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A First Course
D Somasundaram

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Science

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Differential Geometry
A First Course

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Differential Geometry
A First Course

D Somasundaram

©
Alpha Science International Ltd.
Harrow, U.K.
 Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com

D. Somasundaram
Department of Mathematics
Erstwhile Madras University
P.G. Extension Centre
Salem, Tamil Nadu, India

Copyright © 2005

Alpha Science International Ltd

Hygeia Building, 66 College Road,
Harrow, Middlesex HA1 1BE, U.K.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
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ISBN 1 -84265- 182-X

Printed in India

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 Preface

This book is a detailed introduction to the classical theory of curves and surfaces
which is offered as a core subject in mathematics at the post-graduate level in most
of our universities. Based on Serret-Frenet formulae, the theory of space curves is
developed. The theory of surfaces includes the first fundamental form with local
intrinsic properties, geodesies on surfaces, the second fundamental form with local
non-intrinsic properties and the fundamental equations of the surface theory with
several applications. A variety of graded examples and exercises are included to
illustrate all aspects of the theory.
Relevant motivation of different concepts and the complete discussion of
theory and problems without omission of steps and details make the book self-
contained and readable so that it will stimulate self-study and promote learning
among the students in the post-graduate course in mathematics.
I take this opportunity to thank Mr. N.K. Mehra, the Managing Director of
Narosa Publishing House, for his personal care and excellent co-operation in the
publication of this book. Suggestions for the further improvement of the book will
be most welcome.
Finally I wish to dedicate this book to the fond memory of my beloved parents
Tmt. D. Vishalakshi and Thiru A. Durairaj and to my most revered Professor
V. Ganapathy Iyer.

Madurai D. Somasundaram
 Contents

Preface v

1. Theory of Space Curves 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Representation of space curves 2
1.3 Unique parametric representation of a space curve 3
1.4 Arc-length 7
1.5 Tangent and osculating plane 10
1.6 Principal normal and binormal 15
1.7 Curvature and torsion 18
1.8 Behaviour of a curve near one of its points 26
1.9 The curvature and torsion of a curve as the intersection
of two surfaces 31
1.10 Contact between curves and surfaces 35
1.11 Osculating circle and osculating sphere 37
1.12 Locus of centres of spherical curvature 43
1.13 Tangent surfaces, involutes and evolutes 48
1.14 Betrand curves 57
1.15 Spherical indicatrix 61
1.16 Intrinsic equations of space curves 67
1.17 Fundamental existence theorem for space curves 69
1.18 Helices 76
1.19 Examples I 80
1.20 Exercises I 99

2. The First Fundamental Form and Local Intrinsic

Properties of A Surface 101
2.1 Introduction 101
2.2 Definition of a surface 101
2.3 Nature of points on a surface 103
2.4 Representation of a surface 106
viii Contents

2.5 Curves on surfaces 108

2.6 Tangent plane and surface normal 109
2.7 The general surfaces of revolution 114
2.8 Helicoids 117
2.9 Metric on a surface—The first fundamental form 118
2.10 Direction coefficients on a surface 123
2.11 Families of curves 131
2.12 Orthogonal trajectories 133
2.13 Double family of curves 136
2.14 Isometric correspondence 138
2.15 Intrinsic properties 142
2.16 Examples II 143
2.17 Exercises II 158

3. Geodesies on a Surface 160

3.1 Introduction 160
3.2 Geodesies and their differential equations 160
3.3 Canonical geodesic equations 173
3.4 Geodesies on surfaces of revolution 174
3.5 Normal property of geodesies 178
3.6 Differential equations of geodesies using normal property 182
3.7 Existence theorems 192
3.8 Geodesic parallels 199
3.9 Geodesic polar coordinates 201
3.10 Geodesic curvature 202
3.11 Gauss-Bonnet theorem 220
3.12 Gaussain curvature 227
3.13 Surfaces of constant curvature 232
3.14 Conformal mapping 237
3.15 Geodesic mapping 242
3.16 Examples III 249
3.17 Exercises III 276

4. The Second Fundamental Form and Local

Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 279
4.1 Introduction 279
4.2 The second fundamental form 279
4.3 Classification of points on a surface 284
4.4 Principal curvatures 290
4.5 Lines of curvature 296
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Contents ix

4.6 The Dupin indicatrix 302

4.7 Developable surfaces 313
4.8 Developables associated with space curves 321
4.9 Developables associated with curves on surfaces 329
4.10 Minimal surfaces 331
4.11 Ruled surfaces 335
4.12 Three fundamental forms 353
4.13 Examples IV 358
4.14 Exercises IV 379

5. The Fundamental Equations of Surface Theory 382

5.1 Introduction 382
5.2 Tensor notations 382
5.3 Gauss equations 383
5.4 Weingarten equations 388
5.5 Mainardi-Codazzi equations 390
5.6 Parallel surfaces 399
5.7 Fundamental existence theorem for surfaces 404
5.8 Examples V 416
5.9 Exercises V 442

Hints and Answers to Exercises 444

1.20 Exercises I 444
2.17 Exercises II 446
3.17 Exercises III 448
4.14 Exercises IV 450
5.9 Exercises V 454
References 455
Index 456

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 1
Theory of Space Curves

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Differential Geometry is the study of properties of space curves and surfaces.with
the help of vector calculus. This geometry examines in more details the curves in
space and surfaces, whereas the differential geometry of the plane curves deals
with the tangents, normals, curvature, asymptotes, involutes, evolutes etc. which
have analogues for space curves. Though we have these analogues for a space
curve, the curvature at a point of a space curve and the tangent plane at a point to a
surface play a dominant role in the differential geometry. Thus the differential
geometry studies the pointwise properties of space curves and surfaces as distinct
from the algebraic geometry whose sole aim is to describe the properties of the
configuration as a whole.
In this chapter on space curves, first we shall specify a space curve as the
intersection of two surfaces. Then we shall explain how we shall arrive at a unique
parametric representation of a point on the space curve and also give a precise
definition of a space curve in E3 as set of points associated with an equivalence
class of regular parametric representations. With the help of this parametric
representation, we shall define tangent, normal and binormal at a point leading to
the moving triad (t, n, b) and their associated tangent, normal and rectifying
planes. Since the triad (t, n, b) at a point is moving continuously as P varies over
the curve, we are interested to know the arc-rate of rotation of t, n, and b. This
leads to the well-known formulae of Serret-Frenet.
Then we shall establish the conditions for the contact of curves and surfaces
leading to the definitions of osculating circle and osculating sphere at a point on
the space curve and also the evolutes and involutes. Before concluding this
chapter, we shall explain what is meant by intrinsic equations of space curves and
establish the fundamental theorem of space curves which states that if curvature
and torsion are the given continuous functions of a real variable sy then they
determine the space curve uniquely. We shall illustrate all the notions developed
with a particular type of space curves known as helices. In all our discussion, the
basic formula of Serret-Frenet occupies the central position.
2 Differential Geometry—A First Course

1.2 REPRESENTATION OF SPACE CURVES

Whenever we use the word space, it means the Euclidean space of dimension three
denoted by Ey In this space a single equation generally represents a surface and so
we need two equations to specify a curve. Thus we first introduce a space curve as
the intersection of two surfaces
Fl(x,y,z) = 0, F2(*,;y,z) = 0 ...(I)
Though we are able to fix the curve in space with the help of the equations (1),
we are unable to obtain the representation of different points on the whole curve.
Since a space curve is a set of points with a sense of description, it is desirable to
know the coordinates of a point on the curve as functions of single parameter. So
the question naturally arises whether one can obtain the parametric representation
of a curve with the help of equation (1). First let us examine this question and then
its converse.
Let the functions F{ and F2 of (1) satisfy the following conditions of the
implicit function theorem.
(i) Let F{ and F2 have continuous partial derivatives of first order.
(ii) At least one of the following three Jacobian determinants

d(F^F2) d(Fl9F2) d(FlyF2)

d(y,z) ' d(z,x) ' d(x,y)
is different from zero at a point (x0, y0, z0) on the curve.
Under these conditions one can obtain the solution of two variables in terms of
the third variable. Hence without loss of generality, let us assume that the first
Jacobian is different from zero. Then we can solve for y and z in terms of x and
obtain y =/,(*) and z -f2M as their solutions. Having obtained these values ofy
and z in terms of x, we take the parametric representation as
x=u, y=fx{u\ z=f2(u) ...(3)
The above equations treating* as a parameter are true for the restricted values
of JC under the conditions (2). So they cannot give the parametric representation of
the whole curve. Thus having started with the definition of a curve as the
intersection of two surfaces, we are unable to arrive at a satisfactory representation
of the whole curve.
Next let us examine the converse question in a little more detailed manner. Let
us assume that the curve is given in the following parametric form
* = *(«), y = y(u), z = z(u)9 ux<u<u2 ...(4)
and find the curve as the intersection of two surfaces. Now solving for u in terms
of x from the first equation as u = f{x) and substituting for u in the other two
equations, we obtain
y = y[fMl z = z[f(x)] ...(5)
Hence the equations of two surfaces specifying the curve are given by (5).
Theory of Space Curves 3

The difficulty with this method of elimination is that the intersection of the
above two surfaces not only contain the given curve, but also it may contain some
extra curves as shown by the following example.
Example 1. Consider the cubic curve with parametric representation
x = uyy = u > z = u ...(1)
A most straight forward method of elimination gives
y-x2 and xz = y2 ...(2)
We know that y2 = xz represents a parabolic cylinder and x2 = y is a cone with
the vertex at the origin. Hence the two surfaces specify the curve and their
intersection not only contain the cubic curve (1) but also thez-axis as the equations
(2) satisfy x = 0, y = 0.
Another method of elimination of the parameter u in (1) givesxy = z andxz -y2
which are the equations of the two required surfaces specifying the cubic curve.
Though y2 = xz represents the same parabolic cylinder as in (2), xy = z represents
a paraboloid. Their intersection contains not only the given cubic curve but also the
x-axis as the two equations satisfy the conditions y = 0, z = 0.
Thus we see that different types of eliminations of the parameters in the
parametric equations not only give the curve as the intesection of the two surfaces
but also include extraneous curves like z-axis or jc-axis. As a result, we are unable
to arrive at a one to one correspondence between the points on the curves and the
curves given by the intersections of two surfaces whose equations we obtain from
the parametric representations.
So, of the two methods of defining a space curve, we find that the definition of
a curve as the intersection of the two surfaces gives very little information about
the curves. Though it fixes the curve in space, it fails to give the coordinate
representation of different points and the sense of description of the curve. So it is
not amenable to the treatment of vector calculus.
Summarising the above discussion, we conclude that when the curve is defined
as the intersection of two surfaces, the parametric representation obtained from the
two surface equations does not give the whole curve and when the curve is
represented parametrically, the equations we obtain from the elimination of
parameters lead two surface equations giving not only the curve in question but
also some extraneous curves. Hence the two definitions are not equivalent.
So between the two definitions of a space curve, we choose the parametric
representation which is most advantageous. Since the parametric representation
gives the position of different points on the curve and also the sense of variation
along the curve, we can represent the points on the curve vectorially and use vector
analysis for studying the properties of space curves.

1.3 UNIQUE PARAMETRIC REPRESENTATION OF A

SPACE CURVE
The greatest advantage of parametric representation is that it gives the sense of
description of the curve as parameter varies in a given interval. However it should
4 Differential Geometry—A First Course

be noted that we have different methods of parametrising the same curve. The
problem is how we are going to deal with the different parameters representing the
same point on the curve. We collect together different parameters representing the
same point into a class and choose a representative parameter from the class which
yields the same property as the other parameters of the class. Hence a curve will
therefore be specified by all possible parametric representations which are
equivalent in that all describe the same curve in the same sense. We shall make
these notions precise in the following definitions.
Definition 1. Let / be a real interval and ra be a positive integer. A real valued
function/defined on / is said to be of class ra, if/has continuous rath derivative at
every point of/. We call such functions Cm functions.
Note 1. When a function is infinitely differentiate, then / i s said to be of
class infinity or the function itself is called C°° functions.
Note 2. If/is a real valued function of several variables, then it is of class ra
if it admits all continuous partial derivatives of order ra.
Definition 2. A function/is said to be analytic over /, if/is single valued and
/possesses continuous derivatives of all orders at every point of /. This class of
functions is denoted by (0. The function itself is called a C® function. These
functions have power series representations in the neighbourhood of every point
of/.
Definition 3. A vector valued function R = R(w) defined on / is said to be of
class ra, if it has continuous rath order derivative at every point of/.
If we represent R vectorially as R = (JC, y> z), then the above definition implies
that each of the components JC, y, z is of class ra and x, y, z are functions of u.

