The curvatures of the vertebral column as seen in lateral view
b. The increase in size of vertebrae from the superior to the inferior part of the
vertebral column
30
c. Vertebrae in the cervical, thoracic, lumbar and sacral regions and the coccyx
and the number of vertebrae in each region
d. The relationship of the thoracic vertebrae to the ribs and the nature of the
articulation of each rib to the corresponding vertebra
e. The inter – vertebral discs
f. The sacral vertebrae and their relationship to the pelvic girdle
• Instruct to make appropriate drawings and sketches.
PRACTICAL NO.27
Study of the human pectoral and pelvic girdles and appendicular skeleton using
specimens/ models/ diagrams
Instructions
• Allow students to observe and study pectoral girdle.
• Allow students to observe and study upper limb.
• Direct the students to study and record the movement of the pelvic girdle, the
shoulder joint and the limbs including joints, pronation, supination and opposability.
• Allow students to observe & study pelvic girdle.
• Direct the students to study and record the relationship between structure & function
of pelvic girdle, hip joint and lower limb.
• Lead a discussion on weight bearing & bipedalism and structure of the foot.
• Highlight the movements of the leg, joints, heel and toe during walking.
31
PRACTICAL NO.28
Instructions
• Instruct students to cut thin transverse sections and transfer them to the water in
watch glass.
• Make them mount the sections on a drop of water on a slide and cover with the
cover slip.
• Direct students to select a part of the section which shows all the tissues clearly.
• Make them observe under high power the piliferous layer, cortex, endodermis,
pericycle, xylem, phloem, pith and parenchyma.
• Make students observe root hairs, casparian strips and passage cells.
• Direct students to cut thin transverse sections of a small segment of the leaf and
observe under microscope using the same techniques described above.
• Instruct them to observe the nature and distribution of the different types of tissues
and cells.
• Ask them to draw the line diagram and detailed diagram.
32
PRACTICAL NO.29
Instructions
• Allow the students to study the chart/diagram/computer illustrations carefully and
understand the structure and relative positions of each organ of the male reproductive
system.
• Guide them to observe the T.S of testis, to note the various stages of the germinal
epithelium, the sperms and their relative arrangements, Leydig cells and sertoli cells.
• Lead a discussion on the relationship of structure to their functions.
PRACTICAL NO.30
Instructions
• Allow the students to study the chart carefully and understand the structure and
relative positions of different organs of the female reproductive system.
• Lead a discussion on the relationship of structure of different organs of the female
reproductive system to their functions.
PRACTICAL NO. 31
Study of cross section of primary stem and primary root of a monocot and a dicot
34
• Cross section of a dicot stem taken from a plant like Tridax.
• Cross section of a monocot stem taken from a grass or other similar plant.
• Pith of a Manihot stem or potato tuber.
• Razor blades, slides, cover slips , small paint brush, watch glasses.
• Microscope
Instructions
• Guide students to cut thin transverse sections and transfer them to the water in a
watch glass.
• Instruct them to mount the thin section to a drop of water on a glass slide and cover
it with a cover slip.
• Ask them to observe the prepared slides under the microscope.
• Let them observe the nature and distribution of the different types of tissues and cells.
• Direct them to identify epidermis, cortex, endodermis, pericycle, xylem, phloem and
pith of the prepared thin sections.
• Instruct students to make line drawings to demarcate the important structures
studied.
• Ask them to label the above mentioned tissues in their diagrams.
PRACTICAL NO.32
35
• Aniline sulphate solution
• Microscope
Instructions
• Instruct students to cut thin transverse sections of the stem apex and collect in a
watch glass filled with water.
• Instruct students to stain with Aniline sulphate solution.
• Ask them to mount sections in a drop of water, on a slide and cover it with a cover
slip.
• Let the students observe under low power of microscope and select a thin section
where secondary xylem and secondary phloem has just begun to form.
• Direct them to observe under high power and note the distribution of different
tissues.