Definition 4. If R = — never vanishes on /, then the vector valued

du
function R = R(w) is said to be regular. This implies that x, y, z will never vanish
on / simultaneously.
Definition 5. A regular vector valued function R = R(w) of class ra is called
a path of class ra.
Note 1. As the parameter u varies, R(w) gives the position vector of different
points on the curve. Thus a path can be considered as the locus of a moving point
giving the manner in which the curve is described.
Note 2. Since the definition of a path depends not only on a vector valued
function R(w), but also on the interval /, there are as many paths as there are regular
vector valued functions of class ra defined on /. Likewise a single path may be
defined by different Cm functions defined on different intervals I{, I2 etc. For
example we can have a path of the same class defined on Ix and I2 corresponding to
two different vector valued functions. Hence to arrive at a unique single path of the
given class corresponding to the parameter u defined on /, it is desirable to
partition the paths into mutually disjoint classes .of the same type and choose a
representative path of the same class with a unique parameter. We shall achieve
this by an equivalence relation among the paths of the same class as follows.
Theory of Space Curves 5

Definition 6. Two paths Rj and R2 of class Cn defined on I{ and/ 2 are said to

be equivalent if there exists a strictly increasing function 0 of class m which maps
/j onto 12 such that Rj = R 2 ° 0
If we takeRj = (xltyu Z\) and R2 = (x2, y2, z2), then the above conditions are the
same as
xx{u) = x2((p(u)X yx(u) = y2((p(u))i z,(w) = z2(0(w))
First let us verify that the notion of equivalence of paths of the same class as
defined in the previous paragraph is an equivalence relation.
(i) To prove the relation is reflexive, let R, be a path of class m defined on /
and let us take 0 = /. The identity function is an increasing function on /
and R, = R,o/ so that R{ is equivalent to itself. Thus the relation of
equivalence of paths is reflexive.
(ii) Let Rj and R2 be the paths of the same class m defined on /, and I2
respectively. Let R, be equivalent to R2. We shall show that R2 is
equivalent to R,. Since R{ is equivalent to R2, there exists a strictly
increasing function 0 from /, onto I2 such that R, = R2o 0. Since 0 is a
strictly increasing function on /, onto I2 with 0 # 0 , the inverse function
0 _1 exists as a strictly increasing function on I2 onto I{. Hence we have
R2 = R, o 0" ! which shows that R2 is equivalent to R,. Hence this relation
is symmetric,
(iii) To prove the relation is transitive, let the path Rj be equivalent to R2 and
R2 be equivalent to R3. Then there exists a strictly increasing function 0
defined on lx onto I2 such that
R, = R 2 o0. ...(1)
In a similar manner, there exists a strictly increasing function i/^on I2 onto
73 such that
R2 = R 3 o ^ . ...(2)
Since 0:1{ —> I2 and y/: l2 —> 73 are strictly increasing functions yo 0is a well-
defined strictly increasing function on Ix onto 73. From (1) and (2) we have
Rj = R2 o0= R 3 o ^ o 0
Since y/o(p\s strictly increasing function on I{ onto 73, Rj is equivalent to R3,
proving that the relation is transitive.
Thus the notion of equivalence of paths of the same class Cm is an equivalence
relation. This relation introduces a partition on the paths of the same class splitting
the paths of the same class into mutually disjoint classes such that the paths within
the same class are equivalent to one another. Using these mutually disjoint classes,
we shall define a space curve and the parametric representation as follows.
These different equivalent classes of paths of class m determine the curves of
class m. Thus any path R determines a unique curve and R is called the parametric
representation of the curve. The variable u is called the parameter. Further
R = (*» y* z) wherex =x(u),y =y(u), z = z{u) is called the parametric representation
of the curve. The function 0 of two equivalent paths is called the change of
parameter. Though 0 preserves the sense of description of the curve, it gives the
6 Differential Geometry—A First Course

changes in the manner of description of the curve. Summarising the above, we

define a curve as follows.
Definition 7. Any curve of class m in E3 is defined to be any set of points in
E3 associated with an equivalence class of regular parametric representations of
class m having one parameter.
Since the properties of a curve depend on a particular parameter chosen, every
property of a path is not a property of the curve. We are concerned with those
properties of a curve which are common to all parametric representations. This
means those properties which are invariant under a parametric transformation.
Before proceeding further, we shall illustrate the equivalent representations by
the following two examples.
Example 1. The following are the two equivalent representations of a circular
helix.
(i) Rj(w) = (a cos w, a sin w, bu), ue Ix = [0, n)

1 - v2 2av „ , _i *
(ii) R2(v) = r, T , 2b tan v
, V G I2 = [0, oo)
2 2
v 1+v 1+v j
To show thatRj is equivalent toR 2 , we find a change of parameter <p(u) from/j
to I2 such that Rj(w) = R2[0(w)].

Let us takev = 0(w) = tan — u which is an increasing function from/j onto/ 2 so

that we can take this function as a change of parameter.
Hence R2(v) = R2[0(w)]
u
2 1 ~
1 - tan — u 2a tan2 — ~, -i u
— ,2fctan l vt a n -L
1 + tan - w 1 + tan -
2 2
= (a cos w, b sin w,few)= R^w)
Thus there exists a change of parameter 0(w) such thatR^w) = R2[0(w)] so that
R2 is equivalent to R{.

Example 2. Let I{ = [ 0, - j and / 2 = (0, 1).

Let Rt(w) = (2 cos2 w, sin 2w, 2 sin u) be defined on /j

If 0: / 2 -» /i is defined as w = 0(v) = sin _1 (v), find the parametric
representation R2(v) equivalent to R{(u).
Now 0: 72 -> / t is u = 0(v) = sin_1(v). Then we have v = sin u.
Hence R^w) = [2(1 - sin2 w), 2 sin u cos w, 2 sin u]
Now R2(v) =Ri[0(v)]
Theory of Space Curves 7

R2(v) = [2(1 - v2), 2v>/l - v2 , 2v] which is the required parametric

transformation equivalent to 1^ (w).

1.4 ARC-LENGTH
We define the arc length of a curve and derive a formula for the arc length. Using
this formula of arc length, we show that the arc length is invariant under parametric
representation so that the arc length of a curve can be used as a parameter in our
study of properties of a space curve. Hence the arc length of a space curve plays the
important role as a natural parameter.
Definition 1. Let R = R(w) be a path with parameter we /. As u varies over
[a, b] c /, the path is an arc of the original path joining a and b. Let A be the
subdivision of [a, b] as follows
A = {a = w0 < ux <u2< ... < ut < ... < un = b}
Corresponding to this subdivision A of [a, b], let
n

L(A) = £ IROO-RK.,)!
/=!
Then L(A) gives the sum of the lengths of the sides of the polygon inscribed
within the curve by joining the successive points on the path. Any addition of new
points like u- in the side w/_1 u{ increases L(A),
since |R(M/) - R(M|._ {)\ < |R(w •) - R(«/-,)| + |R(«/) - R(M-)|
Since a * by as A varies over all possible subdivisions of [a, b], we obtain a non-
empty subset (L(A)} of real numbers. The least upper bound of this set {L(A)} of
real numbers is defined to be the length of the arc between a and b.
The following theorem asserts the existence of finite upperbound for the set
(L(A)} and gives a formula for it.
Theorem 1. If R = R(w) is the parametric representation of a curve where
u G [a, b], the length of the curve

s = S(u)= \"\R(u)\du ...(1)

Proof. For a subdivision A = {a = u0 < u{ < u2 ... < un - b\

n

we have L(A) = £ |R(M(.)-!*(«,._,)! ...(2)

Since R is at least of class C1, we have

|R(M,.)-R(M|._,)|= f"'R(«) du\ .-(3)

| J « f -i

Using (3) in (2), we obtain,

L(A)=V R(u)du\
8 Differential Geometry—A First Course

By Schwarz inequality, we get

Y P R G O du\ < Y ["'\R(u)\du = f\R(u)\du ..(4)

i=\ i=\

so that we have L(A)< f | R | du

Ja

Since the right hand side of (4) is finite and independent of A, the set {L(A)} for
all possible subdivisons A of [a, b] is a bounded set of real numbers and it is
bounded above. So the least upper bound of (L(A)} exists as a finite quantity.
Next we shall show that this upperbound is actually (1) given in the theorem.
If S = S(u) denotes the arc length from a to w, then S(u) - S(u0) gives the arc
length between u0 and u. Since we have defined the arc length as the least upper
bound of (L(A)}, we have from (4)

S(u)-S(u0)< iU\R(u)\du ...(5)

Since the length of the chord joining R(w) and R(w0) is less than the arcual
length, we have
\R(u)-R(u0)\<S(u)-S(u0) ...(6)
From (5) and (6), we have

R( W )-R(« 0 ) <Mz^o)<_^f|k(M)kM ...(7)

U- Wn UQ U- UQ *>UO

Taking the limit as u —> w0, we get from (7)

|R(«o)|^S(iio)<|R(«o)|
Hence S(u0) exists and has the value S(u0) = |R(w0)| ...(8)
Since (8) is equally true for any parameter uQ in /, we conclude from (8)
(i) S is a function of the same class as the curve

(ii) As S(a) = 0, s = S(u) = \"\R(u)\du .(9)

Ja

where s denotes the length of the curve from a to u.

Corollary. In terms of cartesian parametric representation,

s = \ y]x2 + y2 + z2 du.
Ja
Proof. In cartesian parametric representation,
let R(u) = x(u)i + y(u)j + z(u)k.

Then |R(w)| = yjx2+y2 + z2 . Using this expression in (9), we get

'= fV* 2 +> ,2 +^ 2 du

Ja
Tlieory of Space Curves 9

Further, since s = |R|, s2 = x2 + y2 + z2 which gives in terms of differential

ds = dx2 + dy2 + dz2.
2

Note, Since s * 0, we can take 5 as a new parameter. The change of

parameter from s to u is given by S(u) in (9). From (9), we can obtain u = Q(s) so
that the curve parametrised with respect to s is R = R[(p(s)].
Theorem 2. The arc length of a curve is invariant under parametric
transformation.
Proof. Let R{(u) be the parametric representation of the given curve with
parameter u. Let us consider the parametric transformation t = 0(w). Let the
parametric representation corresponding to t be R2(0- Since R, and R2 are
equivalent representations R,(w) = R 2 (0 = R2[0(«)L As u varies from a to b,

t = 0(w) varies from (j)(a) to <p(b) and R,(w) = R 2 (0 ...(1)

du
Now using (1) in the arc-length formula, we get

J |R,|rf«= J|R 2 (t)| du ...(2)

Since t = (j)(u) is a strictly increasing function and 0(w) i=- 0, we have

1^1 dt
..(3)
\du\ du

b
Using (3) in (2), we obtain |R,|dw= |R
~ 2l|x dt which proves
. that the ;arc
Ha)
length is invariant for a change of parameter from u to t.
Note. When we change the parameter from u to f, the formula for arc length
retains its form with / instead of u. This is a very important property of the arc
length.
Example 1. Find the arc length of one complete turn of the circular helix
r(w) = (a cos w, a sin «, bu), -oo< u <<*> ...(1)
where a > 0 and obtain the equation of the helix with s as parameter.
From (1) r(w) = (- a sin w, a cos w, £)

So s = S(u) = f |r(w)| du = f yja2 + b2 du = cw ...(2)

Jo Jo

where c = yja2 + b 2 .
If a helix starts from w0, it makes one complete turn when u = u0 + 2n. Hence
the arc length corresponding to one complete turn is
u0 + 2n

s= [ yja2 + b2 du = yja2 + b2 • In = Inc.

"0
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10 Differential Geometry—A First Course

To obtain the equation of the helix with s as parameter,

we have from (2), s = cu so that u = — ...(3)

c
Using (3) in (1), we get

r(.y) = \a cos - , a sin - , — which is the required equation.

1.5 TANGENT AND OSCULATING PLANE

If 7 is the given curve, then its parametric representation r = r(w) is the equation of
the curve in the sense that it gives the position vector of different points on 7. We
use R to represent position vectors of points in space not necessarily on 7 in order
to distinguish it from r = r(w) on 7 We also assume 7 is of class > 1 which means
that r(w) has continuous derivatives of all orders so that r = r(w) has power series
expansion at a point u0 in the neighbourhood u.

r(w0 + h) = r(w0) + — r(w0) + — f (w0) + ... + — r('°(w0) + 0(hn)

I! 2! n!

where lim = 0 where u-Un = h.

A->O hn °
In our study, we usually include first two or three terms in the above expansion.
Definition 1. Unit tangent vector to 7 at P. Let P and Q be two
neighbouring points on 7 with parameters u0 and u respectively. The parameters of
P and Q are very close together in the sense that when Q -» P, u - u0 —> 0. The unit
vector along PQ tends to the unit vector atP as Q —> P. This unit vector denoted by
t is defined to be the unit tangent vector at P. The sense of t is that of increasing s.
Definition 2. The line through P parallel to t is called the tangent line to 7 at
P. If R is the position vector of any point on this tangent line to 7 at P, then the
vector is called the tangent vector to 7 and P.
From the above definition of the tangent vector at P, we have the following
properties.
dx
(i) The unit tangent vector t = — where we have chosen s as the parameter
ds
measured from P.
Proof. The unit vector along the chord PQ is
r(M)-r(M 0 )
|r(w)-r(w 0 )|
Since t is the unit vector along the chord PQ as Q —> P,

weget t = lim r ( " ) ~ ^ o ) = Hm r(K)-ry \u-u0\

u->u0 |r(w) - r(w0)| u->u0 \u-u0\ \r(u) - r(w0)|

www.Ebook777.com
Theory of Space Curves 11

Since the curve is of class m > 1, we get

t= m
\Hu)\

Since s = r(w), we get t = —— = — • — = — .

s(u) du as as
dx
Note, r = — is also a tangent vector, but not necessarily a unit vector.
du
(ii) Equation of the tangent line at P. Let R be the position vector of any point
Q on the tangent line at P. Then if the length of PQ is c, then the vector PQ = ct.
Hence the equation of the tangent line at P is
R = r + ct
which can also be written as R = r + cr where r is parallel to t.
Definition 3. Osculating plane. Let 7 be a curve of class m > 2 and P and Q
be two neighbouring points on 7 The limiting position of the plane that contains
the tangential line at P and passes through the point Q as Q —> P is defined as the
osculating plane at P.
Note. When y is a straight line the osculating plane is indeterminate at each
point. So we avoid this particular case in our discussion.
Definition 4. The point P on the curve for which r " = 0 is called a point of
inflexion and the tangent line at P is called inflexional.
Theorem 1. Let 7 be a curve of class m > 2 with arc length s as parameter. If
the point P on 7 has parameter zero, the equation of the osculating plane is
[R - r(0), r'CO), r"(0)] = 0 where r" * 0
If r"(0) = 0, let us assume that the curve 7 is analytic. Then the equation of the
plane at an inflexional point is
[fl-rCOXr'CO), r (k) (0)] = 0.
Proof. Using the arc length s as parameter, let 0 and s be the parameters of P
and Q. Let R be the position vector of the point on the plane containing the tangent
line at P and passing through Q. Then if r is the position vector of P, then the
vectors R - r(0), t = r'CO), and r(^) - r(0) are coplanar vectors. Hence the
condition of coplanarity gives the equation as
[R-r(0),r/(0),rW-r(0)] = 0 ...(1)
Since the curve is of class m > 2, we have by Taylor's Theorem,

r(j) = r(0) + sr'(O) + -s2 r"(0) + 0(.s2) as s -> 0. ...(2)

Using (1) in (2), we get

1 . .1
R - r(0), r'(0), s r'(0) + -s2 r"(0) + 0(s2)
=0
12 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Neglecting the terms of higher order, the above equation becomes