• Let the students observe a cross section of the plant stem and identify important
structures such as bark, sap wood, heart wood and growth rings.
• Instruct the students to record their observations.
PRACTICAL NO. 33
Instructions
• Direct the students to select a number of easily heritable traits such as the characters
given below.
• Ear lobe hanging (dominant) or attached (recessive)
• Ability to roll the tongue (dominant) or inability to roll the
tongue (recessive)
36
• Absence of dimples (recessive) or presence of dimples (dominant)
• Curved thumb (dominant) or straight thumb (recessive)
• Instruct the students to tabulate the results.
• Guide them to workout percentage occurrence of each character within the class.
• Allow them to discuss concept of dominance and recessiveness of these characters.
• Advice students to derive conclusions based on their observations.
PRACTICAL NO. 34
Study of a small ecosystem and finding out the organization levels of the
environment.
Instructions
• Select a suitable system for study (small pond, part of paddy field or a home
garden).
• Instruct the students to make a map of the selected site.
• Let them recognize the dominant characteristic (biotic or abiotic) of the ecosystem.
• Direct students to list the non living components.
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• Make the students recognize the living component and group them as producers,
primary consumers and secondary consumers etc.
• Allow students to recognize the morpho-species of the various plants and animals.
• Make them identify the species of various plants and animals as far as possible.
• Let the students note their particular habitats and features of their micro environment.
• Instruct the students to recognize feeding relationship and associations.
• Direct the students to record the practical with special regard to the following;
a) All records should be made in a field note book in the first instance.
b) Describe the location giving all relevant physical features and characteristics.
c) Describe the structure of the ecosystem.
d) Comment on the functioning of the ecosystem using flow diagrams.
e) Tabulate morpho-species and write notes indicating distinctive features.
f) Comment on the ecosystem as a whole.
PRACTICAL NO. 35
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Instructions
• Let the students prepare the following for the microscopic observations;
a. Sample of toddy
b. Yoghurt/ curd
c. Suspension of Baker’s yeast in a sugar solution
d. Hay infusion
e. Water from a paddy field
f. Moldy bread
• With samples a – e let them proceed as follows:-
1. Place a drop of the sample on the center of a slide and cover with a cover
slip.
2. Observe under the high power of microscope.
3. Note carefully the shape, size and any other features of the micro-organisms in
each sample - bacteria, yeast, Protozoa and algae.
• Make them proceed as follows with sample f :-
1. Place a small fragment of moldy bread in drop of water on a slide. Cover with
cover slip.
2. Observe under the low, medium and high powers of the microscope.
3. Note the nature and structure of the fungal mycelium.
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PRACTICAL NO. 36
Practice techniques for sterilization of water, culture media, glassware, heat labile
substances and inoculating needles.
Instructions
• Instruct the students to follow the techniques used in sterilization.
a) Sterilization by dry heat (using direct flame)
i For inoculating needles, loops and such materials which will not be
damaged by heat. Hold in flame of Bunsen burner until red hot.
ii. In the case of scalpels, metal spatulas and glass rods dip in methylated spirits
or ethyl alcohol. Allow excess spirit to drip off and flame the instrument in the
Bunsen flame.
b) Sterilization by dry heat (in the oven)
For sterilization of dry glassware such as Petri dishes, flasks and pipettes.
Prepare glassware for sterilization as follows:-
• Wash glassware, clean and wipe dry thoroughly.
• Wrap the glassware in Aluminum foil or paper and place in the container.
• For conical flasks plug the mouth with clean cotton wool and cover the plugs with
Aluminum foil.
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• For pipettes plug mouth with cotton wool and heat the tip briefly in the Bunsen
flame.
• Wrap the pipettes individually in Aluminum foil or paper and store in
containers.
• Store all prepared glassware in an oven, at a temperature of 160 0C. Keep the
oven door tightly closed.
• Keep in oven for 1-2 hrs depending on the amount of glassware in the oven.