2

[R-r(0),r'(0),*r'(0)] + R - r ( 0 ) , r m ^ r " ( 0 ) =0 ...(3)

Since r'(0) x r'(0) and s is a scalar, the first term of (3) vanishes and so we get
[R-r(0),r'(0), r"(0)] = 0 ...(4)
as the equation of the osculating plane provided the vectors r'(0) and r"(0) are
linearly independent. So to complete the proof, we have to prove r'(0) and r"(0)
are linearly independent. Since t = r' is a unit vector r'~ = 1. Differentiating this
relation, we have r' r" = 0 which shows that neither r' nor r" can be a constant
multiple of the other so that they are linearly independent unless r"(0) = 0.
If r"(0) = 0, then the point/5 is an inflexional point so we derive the equation of
the osculating plane at an inflexional point with an assumption that the curve y is
analytic.
Differentiating r' 2 = 1, we have r' r" = 0
Differentiating this relation once again, we have
r •r +r •r =U
Since r" = 0, we get r' r'" = 0 at P.
Since r' cannot be zero, r' and r"' are linearly independent, unless r'" = 0.
Repeating this process of differentiation, let us assume that r (k) is first non-
vanishing derivative of r such that r' r(k) = 0. So if r (k) * 0, we have from Taylor
Theorem

r(s) - r(0) = - ^ ^ + — r(k)(0) + 0 ( / ) as s -* 0. ...(5)

Using (5) in (1), we get

R - r ( 0 ) , r / ( 0 ) f - ^ l j + — r (k) (0) = 0
1! k\

As in the previous case the above equation reduces to

[R - r(0), r^O), r(k)(0)] = 0 as the equation of the osculating plane at an inflexional
point.
If r(k) = 0 for all k > 2, then since the curve is analytic, we infer that t is constant
and therefore the curve is a straight line.
Corollary. If P is not point of inflexion, any vector lying in the osculating
plane is a r' + b r" for some constants a and b.
Proof. Since P is not a point of inflexion r" * 0. From (4) of the theorem r7
and r" lies in the osculating plane and pass through P. Hence any vector in the
osculating plane is a linear comlination of r' and r" so that we can take it as
ar' + bx" for some constants a and b. It is of importance to note that r" lies in the
osculating plane.
 Theory of Space Curves 13

Theorem 2. If w is the parameter of the curve y, then the equation of the

osculating plane at any point P with position vector r = r(w) is
[ R - r , r, r] =0.
dt dr du r
Proof. r =
ds du ds s
„ _ d (x\ du _ ( i r - vs) 1
Further
du\s)ds s2 s
Using these values of r' and r" in (4) of the previous theorem we have

r r YS
=0
S S S\

Since r x r = 0 and s is a scalar, simplifying the above equation, we obtain

[R - r, r, r] = 0 as the equation of the osculating plane.
Corollary. If R = (X, Y, Z) and r = (JC, yy z) then the equation of the osculating
plane given by the scalar triple product in the theorem takes the form

X-x Y-y Z-z\

x y z =0
x y z

Note 1. A tangent at a point P on a space curve is the line passing through the
two consecutive points on the curve. Likewise the osculating plane can be defined
" as the limiting position of the plane PQR of three consecutive points P, Q, R as Q
and R approach P. Using this definition, we shall derive the equation of the
osculating plane as follows.
Let r = r(w0)> r, = r(w,) and r 2 = r(u2) be three consecutive points on the curve.
Let Ra = p be the equation of the plane passing through the above three points.
Then if/(w) = R a - p , we have
/(Mo) = 0,/(M,) = Oand/(M2) = 0
Now we have the intervals [u0> w,] and [w,, u2]. Hence by Rolle's Theorem,
there exist points v, G [W0, U{] and v2 G [W,, U2] such thatf\v{) = 0 and/ / (v 2 ) = 0.
Since/' satisfies the conditions of the Rolle's Theorem in [v,, v2], there exists
av 3 G [uj, v2] such that/ 7/ (v 3 ) = 0. Hence when Q and R approach P,ult u2, v,, v2,
v3 approach u0. Writing u for u0 in the limiting case, we have
/(«) = r a -p = 0,/'(M) = v a = 0 , / » = v a =0 ...(1)
Using R • a = p in the first equation, we get
/( M ) = ( R - r ) . f l = 0
Thus from (1), we find the vectors is perpendicular to ( R - r ) , r and r so that
they are coplanar. So we write / ? - r = A r + ^ r where A and ji are constants.
Eliminating A, ji or using the condition of coplanarity, the equation of the
osculating plane is
14 Differential Geometry—A First Course

[R-r, r,r] = 0
Note 2. In the case of the plane curves, the plane through the three
consecutive points on the curve is the plane itself. Hence the osculating plane
coincides with the plane of the curve itself.
The following example shows that at a point of inflexion, even a curve of class
oo need not possess an osculating plane.
Example 1. Let 7 be a curve defined by

r(w) =(w,0, e _l/ " 2 ) whenw>0

r(w) =(w, e-{/u\0) whenw<0

and r(w) =(0,0,0) whenw = 0
First we shall show that the given curve 7 is of class infinity with u = 0 as an
inflexion point. Taking/(w) = e~l/"2, we prove/^O) = 0 for all k > 2
-\/u2
Now r(0) = l i m * B ) - * 0 ) - l i m l - = 0
«->o u «->o u
l/« 2
/(MW/(0) =0
AG) = l i m ' = lim ^
«-»0 u «-»0 u
2 3
/"'(0) = limlfA--Vk l/>/«
" 2 ==,;mlimV - 6 y . * •
== 0

In a similar manner
Now r"(w) = (0,/"(w), 0) if w < 0
and r"(w) = (0, 0,/"(w)) if u > 0
Hence when u —> 0, r"(w) = (0, 0, 0) which proves that u = 0 is an inflexional
point.
Since/ (k) (0) = 0 for all jfc, r(k)(0) = 0 for all k > 2. Hence 7 is a curve of class
infinity with u = 0 as an inflexion point.
Now let us find the equation of the osculating plane when u > 0
2
r(W) = («,0,^ l / M 2 ),r , (w) = | l , 0 , - ^ e -\/u

and r » = 0,0,1 4 - 4 W
V
Hence the equation of the osculating plane is

-\/u2
X-u K Z-e
2
1 0 4e_1/": =0

0
 Theory of Space Curves 15

Expanding the above determinant along the last column,

U U J

Since - y — - ^ \e~{'u * 0 , the equation of the osculating plane whenw>0 is

Y= 0. In a similar manner the equation of the osculating plane when u < 0 is Z= 0.

So the osculating plane at u = 0 is indeterminate. This proves that at a point of
inflexion, even a curve of class °° need not possess an osculating plane.
Example 2. Find the equation of the osculating plane at a point u of the circular
helix
r = (a cos w, a sin w, bu) ...(1)
From the given equation, we have
r = (- a sin w, a cos ut b) ...(2)
r = (- a cos u,-a sin w, 0) ...(3)
Using (1), (2), and (3), the equation of the osculating plane is

X - a cos u Y- asm u Z - bu
- a sin u a cos u b
-acosu -a.s'mu 0

Expanding the above determinant along the last column and simplifying, the
equation of the osculating plane is b(X sin u-Y cos u - au) + aZ = 0.

1.6 PRINCIPAL NORMAL AND BINORMAL

Besides the tangent at P, we shall define the normal and binormal at P of the curve
leading to the moving triad of coordinate system at P.
Definition 1. Let P be a point on the curve y. The plane through P orthogonal
to the tangent at P is called the normal plane at P.
Since the osculating plane at P passes through the tangent at P, the normal
plane is perpendicular to the osculating plane at any point of the curve.
Definition 2. The line of intersection of the normal plane and the osculating
plane is called the principal normal at P. The unit vector along the principal-normal
is denoted by n. The sense of n may be chosen arbitrarily, provided it varies
continuously along the curve.
Using the above definitions, we have
(i) The equation of the normal plane. Let r = r(w) be a point on the curve and
R be the position vector of any point on the plane. Then (R - r) lies in the
normal plane. Since (R - r) is perpendicular to t, we get (R - r) • t = 0 as
the equation of the normal plane,
(ii) The equation of the principal normal at P. If the position vector of any
point P on the curve is r and if R is the position vector of any point Q on
16 Differential Geometry—A First Course

the normal, then the vector PQ = An where A is a scalar. Then R = r + An

is the equation of the normal at P.
Definition 3. The normal at P orthogonal to the osculating plane is called the
binormal at P. The unit vector along the binormal is denoted by b. The sense of the
unit vector b along the binormal is chosen such that t, n, b form a right handed
system of axes.
The behaviour oft, n, b at a point P on the curve is the same as the unit vectors
ij\ k, along the coordinate axes. Hence we have
b = txn, t = nxb, n = b x t
and tn = nb = bt = 0, tt = bb = nn=l.
Definition 4. The plane containing the tangent and binormal is called the
rectifying plane.
From the above definitions, we have
(i) The equation of the rectifying plane. If r = r(w) is a point on the curve and
R is the position vector of any point on the rectifying plane, then (R - r) is
in the rectifying plane and orthogonal to n. Hence (R - r) • n = 0 is the
equation of the rectifying plane.
Note. Since the binormal is orthogonal to the osculating plane, the equation
of the osculating plane can be put in the form (R - r) • b = 0.
(ii) The equation of the binormal. Let r = r(w) be the position vector of any
point P on the curve and let R be the position vector of any point Q on the
binormal. Then PQ = /Jb where ji is a scalar. Then R = r + jib is the
equation of the binormal at P.
Note. Since r, r lie in the osculating plane, r x r is perpendicular to the
osculating plane. Since the binormal is perpendicular to the osculating plane, the
binormal is parallel t o r x r
Since r gives the direction of the tangent and r x f gives the direction of the
binormal r x (r x r) gives the direction of the principal normal. Thus we get
r x (r x r) = (r- r)r - (r- r)r is the direction of the principal normal.
Note. When we take the arc length as parameter, then we have Z1 = 1 and
consequently r' • r" = 0. Using this in the above formula, the principal normal is
parallel to r".
Summarising the above we conclude that if we choose the arc length as
parameter, then r', r" and r' x r" give the directions of the tangent, principal
normal and binormal at a point on the curve.
Example. Find the directions and equations of the tangent, normal and binormal
and also obtain the normal, rectifying and osculating planes at a point on the
circular helix

r= os
h 0' asin @'7)
Theory of Space Curves 17

, (-a . (s\ a fs} b)

Now r = sin - , - cos - , - ...(1)
^ c \cj c \cj c)

..(2)
r =
[9"*$--?™$°]
•ab Ji\
s \ a ..(3)
^3
cj c cjc

(1), (2) and (3) give the directions of the tangent, normal and binormal.
Next let us find the equations of the tangent, normal and binormal.
The equation of the tangent is R = r + At which gives

X - a cos | - ] Y - a sin
C

- a sin | - a cos

The equation of the normal is R = r + Ab which gives

X - a cos | - Y - a sin -
C_
0
- a cos| - - a sin | -

The equation of the binormal is R = r + /jb which gives

X - a cos I - a sin - Z-*

ab sin - ab cos I -

Let us find the equations of three planes.

The equation of the normal plane is (R - r) • t = 0 which gives

a
ac cos \- \Y-acs\n\- \ X+(Zc-bs)b = 0. The equation of the rectifying plane

is (R - r) • b = 0, which gives cos - \ X + sin - Y- a = 0.

The equation of the osculating plane is (R - r) • b = 0. Since b has the direction

r' x r", we get the above equation as (R - r) • (r' x r") = 0 ...(4)
Writing (4) in the determinant form, we obtain
18 Differential Geometry—A First Course

bs_

a .
a cos
(s Y - a sin

a (s b_
c
=0
sin — cos - c
c \c
c \c - a . (s 0
a fs —T-sin -
—=- cos —
Expanding the determinant and simplifying, we have

bsm(-)x-bcos(-)Y+(z-— )a=0

which is the equation of the osculating plane.

1.7 CURVATURE AND TORSION

At each point of the curve, we have defined an orthogonal triad t, n, b forming a
right handed system and also we have noted that at each point this moving triad
determines three fundamental planes which are mutually perpendicular.
It is important to note that t, n, b vary from point to point on the curve as the
point moves on the curve as shown in the following figure.

ib
Rectifying Normal plane
plane {R-r)t=0
(R-r)n =0

Osculating plane
(R-r)b =0

Fig. 1

Hence we can study their variations from point to point with respect to the
arcual length as parameter. This leads to the notion of curvature and torsion of the
space curve as defined below.
Definitoin 1. The arc rate at whch the tangent changes direction as the point
P moves along the curve is called the curvature vector of the curve and it is denoted
by/C
Theory of Space Curves 19

dt
Thus by definition K = — and K is called the curvature vector and its
J
ds
magnitude |K| is called the curvature at P denoted by K. Then p = — is called the
/c
radius of curvature where we take the absolute value of p.
As we have already noted, the osculating plane of a plane curve is the same at
all points but the osculating plane changes from point to point on a space curve. So
we shall now define a quantity measuring the arc-rate of change of the osculating
plane.
Definition 2. The torsion at a point P of a curve is defined as the arc-rate at
which the osculating plane turns about the tangent atP as P moves along the curve.
It is denoted by r. 11/T | denoted a is called the radius of torsion.
Having defined the torsion at a point on the space curve, the next question is to
devise a method of measuring it. The natural method of measuring the turning of a
plane is to measure the turning of its normal. Since the binormal is orthogonal to
the osculating plane, we shall use the binormal to measure torsion. Thus the arc-
, db
rate of rotation of the osculating plane is expressed by b = — whose magnitude is
ds
db
the torsion r. So r =
ds
As a synthesis of the above definitions of curvature and torsion giving the
measure of arc-rate: of change of tangent and osculating plane, we shall derive
Serret-Frenet formulae which are fundamental in the study of space curves.
Theorem 1. (Serret-Frenet Formulae). If (t, n, b) is the moving orthogonal
triad of unit vectors at a point P on a space curve y, then
dt dn db
(i) — = Kit (ii) — = r b - Kt (iii) — = - rn.
ds ds ds
Proof. We first prove (i) and (iii) and then derive (ii) from them.
To prove (i), differentiating t • t = 1 with respcet to s at a point P of the curve,
we have t • t ' = 0 so that t' is perpendicular to t.
dv
Since t = — , t' = r". As r" lies in the osculating plane, t' also lies in the
ds
osculating plane. Therefore t' is a vector perpendicular to t and lies in the
osculating plane. Hence t' is parallel to the principal normal. By definition |t'| = K,
being the curvature at P on the curve. Since we know the magnitude K and the
direction n oft', we can write t' = ± /en. By convention we take t' = KTI.
(ii) As in the above case, we find the vector b'. Differentiating b- b = 1, we have
b b ' = 0 so b' is perpendicular to the binormal at P and hence b ' lies in
the osculating plane. Since b • t = 0, differentiating this and using (i) we get
b'-1 + b- (K*n) = 0 As b• n = 0, we get b'-1 = 0 showing that b ' is perpendicular to
t. Therefore b' is a vector perpendicular to t and lies in the osculating plane. Hence
20 Differential Geometry—A First Course

b' is parallel to the principal normal at P. By definition |b'| = T, being the torsion at
P. Since we know the magnitude r and the direction n of b', we can write b ' = - r n
where the negative sign is introduced because as a convention torsion is regarded
as positive when the rotation of the osculating plane as s increases is in the
direction of a right handed screw moving in the direction oft.
To prove (iii), let us consider n = b x t.
Differentiating both sides of the above vector with respect to s,
, . dn db , dt
we obtain — = — x t + b x —
. ds ds ds
dn
Using (i) and (ii) in the above equations, — = (- rn) x t + b x (/en)
ds
Since n x t = - b and b x n = - 1 , we have
— = r b - Kt
ds
Using curvature and torsion, we characterise a straight line and a plane curve in
the next two theorems.
Theorem 2. A necessary and sufficient condition for a curve to be a straight-
line is that K = 0 at all points of the curve.
Proof. The condition is necessary. Let us take the curve to be a straight line
and let its vector equation be r = as + b where a and b are constant vectors.
Differentiating this equation, we get r' = t = a.
As a is a constant vector, we have r" = t' = 0. Since the curvature vector r"
vanishes at all points of the curve, its magnitude K= 0 at all points of the curve.
To prove the sufficiency of the condition, let us assume that K= 0 at all points
of the curve. This implies that the curvature vector t' = r" = 0. Integrating the
above equation twice, we obtain r = as + b where a and b are constant vectors. This
proves that the curve is a straight line.
Theorem 3. A necessary and sufficient condition that a given curve be a
plane curve is that r = 0 at all points of the curve.
Proof. The condition is necessary. Let us take the curve to be a plane curve
and show that r = 0. Since the curve lies in a plane, the osculating plane at every
point of the curve is the plane containing the curve itself so that the binormal b is a
db db
constant. Since b is constant — - 0 which implies = 0. Hence r = = 0at
ds ds ds
all points of the curve.
Conversely let r = 0 at all points of the curve. On this assumption, we shall

prove that the curve is a plane curve. S.ince T= 0, — = 0 at all points of the curve
ds
so that b is a constant vector. Now for any vector r,
d , ix dx . db ,
— (r b) = b+r = t b + r b'.
ds ds ds
Theory of Space Curves 21

Since t b = 0 and 1/ = 0, we have —(r b) = 0 for any point r on the curve.

ds
Hence r • b = constant = c (say). If r = (x(s), y(s), z(s)) and b = (fej, b2, &3), then
r • b = c gives xbx + yb2 +zb3 = c which shows that r(s) = (x(s)9 y(s), z(s)) lies on the
plane bxX + b2Y+ b3Z = c. This proves that the curve is a plane curve and the
condition is sufficient.
Definition 3. If ris non-zero, then the curve is called a twisted curve. In the
following, we shall give the formulae for curvature and torsion first in terms of the
arc length and then in terms of a general parameter u. We shall use dashes to denote
differentiation with respect to s and dots to denote differentiation with respect tow.
Theorem 4. If r = r(s) is the position vector of a point P with arc-length as
parameter on a curve c, then
(i) K ^ r " r"
\r' r" r'"l
(ii) T = L r ' „ ' , , or K^tr'.r".!-'"]
r -r
Proof, (i) We know that r' = t and r" = KU ...(1)
Hence r" r" = (fen)• (/en) = /c2, since n n = 1
(ii) Now r' x r" = t x KU = Kb ...(2)
Differentiating both sides of (2) with respect to 5,
r / x r "/ + r " x r " = ^ + Kh> (3)

Since r" x r" = 0 and b ' = - rn, (3) becomes

r / x r w = (/c , b-/crn) ...(4)
Taking dot product with r" on both sides of (4), we have
(r' x r w ) r" = - /c2r as r" = K:n and n • n = 1 ...(5)
7/ w w
But (r' x r'") r = - r' (r^ x r ) = - [r', Y", r ] ...(6)
Using (6) in (5), we have K2T= [r', r", r w ] ...(7)
Further substituting for K2 from (i), we obtain

Ir , r ,r I
r=
r -r
Theorem 5. If r = r(w) is the equation of the curve with parameter w, then
/•N |rxr| [r, f, r]
(I)/C =
V P and(ii)r=|—^
lrl |rxr| z
Proof. Now r = — = = r'- i = ti ...(1)
<iM ds du
Since t is a unit vector, (1) gives | r| = s ...(2)
Differentiating (1) again with respect to w,
22 Differential Geometry—A First Course

2
r =—2" = — ( t j ) = — ( t j ) — = t f j +tj
du du ds du
Since t' = /en, f = KHS2 + t's ...(3)
2
Using (1) and.(3), we get r x f = t i x (KUS + ti")
Since t x n = b and t x t = 0, we get
r x f = s3Kb wheh gives ...(4)
.u c i v |r x rl |r x r|
the formula for /cas K= -1—r-* = J — ^ by (2)
* |r|
To obtain torsion, let us differentiate (4) with respect to u

Then r x ' f + r x f = (S3K) b's + b — (S3K)

du
Since r x r = 0 and b ' = - rn, we obtain

r x ' r = -i4KTn + b—(S3K) ...(5)

du
Taking dot product of (3) and (5),

[r, r, r ] = (KUS2 + ts)- - i V r n + b — ( i 3 i r ) J

Since t-n = n b = t b = 0 and n n = 1, we obtain

[r, r , r ] = - i V r
From the property of the scalar triple product,
[r, r, r ] = - [r, r, r ] so that [r, r, r ] = i 6 /c 2 r

[r, r, r] _ [r, r, r] usin

Therefore T = ^ 6 ^2 = 7 ^ 7 :7 g K-
sK |rxr|
Note. Using Theorem 4, we obtain the formula for K2T in terms of the dot
derivatives as follows.
,.x ,. dr dr du . ,
(1) r = — = = vu
ds du ds
(ii) r " = — (ru') = ru"+ru'2
ds

(iii) r'" = — (ri<" + kV2) = rw'" + 3 r i i V + r V 3

Now from the above equations r' x r" = r x rw'3

Hence (r' x r") • r'" = (r x rw'3) • (ra"' + 3 r i i V + rV 3 )
= (n/)6[rxr].r=(ii/)6[r,r,r]
Theory of Space Curves 23

From Theorem 4, [r', r", r'"] = K*TSO that [r, r, r] = K^TCW')" 6

Further we obtain [r', r", r"'l = (u'f [ r , r , r ]
Corollary. A necessary and sufficient condition that a curve is a plane curve
i s [ r , r, r] = 0.
Proof. To prove the necessity of the condition, let us assume that the curve is
a plane curve; Then T = 0 by Theorem 3. Since [r, f, r] = K2T, T = 0 implies
[r, f , f ] = 0.
To prove the converse, let [r, f, f ] = 0. Then K2T = 0. Hence either K = 0 or
T= 0. We shall prove that T = 0 at all points of the curve. Let r * 0 at some point of
the curve. Then x * 0 in some neighbourhood of that point. Since K = 0 in this
neighbourhood, the arc of the curve in this neighbourhood is a straight line. This
implies that T = 0 on this line in the neighbourhood of this point contradicting the
hypothesis that T* 0. This contradiction proves thatr= 0 at all points of the curve
so that the curve is a plane curve. Thus the condition is sufficient also.
Note. In terms of the dash derivatives, we have [i / , r", i*"'] = u'6 [r, r, r].

Since u = — * 0, [r, f, r ] = 0 if and only if [r', r", r w ] = 0 which is the necessary

ds
and sufficient condition for a space curve to be a plane curve.
Example 1. Find the curvature and torsion of the circular helix
r = {a cos w, a sin «, bu).
From the equation of the helix, we have
r = (- a sin w, a cos «, b)
r = (- a cos «, - a sin w, 0)
r = {a sin u, - a cos M, 0)
r x r = (ab sin «, - ab cos «, a2)
Hence |r| 2 =a2 + b2y |r x r| 2 = a\a2 + b2)
Now using the above quantities,
_|rxr|_
K =
|r| 3 (a2+b2)
Now (r x r) • r = a2b so that [r, r, r] = a2b
__ [r, r,r] b
Hence T
= V-—^T = - 5 T
|rxr|2 a2+b2
Note. Sometimes, it is easier to deal with dash formula for curvature and
torsion than the dot formula. To illustrate this, we find curvature and torsion of the
circular helix by dash formula.
Using the arc-length as parameter, position vector of any point on the circular
helix is
24 Differential Geometry—A First Course

2 2 2
r = \ a cos - I a sin I - L — lc = a + b

^cos(i)-^sin(i)o)

•^"•ftiMfK
7/7"
' afc . f$"\ -afc (s\ a2
r xr =
-™\-c)—co\-cn
2
Hence the curvature K2 = r"- r" = —T- so that K*= -~ T
c a + ir
[ r
Further [•, r", r"'] = ^ so that T= 'rJ, J
= - *

Thus we see that xrandx are constants and— = —. So the ratio of curvatrure to
T b
torsion is a constant. This is the characteristic property of a helix which we shall
establish later.
Example 2. Calculate the torsion and curvature of the cubic curve
r = (u,u\u3) ...(1)
We shall find xrand r without using their formulae.
Now from (1) r = — •—= ti = (1, 2w, 3w2) ...(2)
ds du
Hence r 2 = ti -ti = (1 + 4w2 + 9M4) which gives
i 2 = (l+4w 2 + 9w4) ...(3)
Differentiating (2), we have
i t + i 2 — = i t + i 2 KH = (0, 2, 6w) ...(4)
ds
Now taking the cross product of (2) and (4),
i 3 Kb = 2(3w2,-3w, 1) ...(5)
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Theory of Space Curves 25

Differentiating (5) with respect to u again

b — ( i 3 K) - i 4 Km = 2(6«, - 3 , 0) ...(6)
du
Taking dot product of (4) and (6), we get

(jft+i 2 icn)-[b—(i 3 £)-i 4 KTn] = -12

Since b t = b n = n t = 0and n n = 1, we get

- S6K2T= - 12 so that /C 2 T=
-r ...(7)
i6
Taking dot product of (5) with itself on both sides and using (3)

•c^4'9"':9"':1' ...<8)
(l + 4w 2 +9w 4 ) 3

Using (8) in (7), we get T = — - — — - 2 — -

(9w4 + 9ul + 1)
Example 3. Find the curvature and torsion of
r = {a cos 6, a sin 0, aO cot a) ...(1)
Instead of using the formulae for K and r, we shall find K and T from the
derivatives of (t, n, b) with the help of Serret-Frenet formulae.
Differentiating (1) with respect to s, we get
dv ds
= (- a sin 0, a cos 0, a cot a)
ds dd
ds
That is t — = (- a sin 9, a cos 6, a cot a) ...(2)
dd
Taking dot product on both sides of (2) with itself.
2
m -« = a22 ++ a22 cot22 a so that—
thai

From (2) we have t = sin a (- sin 0, cos ft cot a)

ds
d9
= a cosec a

...(3)
Differentiating (3) with respect to s,
dt ds
= sin a(- cos 6, - sin ft 0)
ds dd
Using Serret-Frenet formula, we get

Kii = (- cos ft - sin ft 0) ...(4)

a

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26 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Taking dot product on both sides of (4) with itself,

o sin4 a sin2 a
or K
IT = —2~~~ =
a a
Using this value of fcin (4), n = (- cos 0, - sin 0, 0)
Since we know t and n, we have
b = t x n = (cos a sin ft - cos a cos ft sin a)

Hence — = - rn = (cos a cos ft sin 6 cos a, 0) — ...(4)

ds ds
Taking dot product on both sides of (4) with itself,
9 , 2 / 1 2 • 2n 2 N sin 2 a . . sin a cos a
T = (cos 6 cos a + sin 0 cos a) —~— g lvin g Tas T= .
a a
1.8 BEHAVIOUR OF A CURVE NEAR ONE OF ITS
POINTS
Using Serret-Frenet formula, we shall study the behaviour of a curve in the
neighbourhood of a point on the curve. In the following theorem, we obtain the
coordinates of a point near the given point on the curve with reference to the
coordinate axes along t, n, b and then deduce a number of properties from them.
Theorem 1. Let the curve be of class m > 4. At a point P on the curve, let the
coordinate axes, ox, oy, oz be taken along t, n, b. If X, Y9 Z are the coordinates of the
neighbouring point Q on the curve, then

K S KK 4 4
X =s r + 0(r)
6 8
Y = —sr + — r + sq + o(sq)
2 6 24
,/
KT 3 2K T + XT' 4 , 4. .
Z =—r + r + 0(r) as s -» 0
6 24
Proof. Since the curve is of class > 4, we have by Taylor's Theorem,

, , / m r^O) r"(0) 2 r'"(0) 3 r(/v)(0) 4 , 4N A *"

(1)

r(^) = r(0) + - ^ - ^ J + —— r + — ^ - ^ r + * — r + o(r) as 5 -> 0

1! 2! 3! 4!
where .s is the small arc PQ and r (0) = 0
To study the equation (1), let usfindr', r", r'" and r(,v) at the origin 0.
(i) 1/(0) =? t
(ii) r,/(0) = t , = x-n
Theory of Space Curves 27

(iii) r'"(0) = x'n + m ' = x'n + < r b - xt)

= - x 2 t + x'n + xrb
(iv) r(iv)(0) = - iKKft - x^xn) + x"n + ^(rb - xt) + x'rb + xr'b + xr(- rn)
= - 3 raft + (x" - JCT2 - x3)!! + (2^7+ xr')b.
Using (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv), the Taylor expansion (i) near s = 0 becomes

r(s) = r(0) + — +: + {- x^t + x'n + KTb} —

1! 2! 3!