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PRACTICAL NO. 37
Preparation of a simple culture medium (Nutrient Agar) and inoculation with a sample
of toddy/ yoghurt.
Instructions
• Direct them to follow the instructions given below.
i. Preparation of Nutrient agar from prepared material.
• Follow instructions given on the bottle of Nutrient Agar.
• Add the appropriate amount of Nutrient Agar powder to 100 ml of water and boil
until agar is dissolved.
• Sterilize the solution by autoclaving at 121 oC for 15 min (15 lb/sq in.)
ii. Preparation of agar plates.
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• Pour 15 ml of the sterilized Nutrient Agar into sterilized Petri dishes, using
aseptic techniques.
• Set aside to solidify.
iii. Inoculation of the plates :
• Label the bottom of each agar plate using a marker pen.
• Flame the inoculating loop to redness, allow it to cool and aseptically obtain a
loopful of the sample. eg. toddy or yoghurt.
• Place the loopful of sample on the agar plate at one side or near the edge of
the dish and streak on the agar surface in a zig zag pattern
• Set aside for 24-48 hr. at room temperature
• Instruct the students to record the practical highlighting the following.
1. Draw diagrams of the colonies grown on plates.
2. Make notes on observations and procedure.
PRACTICAL NO. 38
Staining of bacteria found in toddy or yoghurt using a simple stain (Methylene Blue).
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Instructions
• Instruct the students to carry out the following procedure.
1. Preparation of smear
• Clean slides with cleanser, rinse and dry
• Handle the clean slides by their edges, preferably using a pair of forceps
• Use marker pen or pencils to label each slide according to the sample used
(A) For the bacterial culture of yoghurt and curd.
• Place 1 or 2 loops full of distilled water on the center of one slide using the
sterilized inoculating needle
• Heat the loop until it is red hot and allow to cool.
• Scrape a small amount of the sample using the cooled loop.
• Emulsify the scrapings in the drop of water and spread the suspension in the
shape of a circle (the smear should be very thin)
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PRACTICAL NO. 39
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PRACTICAL NO. 40
Instructions
• Allow the students to examine the external morphology of each pest and note
distinctive features by which each can be identified.
• Let students study the charts and observe other important features, the life cycle
stages and the life cycle of each pest.
• Direct them to identify affected parts of plant.
• Arrange field visits to observe pests in situ and the nature of damage to the plants.
• Instruct students to record the external features that can be used to identify the above
pests.
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PRACTICAL NO. 41
Observation of stages of life cycles and study of data on incidence and distribution of
the following parasites in Sri Lanka: malarial parasite, filarial parasite and hook
worm.
Instructions
• Guide them to identify the different stages of the life cycles of malaria parasite, filarial
parasite and hook worm under high power.
• Direct them to draw sketches of these stages and note the features used for
identification.
• Direct them to identify malarial and filarial vectors and note their external features.
• Ask them to record their observations.
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PRACTICAL NO. 42
Study of different kinds of weeds in a selected area and separation into morpho -
species
Instructions
• Instruct students to make a rough sketch of the garden plot giving location of crop
species.
• Ask students to select random plots of one square foot and study morpho - species
distribution of weeds in the plots.
• Guide them to study the characteristics of each separate morpho - species and note
down features by which each can be easily identified.
• Identify the species as far as possible.
• Direct them to make sketches recording different types of identified morpho species
and make appropriate notes.
• Guide them to make notes on the features of the weed species that enable them to
grow faster than the crop species.
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Appendix
Biuret test
Add 2 cm3 protein solution to equal volume of 5% KOH solution and mix. Add two
drops of 1% CuSO4 solution and mix.
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GANONG'S POTOMETER
Delivery tube
C 'T' ' Joint
B
A
KOH Solution
Coloured liquid / Hg
Germinating seeds
RESPIROMETER
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COMPOUND LIGHT MICROSCOPE
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