+ {- 3/crt + (x" - KT2 - x^n + ( 2 ^ T + x?0b}—•+ o(s4) ...(2)

4!
Noting r(0) = 0 at P and gathering the coefficients of t, n, b in (2) we get
4
r(*) = S-—S3-3KK'— + O(S4) t
3! 4!

X 2 * 3 (K" -KT2 -K3) 4 / 4x

.T + — J J + - - J 4 + 0(S*)
2! 3! 4!

XT 3 2K T + kT 4 , 4x
—r + J 4 +0(s 4 )
3! 24
If X, y, Z are the coordinates of the neighbouring point Q with position vector
r(s) with reference to the coordinate system 0(*, y, z) in the direction oft, n, b, then

K S KK 4 4
X =s 5-4 + o(s*)
6 8
\/ K 2 ^ 3 K — XT — K" 4 4.
2 6 24

XT 2K,/T+KT/
s4 + o(s4)
3
Z = — sJ +
6 24
express the coordinates X, Y> Z in terms of the arcual length PQ = s •
(X, K, Z) is called Serret-Frenet approximation of the curve.
Using the above equation, we have the following deductions.
n 2K . , 3Z
(I) —-r-~ xas 5 -> 0 and T as s -» 0.
X2 XK
X
Proof. Neglecting powers of s 3 , we haveX ~ s and K s2.

2Y
Eliminating s, — ~ xas s —> 0.
.A
28 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Neglecting the powers of/, we have

Z~—*3andXr~-j3

3 .. • -
m * 3Z
Eliminating s , we obtain Z — XY so that T ~
5
3 XK
Note. The above formula for ^resembles Newton's formula for curvature of
plane curves.
( „2„2\
(ii) The chord PQ = (X2 + Y2 + Z2)1'2 ~ sl-KS
24 J
4
Proof. Neglecting the powers of s , we get the coordinates as

X~s ,y~-r + ,Z=—^3as^->0

6 2 6 6
/ ^,,3^ („ „'n3\2 ^2^2
2 2 2 , X- 2 KS" K"T 6
Hence X + r + Z = 5 - •

V 6
Neglecting the terms of degree > 5,

(X2+K2 + Z2) =S2--K2S4=S2(l--K2S2)

12 I 12 J
All
Thus (x2+r2+z2)1/2 =/i--^x-Vj
Using the Binomial expansion on the right hand side,

(x 2 + Y2 +Z2} ~s 1 K-V which shows that when *•* 0, the arc length
PQ differs from the chord PQ by a term of the third order in s.
(iii) We obtain the approximate equations of the projections of the curve on
three planes. In each case we obtain the lowest power of s and eliminate s.
K o
(a) The projection of the curve on the osculating plane is K = — X , Z = 0
K
From the equations, we obtain as in (i) X ~ s and Y s2 . Eliminating s

K
between the two equations Y = —2X .
(b) The projection of the curve on the rectifying plane is

z=— x\y=o
6
Theory of Space Curves 29

KT 3
From the equations, we obtain as in (i) X ~ s and Z s.
6
Eliminating .s between them, Z = — X3
6
2 T2
(c) The projection on the normal plane is Z2 = Y3, X = 0

KT.S3 K 2

From the equations, we obtain as in (i), Z and Y = — s

6 2
Eliminating s between the above two equations,

6-6 6-6 I K J 9 K
Example 1. Find the Serret-Frenet approximation of the curve
n
(cos w, sin w, u) at w = —.

r- 1 7T 7T
As in Examples 1 of 1.4 and 1.7, s = V2w, K- T= — and ^ = -y=r at w = — so
2 V2 2
the curve can be represented as
f \ ( S . S S

r(s) = [ « » - £ , a n - j . . - ^

Using the Theorem 1, we have

4 6^ 72,
Since we know fcand T, we canfindthe projections of the curve on the planes
using (a), (b) and (c) of (iii).
Theorem 2. The length of the common perpendicular d between the tangents
at two neighbouring points with the arcual distance s between them is
3
KTS
approximately d = 12
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30 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Proof. Let 0 and P be two adjacent points on the curve with OP having the
arcual length s.
Let the position vector of P be r = r(s). Let us choose the cartesian coordinate
system at O in the direction of the triad (t, n, b) and so r(0) = 0.
The unit tangent vectors at O and P are r'(0) and r'(s). The common
perpendicular of these two tangents at O and P is nothing but the shortest distance
between them. Since the shortest distance between them is perpendicular to both
r'(0) and r'(s), it is parallel to r'(.s) x r'(0). Thus if d is the shortest distance
between them, it is the projection of PQ = r(^) - r(0) on r'(.s) x r'(O).
r\s) x r'CO)
Hence rf=[r(s)-r(0)]
|r'(s)xr'(0)|

[r(s),r'(s),r'(0)]
Since r(0) = 0,d =
|r'(s)xr'(0)|
Since we like to find the approximate value of the above expansion, we shall
use the Taylor series expansion of r(,s) and r'(.s) including the terms of third degree
in s. From the previous theorem,

r(*) = —K + — ^ | n + — b,r(0) = 0.
3! v2 3! J 3!
Since t, n, b give the fixed direction of the coordinate axes at 0, differentiating
the above equation with respect to s,
(
r'W = i *2 i\ I *2 n + —5zb
1 K t + SK + K 2
2
and r^(o) = t. Hence v J I 2! ,

r%y) x r'(0) = n - | SK + *V
•
V

Now \r\s) x r'CO)!2 =

VTV^ S2K'^
+ \ SK + -

Neglecting the terms of higher order > 4, we get

|I"(J) x r'CO)!2 = J V + Kits3 = K V [ 1 + —s)

/2
K' V ( 1 K"
so that \r\s) x r'(0)| = KS 11 + — s \ = KS 1 + s\ approximately.

3
Thus r W t r ' W x r'(O)] =
(
KS2 s V n 2 <SK + K.
+ —K
2 3' 2 3!
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Theory of Space Curves 31

Retaining the terms of order 4, we get

r(*). [r\s) x r'(0)] = —s* - -^Vr= — * V

4 6 12

Then d =r(sHr(s)xrXO)] = K^1_r_K1+ \

\r(s)xr'(0)\ 12 KS{ 2K J
3
KTS
which gives d = approximately.
Example 2. If O and P are the adjacent points on the curve having the arc-length
OP = st find the angle between the shortest distance of the tangents at O and P and
the binormal at O.
From the theorem, we have
2 ( 2
r , Wxr'(0) = — n - SK + — b ...(1)

Let 0 be the angle that the shortest distance of the tangents at O and P make
with the binomial.

Then sin a = ' b r ( r , W X r / ( 0 ) ) |

|r'(s)xr'(0)|

TKS2
Using (l),|bx (!•'(*) xr'(0))| = and Ir'(.s) x r^(0)| = KS

u . a |-TKS2| u . s
i
Hence sin 0= t =—T.
2-KS ' 2
Since 9 is small, we take sin 6 ~ 0 so that 0 T.
2
1.9 THE CURVATURE AND TORSION OF A CURVE
AS THE INTERSECTION OF TWO SURFACES
When the curve is defined by the parametric representation, we can find K and t
using the formula derived earlier. When the curve is given as the intersection of
two surfaces, we cannot use the earlier methods, unless we find the parametric
representation of the curves from the surface equations. Now we shall develop a
method tofindrand /c, when the curve is given as the intersection of two surfaces
directly without finding the parametric representation of the curve.
Theorem. Let the curve be the intersection of the two surfaces/(jc, y> z) = 0
and g(x, ytz) = 0
Let h = V/x Vg. If A is the operator Ar = h, then
32 Differential Geometry—A First Course

M -Ah-AH
|h| 3 \H\2
Proof. Let r = r(s) be the position vector of a point on the curve/(;c, y, z) = 0
andg(x,y,z) = Q ...(1)

a/ a/ a/1
The V/=
3*' 3^' 9zJ -"•'I-1-1 ...(2)

are the outward drawn normals to the surfaces (1).

Since the unit tangent at P to the curve of intersection of the two surfaces is
perpendicular to both the vectors in (2), it is parallel to V/x Vg. Hence V/x Vg is
a scalar multiple of t. Thus we have

At = Ar'(s) = V/x Vg = h (say) ..(3)

Let us assume h = (h{i h2, h3). Further |h| = A.

In the above equation (3), one should note that the left hand side is given in
terms of the dash derivatives, whereas the right hand side is given in terms of
partial derivatives. Hence let us find the relation between these two.

dr dx 3r dy 3r dz
A^=A
ds dx ds dy ds dz ds

,3 ,3 ,3
=A r = (/z1,/r2, h3)
3* dy dz

3r dr 3r
Since — = (1, 0, 0), V" = (Q, 1, 0) and — = (0, 0, 1), we obtain from the
dx °y dz
above equation, hd = h{, Xy' = h2, Xz - h3
Thus we have the relation
(fa\Xy\Xz') = (hl,h2,hi) ...(4)
Let A be the operator defined by

A = X— = A, — + h0-z- + h-x^- ...(5)

ds dy dz
Hence by the definition of the operator Ar = h ...(6)
Operating on both sides of (3) with A in (5), we get
d
X—(At) = Ah which gives
ds

A 2 — + AA't = Ah. That is X2Kn + AA7t = Ah ...(7)

ds
Taking cross product of (3) and (7), A3>cb = h x Ah = //(say) ...(8)
Theory of Space Curves 33

Further taking dot product of (8) with itself, we get

X3K=\H\ or.= ^ = 14
X |ii|

Operating on both sides of (8) with X—• = A, we get

ds
d -x
X—(X Kb) = AH giving
ds

-A 4 KT» + Ab—(X3K) =AH ...(9)

ds
Taking the scalar product of (7) and (9), - A 6 K 2 T = Ah- AH which gives

r = -Ah-AH
£—2—
6 2
_= -Ah-AH
2— which completes the proof of the theorem.
2
XK " \H\
Example. Find the curvature and torsion of the curve of intersection of the
quadratic surfaces
ax2 + by2 + cz2 = 1, a'x2 + b'y2 + c'z2 = 1
We shall find h, Ah, H = h x Ah and Ah-AH and apply the formula in the
theorem.

Let / = - [ax2 + by2 + cz2-llg = - [a'x2 + b'y2 + c'z2 - 1]

Then V/=^,|igj = («iftyfcd

Vg = dg dg ^ i fj, A/„ „,„->

Now V/x Vg = ((&c' - *'c)yz, {cat - c'a)zx, (ab' - a'b) xy)

Denoting be' -b'c = At ca' - da = B, ab' - db - C, we have

_ _ (ABC
VfxVg = xyz\ - , - , -
U y *
dr
Since V/x Vg is parallel to t = — , we take
ds

A B C
' ' = h ...(2)
ds x y z '

Thus /*, = A , , , = *, /, = £ andA2 = y r A >i

x y z ^\x)
34 Differential Geometry—A First Course

d} (Ad_ B_d_ c_d_s

Hence A =
ox ay oz {x dx y dy z 8z /

Ad B d C d)(A B C
So Ah =
x dx y dy z dzjix' y' z
( 2
A B2 C2
-.(3)

BC 2
Hence H =hxAh= 3 3 {Bz -'Cy2),^r(Cx2-Az\
yz zV
AB
3 3 (fix 2 -Ay 2 ) •••(4)
Z X

Let us simplify Bz2 - Cy2

Bz2 - Cy2 = (at - c'd) z2 - (ab' - a'b) y2
= a'(cz2 + by2) - a(c'z2 + b'y2)
= d(\ - ax2) - a(l - a'x2) = (a' - a)
Thus we have Bz2 - Cy2 = (a' - a)
In a similar manner, we have
Cx2 - Az2 = ib' - b) and Ay2 - Bx2 = (c'~ c)

BC a CAib b
Thus H =h,A
3 3h=\ ^; \ :: 3\4^(c-c)
3
yz ZV xy
Hence|hxAh|2=^^£^-(a'-a)2
xyz
A2B2C2-^ x6 2
So Zyj^-TA(a
\hf 2\s Jt6y6z6 2 -a) .
i"
To find T, let us find AH
From equation (8) of theorem and using (4),
r 3
ABC x v3 Z3
X3Kb =H =
^(a'-a),?-{b'-b\±-{c'-c)
x y z A. u C ,
3 3 3 3
3
;
That is ^A-
( y z X Kb = \ —(a' - a), ^(b' - b), — (c' - c) .-(5)
A B c"
ABC
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Theory of Space Curves 35

3 3 3
X V Z ^
Let us denote by u = — XK.
ABC
, d
Operating with X— = A on both sides of (5), we have
ds

A d . B d . C d}(x3 , , , y3 , . , , , z3
ds [^x dx y dy z dz B c

So Xji'b + Xji (- rn) = (3* (a'- a), 3y {V - b\ cz{c' - c)) ...(6)

From equation (7) of the theorem, we have

A2 B2 C2
X2Kii + XX't =Ah = - ^ r > ^r>^r • ...(7)

Taking scalar product of (6) and (7), we obtain

A2
#KTH =3VA r (a'-a)
*-** x"
Substituting the value of fi and simplifying, we get.

3 ABC ^ A2
A V T
= 3 3 3 Zr"r^"fl)

Substituting the values of A and Kt we get

3^V 2,^~{a'-a)
* =— l^'-rf
h 6
ABC

1.10. CONTACT BETWEEN CURVES AND SURFACES

Let y be a curve r(w) = {/(«), g(w), h{u)} and let S be a surface F(JC, y, z) = 0. Let us
assume that the curve y and the surface S are of high class in the sense that r(w) and
F(JC, y, z) have continuous derivatives of sufficiently high order. From the equation
of the curve, we take x =/(w), y = g(u), z = h{u). If this point lies on the surface, we
have F(f(u\ g{u\ h(u)) = 0 which is an equation in u giving the points of
intersection of the curve and the surface. Depending upon the nature of the roots of
the equation, we shall define the contact between curves and surfaces as follows.
Let u0 be one such zero of F(u) = 0. Since F(u) possesses the derivatives of
sufficiently high order, F(u) has the following power series representation in the
neighbourhood of u = u0.

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 36 Differential Geometry—A First Course

m = F(u0) + ^ B 2 FXUQ) + i ^ l F>0) + ... +

n!

F(«) = hF'(u0) + ^-f"(«o) + ^-F"'(«o) + - + —t ^ W + 0(hn+x)

2! 3! «!
Definition 1. If F'(w0) * 0, then u0 is a simple zero of F(u) = 0. Then the
curve yand the surface S is said to have simple intersection at r(w0).
Definition 2. If F'(u0) = 0 and F"(u0) * 0, u0 is a double zero of F(u) and
F(w) is of second order of h. Then the curve yand S are said to have two point
contact.
Definition 3. If F'(w0) = F"(w0) = 0 and F'"(w0) * 0, y and 5 are said to have
three point contact at u = u0 under these conditions u0 is a triple zero of F(u).
In general if F'(u0) = F"(w0) = ... = Fin"l\u^ = 0 and F{n\u0) * 0, the curve y
and the surface 5 are said to have n point contact at u = w0.
Theorem 1. The conditions of a surface having n point contact with the
curve y are invariant over a change of parameter.
Proof. Let u = 0(0 be the given parametric transformation. Since it is
regular, we have 0(K) (w) * 0 for k > 1. Corresponding to the pointw = w0, we have
"o = 0('o) a t ' = 'o-
Now F(u) = F(0(O) =/(0 where/is a function of f only.

7(0 = - ^ ' M W M = f > ) [ « t ) ] 2 + F'(u)'<j>(t) ...(2)

If F'(w) = 0, then /(/) = 0 as 0(0 * 0

If F'(u) = 0 and F"(w) * 0, then from (1) and (2) we get 7 (0 = 0 and / (0 * 0,
since 0(0, 0(0*0.
Thus if the surface S given by F(w) has two point contact with the curve yat
r(w0), then the surface 5 given by/(0 has two point contact with yat r(0(ro))
Differentiating (2) again we get
/ (0 = Fm(u) [0(t)]3 + 3F"(w) 0(00(0 + F'(K) 0(0 ...(3)
If F\u) = 0, F"(u) = )0 and F'"(w) * 0, then from (3) /(*) = 0, / ( 0 = 0 and
/ (0 * 0 as 0 (0 is regular. Hence the surface S given by/(0 has three point contact
with the curve yat r[0(ro)]. Proceeding like this, if F\u) = F"(w) = ... =
F{"-l\u) = 0 and F{n\u) * 0 at u = w0> then 7(0 = 7(0 = ... =/ ( "" 1) (0 = 0 and
/ $ * 0 at r[0(fo)]. Thus the surface 5 given by/(0 has n point contact with yat
Theory of Space Curves 37

r[0(/ o )], provided the surface S given by F(u) has n point contact with /at r(w0).
Thus a surface having n point contact with the curve y is invariant over a change of
parameter. Hence we conclude that the property of the curve having n-point
contact with S is a property of yin the sense that any path which represents ywill
have this property.
Theorem 2. The osculating plane at any point P has three point contact with
the curve at P
Proof. Let P be any point on the curve and let the arc length be measured
from P so that s = 0 at P and let the equation of the curve be r = r(.s). We know that
the osculating plane at P is
[r(s) - r(0), r'(O), r"(0)] = 0
and let F(s)= [r(s) - r(0), r'(0), r"(0)] ...(1)
We shall show that F'(s) = F"(s) = 0 and F'"(s) * 0 at P where s = 0 and this
proves that the osculating plane has three point contact with the curve.
Expanding r(s) by Taylor's theorem in the neighbourhood of P,

r(s) = r(0) + lMs + £!<0) ^ + -Lr'"(0)53 + 0(/) ..(2)

1! 2! 3!
Neglecting powers of s greater than 3 in (2) and substituting it in (1), we obtain

3
F(s) = -s* +h i ^ 5 , r ' ( 0 ) , r " ( 0 ) ...(3)
1! 2!

r'(0)
, r'(0), r"(0) s + [i"(0),i'(0),i*(0)]yf
1!

+ [r"'(0), r'(0), r"(0)]

si -.(3)
3!
The first two terms of (3) vanish. Using \cx = [r', r", r"'] in (3), we obtain

o
Hence F'(0) = 0, F"(0) = 0 and F'"(0) = - ^ r ^ 0, provided rand r d o not
vanish at P. This proves that in general the curve and the osculating plane have
three point contact at P.
Note. In case if K= 0, or T = 0, F"'(0) = 0 so that the plane must have at least
four point contact with the curve.

1.11 OSCULATING CIRCLE AND OSCULATING

SPHERE
With the help of notion of contact of curves and surfaces, we obtain for space
curves the analogues of circle of curvature and radius of curvature known for plane
curves. Since we are concerned with the contact of curves and surraces, we may
38 Differential Geometry—A First Course

think of a sphere having four point contact with the given curve. This leads to the
introduction of osculating sphere and the radius of spherical curvature.
Definition 1. Let y be the given space curve and P be any point on it. The
circle having three point contact with the given space curve at P is called the
osculating circle at P.
Definition 2. The radius of the osculating circle is called the radius of
curvature of the curve at P. It is denoted by p. The centre of the osculating circle is
called the centre of curvature at P.
Using the above definitions, we note the following properties of the osculating
circle.
1. Since the osculating plane has also three point contact with the curve atP,
the osculating circle lies on the osculating plane. It is evident even
otherwise if we define the osculating circle as the curve passing through
three consecutive points on the curve as we have defined the osculating
plane as the plane passing through three consecutive points on the curve.
2. Since the circle of curvature and the curve have the same tangent at P lying
in the osculating plane, the centre of the circle lies on the principal normal
at P.
Theorem 1. The radius of the osculating circle at P is the reciprocal of
curvature of the curve at P and the position vector of its centre of the osculating

circle is c = r + on where p = —.
K
Proof. Choosing arc-length s as parameter, let c be the position vector of the
centre of the osculating circle. The centre c is at a distance p from P along the
principal normal at P. Hence we have c - r = pn. Hence its equation is

(c - r) • n = p. We prove that p = —.
K
Since any point r = r(s) on the osculating circle satifies the equation of the
sphere (c - R) 2 = p" and lies in the osculating plane, the osculating circle is the
intersection of the osculating plane and the sphere (c - R) 2 = p 2 where R is the
position vector of any point on the sphere. If r(s) is the point of intersection of this
sphere and the curve, the sphere has three point contact with the curve at r = r(s).
Let the point of intersection be F(s) = (c - r)~ - p".
The conditions for three point contact are
F(s) =0,F'(s) = 0,F"(s) = 0 ...(1)
F'(s) = 0 gives ( c - r ) - t = 0 ...(2)
Differentiating (2), (c - r) • t' - 1 • t = 0
Since t' = Kn and t-t = 1, we have (c - r) *cn = 1 ...(3)
Comparing (3) with the equation of the osculating circle (c - r) • n = p, we get
1
K
Theory of Space Curves 39

Thus we have proved that centre of the circle of curvature is c = r + pn and the
radius of the circle of curvature is the reciprocal of the curvature of the curve at P.
Definition 3. A sphere having four point contact with the curve at a point P is
called the osculating sphere at P on the curve.
Definition 4. The centre of the osculating sphere is called the centre of
spherical curvature and its radius is called the radius of spherical curvature.
Theorem 2. If r = r(s) is the given curve y, then the centre C and radius R of
spherical curvature at a point P on /are given by

C = r + pn + op'b, R = jp2 + o2p'2

Proof. If C is the centre and R is the radius of the osculating sphere, then its
equation is (C - R)2 = R2 where R is the position in vector of any point on the
sphere. The points of intersection of the curve and the sphere are given by
F(s) = (C - r)2 - R2 = 0. Since the sphere has four point contact with yat P, the
conditions of four point contact are F(s) = F'(s) = F"(s) = F'"(s) = 0 which give
rise to the following equations.
F'(s)= Ogives(C-r)t = 0 ...(1)
F"(s) = 0 gives (C - r) • joi - 1 = 0 ...(2)
F"'(s) = 0 gives (C - r) • |Yn + K(rb - Kt)] = 0 giving
K / (C-r)-n-K 2 (C-r)-t+CT(C-r)-b = 0 ...(3)
Using (1) and (2) in (3), we get

— + KT(C-r).b = 0
K

1 1 K*
Let p = — and a - —. Then p' = =-. Using these in the above equation, we
K r Kl
have(C-r)-b = /[/(T ...(4)
From (1), (2) and (4) we have
( C - r ) t = 0,(C-r)-n = p , ( C - r ) b = p/cr.
The above equations show that (C - r) lies in the normal plane and its
components along the normal and binormal are p and p'a respectively. So we can
write (C - r) as (C - r) = pn + p'ab. Hence the centre of the osculating sphere is
C = r + pn + p'crb.
The radius R of the osculating sphere is given by
R2 = (C - r)2 = (pn + (fab) • (pn + p'crb) = p2 + p ,2 (j 2
Hence R = ^p2 + p,2a2 .
As shown in Fig. 2, the centre of osculating shpere lies in the normal plane on
a line parallel to the binormal called the polar axis. The intersection of the sphere
with the osculating plane is the osculating circle.
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40 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Fig. 2

Note. When fcis constant, p = — is also a constant and p' = 0 so that R = p.

Thus for a curve of constant curvature, the centre of curvature and the centre of
spherical curvature coincide and it is c = r + pn.
Example 1. Show that the radius of spherical curvature of a circular helix is
equal to the radius of curvature.
Sincep is a constant for a circular helix, the result follows from the note above.
Example 2. Find the centre of spherical curvature of the curve given by
r = (a cos w, a sin w, a cos 2w) ...(1)
2 2
The osculating sphere (r - C) = R with centre C and radius R has four point
contact with the space curve. The conditions for the sphere to have four point
contact with the space curve are
( r - Q r =0 ...(2)
2
( r - C ) - r + r =0 ...(3)
( r - C ) - f + 3rf =0 ...(4)
Let us take the centre C = a\ + j3j + yk ...(5)
Using (1) and (5) in (2), (3) and (4), we get three equations in three unknowns.
Solving these equations, we get the centre of spherical curvature.
Using the condition (2), we get
[(a cos u - a)i + {a sin u- f$)j + {a cos 2w - y)k].
[(- a sin u)i + a cos uj - 2a sin 2uk] = 0 which gives
a sin u - j3 cos u + 2y sin 2w = 2a cos 2w sin 2u ...(6)
Using the condition (3), we get
[(a cos u - a)i + (a sin u - p)j + (a cos 2w - y)k].
[- a cos ui - a sin uj - 4a cos 2uk] + a2( 1 +4 sin2 2w) = 0

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Theory of Space Curves 41

Simplifying the above equation using dot product,

a cos u + j3 sin u + 4ycos 2w = 4a (cos2 2w - sin2 2M) ...(7)
Using the condition (4), we have
[(a cos u - a)i + (a sin u-p)j + (a cos 2M - y)£] •
[a sin MI - a cos uj + 8a sin luk]
+ 3[- a sin MI + a cos M/ - 2a sin 2uk] • [- cos MI - a sin M/ - 4a cos 2M&] = 0
Simplifying the above equation, we get
a sin M - fi cos M + 8ysin 2M = 32a sin 2M COS 2M ...(8)
Now (8) - (6) gives 6ysin 2M = 30a sin 2M COS 2M
n
Since u * 0, — or n, y= 5a cos 2M.
2
Substituting this value of yin (7), and (6), we get
a cos M + p sin M = - 12a COS2M - 4a ...(9)
and a sin M - /J cos u = - 8a sin 2M COS 2M ...(10)
(9) cos M + (10) sin u gives
a = - 12 a cos2 2M COS M - 4a cos u - 8a sin 2M COS 2M sin M
= - 8a cos 2M (COS 2M COS M + sin 2M sin M) - 4a cos M(COS2 2M + 1)

= - 8a cos 2M cos M - 4a cos u (cos2 2M + 1)

= - 4a cos M (1 + cos 2M)2 = - 16a COS5M.

Using this value of a and y, we find /J from the equation (6)

P cos M = - 16a cos5 M sin M + 16a sin u cos M COS 2M
= 16a sin M COS M [COS 2M - cos4 M] which gives
Pcos u = 16a sin M cos M[1 - 2 s i n 2 M - ( l -sin2M)2]
= - 16a sin5M cos M SO that P = - 16a sin5M
Hence the coordinates of the centre of spherical curvature are
r = (- 16a cos5 M, - 16a sin5 M, 5a cos 2M).
Example 3. If the radius of spherical curvature is constant, prove that the curve
either lies on a sphere or has a constant curvature.
The radius of spherical curvature is given by
K2 = p 2 + (c7p')2 ...(1)
Since R is constant, differentiating (1), we get

2p p + CT— (Op') = 0 ...(2)

as

(2) shows that either p7 = 0 or p + a — (opO = 0

ds
If p' = 0, then p is constant. That is the curve has constant curvature.
42 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Alternatively if p + o—{op') = 0, we shall prove that the curve lies on a

ds
sphere.
If a curve lies on a sphere, the osculating sphere at every point of the curve is
the given sphere. So it is enough if we show that the osculating sphere is the same
at every point of the curve. Since the radius of spherical curvature is constant, the
osculating sphere has same radius at every point of the curve. So to complete the
proof, we shall show that the centre of the osculating sphere is a fixed point given
by a constant position vector. The position vector of the centre of spherical
curvature is C = r + pn + op'b.
Differentiating with respect to s, we have
dC dr , dn . d , ,. ,db
— = — + p'n + p — +b—(crp) + op —
ds ds ds ds ds

Using p = — and <7 = —, we have

K T
AC* A
— = t + p'n + p (rb - Kt) + b—{op') + op'{- rn)
ds ds

b = 0 by (2)
O ds
Hence C is constant showing that the centre of the osculating sphere is
independent of positions of points on the curve. Thus the osculating sphere at
every point of the curve is the same sphere so that the curve lies on a sphere.
Example 4. Show that a necessary and sufficient condition that a curve lies on a
sphere is

O ds
at every point of the curve.
To prove the necessity of the condition, let us assume that the curve lies on a
sphere. Then the sphere is the osculating sphere at every point of the curve so that
the radius of the osculating sphere is constant.
The radius of the osculating sphere is
fl2 = p 2 + (ap') 2 ...(1)
Since R is a constant differentiating (1), we get

2pp' + 2(crp') 4 ( ^ 0 = 0 ...(2)

ds

Since p' * 0, we get p + a — {op') = 0 proving the necessity of the condition.

ds
Theory of Space Curves 43

Conversely let us assume that the condition is satisfied at every point of the
curve. Multiplying the given condition throughout by p' and integrating with
respect to s, we obtain p 2 + {op')2 = constant which shows that under the given
condition the radius of the osculating sphere is constant at every point of the curve.
The centre C of the osculating sphere is
C = p + pn + op'b
Differentiating C and simplifying as in the previous example, we have
dC
b which is zero by the given condition. Hence C is a
ds o ds
constant vector which means that the centre of the osculating sphere is a fixed point
Therefore the given curve must lie on a sphere. Hence the condition is sufficient.

1.12 LOCUS OF CENTRES OF SPHERICAL CURVATURE

Unless the curve lies on a sphere, the centres of spherical curvature change from
point to point as the point moves on the curve. Hence it is but natural to study the
locus of the centres of spherical curvature of the given curve. Let C be the given
curve and C{ be the locus of centres of spherical curvature. After finding the
relation between moving triad (t, n, b) on Cand the moving triad (tj, n{i b{) on C p
we express the curvature and torsion of Cx in terms of those of C. We shall use the
suffix 1 for the quantities pertaining to Cx to distinguish them from the
corresponding quantities of C.
Theorem 1. Let C be the given curve and Cx be the locus of its centres of
spherical curvature.
Then (i) t{ = eb, nx = ^ n , bx=- eext where e = el = ±l and
(ii) The product of the torsions at the corresponding points is equal to the
product of curvatures.
Proof. The position vector rx of the centre of spherical curvature is given by
r p r + pn + op'b ...(1)
Choosing the arc-length as the parameter and differentiating (1), we obtain
drx drx dsx dx , , , , „ , ,
—- = —*-— L = — + p n + pn 7 + ( c / p b + op b) + op'b
ds ds{ ds ds
dv ds
So — L — L = t + p'n + p ( r b - ict) + ( p V + op")b + op\- rn)
dsx ds

Hence txs\ = — + p ' o ' + op" b so that tx is parallel to b.

Now Cj is parametrised by s and so sx is an increasing functions of s so that s\

is non-negative.
So if we take tj = eb where e = ± 1, ...(2)
44 Differential Geometry—A First Course

then we have s\ = e — + p'c' + o p "

Having found out t lf let us find out i^ and b ^

Differentiating (2) with respect to s,
dU dix dsx db
— L = —l- L
= e— = -exn
ds dsx ds ds

Since — - = jqn,, we have Kxnys\ = - exn so that n, is parallel to n.

dsx
So we can take n, = e{n ...(3)
wheree { =± 1. Using this n,, e{K{s\ --ex ...(4)
Further b{ = t, x wx - ebx e{n = -ee{t ...(5)
Hence (2), (3) and (5) prove (i)
To prove (ii), let us find ifx, and K'1
dbi dbx ds\ dt . ,
— L = —• =- ee{— =-ee{Knso that r{n{s{=ee{Kn
ds ds{ ds ds
Since nj = g,n, we get r , ^ =eK ...(6)
/
From (4) and (6) errls l -exeK--eKexKxs{ which gives TTj =-e{KKv
Thus if e{ = - 1, we have TT, = KTC, which proves (ii).
Note. If C is of constant curvature, then p ' = 0. As we have already noted the
centres of spherical curvature and curvature conicide. Using p ' = 0,
TT, i dsi 0 r
We obtain —- = e— = e—, e = ± 1
ds a K

From (4) of the theorem, e{ K{S\ =-er

Substituting for s',, we get e{Kx = - K , i f £ = - l
Choosing e{ = - 1, we find /Cj = K
Also from (6) of the Theorem xxs\ = ^/c
K2
Substituting fors\, we find T, = — .
T
Note. If we measure the arc-length s { of C, in that direction which makes its
unit tangent t{ have the same direction as b, then tj = b. We may chose the direction
of nj opposite to n so that n, = - n. With this choice, we have b, = t. These are the
particular cases of the above Theorem.
Theorem 2. The radius of curvature p, of the locus of the centres of
curvature is
Theory of Space Curves 45

Pi = [R3 ds{ p ) R\ p2R4

where R is the radius of spherical curvature.

Proof. We shall use suffix unity for the quantities related to the locus of the
centres of curvature C{.
By Theorem 1 of 1.11, the position vector r, of the centre of curvature is
r ^ r + pn ...(1)
Using the arc-length s as parameter, let us differentiate (1) and find s\
dvx dr, dsx dr , dn
—L = — L — L = — + p n + p —
ds ds{ ds ds ds
t{s\ = t + p'n + p(rb - Kt) which gives

— t{s{ = —pn + b ..(2)

P P
Taking dot product of (2) with itself, we get

° / 2 _ <* „,2 , ° P +P _ R
~~YS
I - 9" + 1 " 2 ~ 2
P P P P
where R is the radius of spherical curvature.

Thus we have from the above step, s\ = — ..(3)

Differentiating (2) with respect to s again, we get

a , dt{ ds{ die,

— St + t, = — p ' — + — — p' n + —
dsi ds <HP p ds ds ^ p ) ds

v ,2 * d
- ^ ¥ l + t
l T
—p' In-Tn
p ds .P 'J P *
Thus we obtain,

-S , KT,!!, + t, — | T J , '
<KP J
-p't + - V-1n +£-b •••(4)

Taking the cross product of (2) and (4), the left side of the resulting equation is
2 2
=
9~^1 ^"lN ^1 ^"l 7~^\ 1
46 Differential Geometry—A First Course

and the right hand side is

P'2<J2+P2 f a , a2p'2
-s.
t u
2 ds
P° P P
Hence we get

r2 >i~i
p"a'+p'
K
\^TS[\
P
=
p2o ds ?' p p
Taking dot product on both sides with itself,

p'2<r2+p2 d(ap, O2 ,2 CT4P'4

<1 2—s' 6
-
4 1
p * ' p2a dsyp

Substituting for s\ from (3), we get

4
R6 ( «'2„2
2 <7 R'
Ci 4 + £-?-.R2 giving
p '^ pa ds KP

R°
R'
[pa
4(vir*^
ds \p

Thus K\ =
R R3 ds{pH ) \ p2R4

Since p{ = — , we get the formula for ^ .

*i

Using some of the steps in the theorem, we shall find torsion xx, in the
following corollary.
2lV2
1 'Rv
Corollary. xx = ^-y
Ids
v^y
We have from (2) of the theorem

— t^ ! = —pn + b
P P
Taking cross product with n1 on both sides of the above step,

— ti xnj5\ = —pnxii! H-bxii!

P P
Theory of Space Curves 47

But we know that n, = - n so that we have — b,.?', = t

P
Differentiating the above relation with respect to s,

d \ & /V o , dbi ds\ dt

— — s{ b, + — s\—L—L = —
ds\p ) p ds{ ds ds

d_
That is —s\Mb,s i r,nj = Kn
ds .P J P
Taking the dot product of the above equation with itself on both sides, we obtain

^IVT.W
& < " •

Let us use s\ = — and find r,.

G

T 2_P2 1 d (a
— St
,
\ds\p

2 2

op
/?4
£..1
ds p

pa_ J_ \d( R
Thus we get T, = „2
R2 ds{p)

It x t"|
Example 1. If R is the radius of spherical curvature, show that R = - —- j —
K T

We shall find t x t". Since t' = Knl = —, differentiating this relation, we get
P

t" = in'-4n = (Tb-K-t)--Vn

1
* P' 1 K
= r-t--H5-n + — b
P P P<*
Hence txt"=--^-b n
P po1
48 Differential Geometry—A First Course

1 p'2o2+p2
Hence |txt"| =
P4 P2*2 pv
Since the radius of spherical curvature R is R = p + o p , we obtain

|t x t"| = - £ - which gives R = ^ f i .

pa K x

Example 2. Show that the tangent to the locus of the centres of the osculating
sphere passes through the centre of the osculating circle.
Let C, be the locus of the centres of spherical curvature. Then the position
vector xx of any point P on C{ is
r ^ r + pn + op'b ...(1)
Hence the unit tangent vector at P on C{ is
dr, ds dsx
—- —l- =t{—L = t + p'n + p(rb - Kt) + —(op')b + op\- rn)
dsx ds ds ds

Simplifying, we have t j = — -(2)

ds. £•>>
The equation of the tangent at P to Cx is given by
R = rx + Ar'j = rx + Xt{ ••(3)
where A is a scalar. Using (1) and (2) in (3), we get

R = r + pn + crp'b + A —
ds. H<-'> b. ••(4)

Since X is an arbitrary constant, we can choose

OP ds
A=-
a ds
with this choice of A, (4) becomes R = r + pn which is the position vector of the
centre of the osculating circle. Thus the tangent to the locus of the centres of
spherical curvature passes through the centre of the osculating circle.

1.13 TANGENT SURFACES, INVOLUTES AND

EVOLUTES
With the help of contact of curves with surfaces, we introduced osculating circle
and osculating sphere. As the point moves on the curve, the centres of osculating
circle and osculating sphere trace out curves namely the locus of centre of
curvature and the locus of the centre of spherical curvature. The two loci are the
results of point property of the curves. Now instead of taking points on the curves,
Theory of Space Curves 49

let us consider tangents at different points of the curve. These tangents will
generate a surface and we consider curves on this surface. These notions lead to the
definitions of involutes and consequently evolutes of a given curve.
To start with, it is worthwhile to point out the basic differences between the
evolutes of a plane curve and those of a space curve.
(i) The evolute of a plane curve is unique but the space curve has infinitely
many evolutes.
(ii) Evolute of a plane curve is defined as the locus of the centres of curvature
but we will show that the evolute of a space curve is neither the locus of the
centres of curvature nor the locus of the centres of spherical curvature.
However the concept of involute of a plane curve has natural generalisation to
the space curves. Once we obtain the involute C of a curve C, we define C to be the
evolute of C.
Definition 1. The surface generated by the tangent lines to the given curve C
is called the tangent surface to C.
Using this definition, let us find the position vector of a point P on the tangent
surface.
Let A be any point on the curve at an arcual distance s from a fixed point O on
C. Since P is a point on the tangent surface, AP is tangent to C. If u is the distance
ofP fromA, then the position vector of P on the tangent surface is R = r(s) + ut(s).
Since R is a function of two parameters u and s, we denote the position vector
by R(s, u) so that we can ;write R(.y, u) = r(s) + ut(s). ...(1)
Since (1) is a function of two parameter, it represents a surface.
If we assume any relation of the type u = X(s) as the point moves on the curve,
(1) represents a single parameter family so that it represents a curve on the tangent
surface of C. Hence any curve on the tangnet surface has the positions vector
R = r(j) + A(j)t(j)- ...(2)
We take the class of the curve (2) to be the smaller of the class of C or A.
Definition 2. A curve which lies on the tangent surface of C and intersects
the generators of the tangent surface orthogonally is called the involute of C
denoted by C.
From the definition it follows that the tangents of C are normal to C. This
means that the tangent to C at a point P is orthogonal to the tangent at the
corresponding point of C. The following theorem gives the equation of an
involute. We use the suffix 1 for the quantities pertaining to C.
Theorem 1. If rx is the position vector of a point P, on the involute C of C,
then r1 = r + (c-s)t where c is an arbitrary constant and r is the position vector of
PonC.
Proof. Since the involute lies on the tangent surface, the position vector rx of
a point Pj on the involute (Fig. 3) is rx = r + A(i)t ...(1)
Using the definition of the involute, we shall find X(s) in the following manner.
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50 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Fig. 3

Diffrentiating (1) with respect to s, we have

as* as as

That is ...(2)
ds
Since the tangent to the involute cuts the generators orthogonally Vtx = 0.
Using this and taking dot product with t on both sides of (2) we get

1 + A'($) = 0 or = -1 ...(4)
ds
Integrating (4) with respect to s, we find A = (c - s)
Hence the equation of the involute is rt = t + (c - s) t ...(5)
Since c is an arbitrary constant, the equation (5) shows that for a given curve C,
there is an infinite system of involutes of C. For different choices of c, we get
different involutes of the system.
Corollary 1. The distance between corresponding points of two involutes is
constant.
Let P be a fixed point on C. Let rx and r2 be the position vectors of the
corresponding points on two involutes determined by c = cx and c = c2.
Then rx = r + (c{ - s) t, r2 = r + (c2 - ^)t
Then rx - r2 = (c{ - c2) t so that \rx - r2| = \cx - c2\ which is constant.
Thus the length between two such corresponding points is constant.
Corollary 2. Since t is the same for different involutes, the tangents at the
corresponding points of the involutes are parallel.

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Theory of Space Curves 51

Theorem 2. The curvature KX and torsion TX of an involute C of C are given

by
T 2 + K2 Kt' - K'T
K*l ~ T"
2
~T"
2
» ^l — ' 2
/C (c-j) ' K(C~S)(K +T2)'
Proof. By the previous theorem, the position vector rx of C on the involute is
vl = v + (c-s)t ...(1)
Differentiating (1) with respect to s we get
dvx dsx , u, , ... .
— - — L = r + ( c - ^ ) t - t which gives
dsx ds

tx^- =(c-s)Kn ...(2)

ds
The equation (2) shows that the tangent to the involute C is parallel to the
principal normal at A on the curve. Let us choose the positive direction along the
involute such that tx = n. Using this in (2), we have
/7c.
~r =(C-S)K ...(3)
ds
From our choice tj,
dtx dsx dn
-Kt ...(4)
dsx ds ds
Using (3) in (4), Kxnx(c-s)K= r b - Kt ...(5)
Taking dot product of (5) with itself on both sides,
K2(c - sfK2 = T2 + K2 which

2 T2+K2
gives KX = —= r-
K2(C-J)2
To find torsion, we must have an expression for b which we shall find as
follows.
Using tx = n and taking cross product with (5),
tx x KKXIIX(C -s) = n x (rb - Kt) which gives
(c - s)KKxbx = Tt + Kb ...(6)
Differentiating (6) with respect s, we get

KKX(C-S) *-._£l. + b , — [KKX(C-S)] = Tt' + l!t+K!b + Kb'

dsx ds ds
ds\
Substituting for —- and simplifying
ds
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52 Differential Geometry—A First Course

KXI?(C-S)2(- Till!) + b 1 -^-[o: 1 (c-.y)] = rt+ ^b ...(7)

Taking dot product of (5) and (7), we get

- r,K*K*(C-sf = K'%- KX'
KX* ~~ K*T
Hence we find xx = .—:
9 r- ...(8)
KrfK:J(c - J) J
9 KT' - /C'T
Sulistiluting for K\ , we find r, = ~ x—
1
' K(C-S)(K2 + r2)

If we take /c= —, and r= —, then K: = —y- and r = 5-.

p a p (Tz

Using these, the formula for r, is given by T, = —%—^--= —.

(p2+CT2)(c-.)
Example 1. Show that the involutes of a circular helix are plane curves.
The torsion of an involute is given by
KX' - K'X
K(C-S)(K2 +T2)

For a circular helix, the curvature K and torsion r are constants so that K' = 0
and %' = 0. Using these xx = 0 which is the necessary and sufficient condition for a
curve to be a plane curve. Hence the involute of a circular helix must be a plane
curve.
Next we shall define the evolute of a space curve and derive its equation.
Definition 3. If C is an involute of a given curve C, then C is defined to be
evolute of C.
Given the involute C of C, we find the equation of C in the following theorem.
Theorem 3. If r = r(s) is the equation of an involute C of a curve C, and
(/, w, b) is the moving triad at any point of r = r(j), then the position vector rx of a
point on C is rx = r + pn + p cot (y/+c)b where yr= \ xds ...(1)

Proof. Let P be a point on C corresponding to the point Q on C. PQ is a

tangent at P orthogonal to C. Hence PQ is perpendicular to the tangent at Q to C.
We use this fact repeatedly in the proof.
Since the tangent at Q to the involute is at right angles to the tangentPQ t0 the
curve C, PQ lies in the normal plane at Q to C. Taking the coordinate system
—>
(t, n, b) at Qy we can take the vector PQ = An + jib. The coefficients A, jU change
from point to point on C so that A, ^u are functions of s on C. Using this position
vector of any point rx on C (Fig. 4) is

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Theory of Space Curves 53

Fig. 4

Fl =OP = OQ + QP
= r + An + ^b ...(2)
We shall now determine A and ji. Differentiating (2) with respect to st we get
dr.
= t + A'n + A(rb - Kt) + ji'b + JU(- rn)
ds
= (1 - XK) t + (A' - jtn)n + (AT + /z')b ...(3)
dV\ drt ds\ ds\
Since — L = — L — L = t,— L , it is a tangent at P to C.
dfc ds. ds ds
Hence it is in the normal plane to C at Q. Therefore it must be parallel to
An + jUb ...(4)
Since (3) and (4) are parallel, we must have

X - \XT _ AT + //'
1 - Xk = 0 and ..(5)
A ^

From the above relation (5), we find A and a. First equation gives A = — = p.

From the second equation, we get

T(A2 + /Z2) = M ' - ^ ' -(6)

Since /i * 0, we can write (6) as follows

T(A 2 +// 2 ) _ia'-W)_d(X

..2 ~~ ..2
dsyju
54 Differential Geometry—A First Course

d_
ds
Thus we find T=
1 + (A//1)2 ds
tar'ti

Integrating both sides of the above equation \xds + c = tan T — where c is a

constant

Thus we obtain — = tan f \xds + c J

Hence if we take y/= Tds, then we can write

A
— = tan(y^+ c) so that \x = A cot(^+ c)

Hence the equation of the evolute of C is

r1 = r + pn + p cot(v+ c)b where y/= \ rds.

The above equation represents an infinite system of evolutes of the given

curve, one evolute arising from each choice of c.
Corollary. The tangents to two different evolutes corresponding to two
constants cx and c2 drawn from the same point of the given curve are inclined to
each other at a constant angle cx - c2.
Proof. The equation of the evolute is
rj = r + pn + p cot(y+ c)b
K
For the sake of simplification, let us choose c - — + a so that the equation of
the evolute becomes
rj = r + p n - p t a n ( y + f l ) b ...(1)

Further y/ = j xds so that (// = r ...(2)

We shall find unit tangent vectors t[ ]) and t {2) at two points ax and a2 on the
evolutes and find the angle between them using t [^ • t j(2) = cos ft
Differentiating (1) with respect to sly we get

— - — L = t + p ( r b - K,t) + p , n - [ p / tan(y^+<z) + psec2(v/'+<2)y^]b

dsx ds
- p tan (y/+ a) (- rn) ...(3)
Using (2) in (3) and simplifying, we get
Theory of Space Curves 55

t j — - = [p' + prtan (y/ + a)]n - [p' tan (y/+ a) + prtan 2 (i/^+ a)]b
ds
ds
t j — - = [p' + p r t a n (y/+a)] [ n - t a n (y^+a)b] ...(4)
ds
ds\
To get — L , let us take dot product of (4) with itself
ds

— I = [ p / + p r t a n ( i ^ + a ) ] 2 [ l + tan2(y^+fl)]

ds
So —- = [p' + pTtan(y+<2)] stc(y/+a) ...(5)
ds
Using (5) in (4), we obtain
tj =cos ((/^+a)n-sin (i//+a)b
Now the unit tangents corresponding to al and a2 are
t{° =cos(i/A+a 1 )n-sin (vA+a,)b
tj(2) =cos (\i/+a2)n -sin (y/+a 2 )b
Hence if 0is the angle between the two tangents,
cos 0 = t | n t [ 2 ) = Cos (v/+a,)cos(i//+a 2 ) + sin (y/^a^) sin (y/+a2)
= cos (a{ -a2)

Hence 0 = ax - a2 = \cx \c2 \=cx-c2 which proves that the

tangents at two different evolutes drawn from the same point of an involute are
inclined to each other at a constant angle c{ - c2.
Note 1. The position vector of a point on the locus of the centre of curvature
isc = r + pn ...(1)
and that of a point on the evolute is

r2 = r + pn + p cot (y/+c)b where y/= \rds ...(2)

Comparing (1) and (2), an evolute cannot be obtained as the locus of centres of
curvature.
Note 2. Also an evolute cannot be obtained as the locus of the centres of
spherical curvature for the tangent at a point on the locus of the centre of spherical
is parallel to b whereas the tangent vector to the evolute is parallel to pn + jab so
that the two loci cannot be the same. Hence an evolute cannot be obtained as the
locus of centres of spherical curvature. However we have the following fact as
mentioned earlier.
Theorem 4. The locus of the centres of spherical curvature is an evolute if
and only if the curve is a plane curve.
56 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Proof. The equation of the evolute is

r! = r + pn + pcot(v^+c)b, y/= \tds ...(1)

Comparing (1) with the equation of the locus of the centre of curvature rx = r + pn,
the two curves coincide if and only if p cot (y/+ c) = 0 ...(2)
f 7t f 1X71
Since p * 0, (2) implies \xds + c = n— or rds = c ...(3)
J 2 ^ 2
Differentiating both sides of (3) with respect to s, we get r = 0 which is the
necessary and sufficient condition for a curve to be a plane curve which proves the
result.
Example 2. Find the involutes and evolutes of the circular helix
r = (a cos ft a sin ft b6) ...(1)
The equation of the involute is rx = r + (A - s)t ...(2)
We shall find s and t from (1) and substitute in (2). Differentiating (1), we have
ds
t— = (- a sin ft a cos ft b)
dO

Hence — = a2 + b2 = c2 (say) so that — = c givng 5 = eft

6 B
UaJ do
Then t = - (- a sin ft a cos ft &) ...(3)
c
Using (3) in (2), we get the equation of the involute as
1-j = (a cos ft a sin ft 60) + -(A - c0) (- a sin ft a cos ft b)
c
The equation of the evolute is
rx = r + pn + p cot [y/ + A]b where y^ = rds ...(4)

To find i*!, we have tofindn, b, p, rand y/.

For the circular helix, we know that K = —r-, T = —z-

„ y/= f. —
6 d ,s = —b s ...(5)
Hence J c c
" c" c
Using (3) — = - (- a cos ft - a sin ft 0)—
ds c ds

Hence n = T (- a cos ft - a sin ft 0) = (- cos ft - sin ft 0) ...(6)

K cl
Further b = t x n = -(b sin ft - b cos ft a) ...(7)
c
Theory of Space Curves 57

Using (5), (6) and (7) in (4), we obtain

rx = (a cos 0, a sin 0, bO) + — (- cos 0, - sin 0,0)

a
h II
+ — cot - 0 + A - (fc sin 0, - 6 cos 0, a)
a c J c
We can write the above equation componentwise as

2 f hft \
x = a cos 9 cos 0 + — 6 sin 0-cot — + A,
a a v c J
,2
y = a sin 0 sin 0 b cos 0-cot
a * • * )

z = fo0+ccot
en
1.14 BETRAND CURVES
So far we were studying a single curve and constructed new curves like the locus of
the centres of spherical curvature and involutes as curves lying on the tangent
surface cutting the generators orthogonally. Now we shall consider two curves
having the same principal normals called Betrand curves.
Definition 1. A pair of curves y, yx which have the same principal normals
are called Betrand curves. y{ is called the Betrand mate of y or Betrand associate
of 7.
In other words if 7 and 7, are Betrand curves there is a point-to-point
correspondence between 7and y{ such that the principal normals is the same at the
corresponding points P and P{. This implies that PP{ is the common principal
normal of 7 and y{. We assume n, = n so that the principal normals at P and Px have
the same sense. We use the suffix 1 for the entities pertaining toy,.
From the definition, we note the following properties of Betrand curves.
(i)/The distance PP{ between the corresponding points of the two curves is
constant.
Proof. Let PP{ = X which is a function of s. We prove that X is constant.
->
Since we assume ni = n, we take PP{ = An. If rx is the position vector ofP{ on yx
and r is the position vector of P on 7, then we have
r ^ r + An ...(1)
and also by definition of yXy nx = n ...(2)
Differentiating (1) with respect to s{i we have
ds
t,— L = t + A(Tb-K:t) + A'n
ds
58 Differential Geometry—A First Course

ds
So tx—L = ( l - A * ) t + A'n + ATb ...(3)
ds
Taking dot product of (2) and (3), we get X = 0 which proves that X is constant.
Let it be a.
(ii) The tangents to 7 and yx at the corresponding points are inclined at a
constant angle.
Proof. If t, tj are tangents at P and Px, we shall show that t • tx is constant.
Since t • tx = cos a, it follows that a is a constant.

d /A A s dt . . dU dsx
Now — ( t - ^ ) = — -t, + t - — L — L
ds ds dsx ds
dsi
= KTl-t, +t-K{n\—L ...(1)
ds
As n =n,,n-t1 = 0andt-n! = 0 ...(2)
Using (2) in (1), we obtain —(t • tj) = 0 so that t • tx is constant.
ds
(iii) The binormals at the two corresponding points of yand yx will also include
the same angle a.
Now bj = tj x iij and b = t x n
Hence b r b = (t, x n,) • (t x n)
= (trt)(n1.n)-(nrt)(t1.n) ...(1)
As n = n h n{-1 = 0, n • t{ = 0 and n^ n = 1 ...(2)
Using (2) in (1), wegetb!-b = t j t = c o s a by (i).
Hence the angle between the binormals at the corresponding points is constant.
Theorem 1. If y and yx are Betrand curves, then
(i) there exists a linear relation between the curvature and torsion of either
curve.
(ii) the torsion at the corresponding points P and Px have the same sign and
their product is constant.
Proof, (i) We shall find the linear relation first. From the definition of
Betrand curves, the principal normals coincide. Since each of the vectors t, b, t l9 b}
is perpendicular to the same principal normal, all these four vectors are coplanr.
By property (iii), bx makes a constant angle a with the positive direction of b
and consequently it makes an angle (90 - a) with t. Hence we have
b b , =cos a, t b | = cos (90 - a) = sin a ...(1)
Since X = 0, we have from (3) of property (i),
ds
tj—x- = ( 1 - A x ) t + Arb ...(2)
ds
Theory of Space Curves 59

Taking dot product with b, on both sides of (2),

( l - A ^ t b i + Arb-b^O ...(3)
Using (1) in (3), we obtain
(1 - XK) sin a+ AT cos a = 0 which is the required linear relation between /cand
T for y.
Now the relation between the curve /and 7, is a reciprocal one. The point r is
at a distance -A along the normal at rx and t is inclined at - a to t,. Hence the above
linear relation becomes
(1 + AK*,) sin a + Xix cos a = 0 which gives the linear relation between K{ and
T,fory,.
(ii) If rand r{ are the torsions at the corresponding points, we prove that
1 . 2
TT, = —=- Sin «.
A2
Let t, make a constant angle a with t along the positive direction. Since t, tj, b,
bj are coplanar and bx makes an angle a with b, t{ makes an angle 90 + a with b
along the positive direction (Fig. 5).

n n.

Fig. 5

Hence t, = t cos a + b cos (90 + a) = t cos a- b sin a ...(1)

Since X = 0, from (3) of property (i)
ds{
t , ^ 1 =(l-AK-)t + Arb ...(2)
~ds
Since (1) and (2) are parallel vectors, their coefficients must be proportional.
So we have
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60 Differential Geometry—A First Course

dsx 1 - XK _ AT
which gives
ds cos a - sin a

cos a = (1 - XK)—, sin a = - AT — ...(3)

dsx dsx
for the curve y The relations corresponding to (3), for the curve yx are obtained by
interchanging s by s xand replacing A, a by - A and - a respectively. Thus for yx we
have the following relation

cos a = (1 + XKX)—-,sin a = -Xxx—- ...(4)

ds ds

From (3) and (4), we obtain cos2 a = (1 - XK) (1 + XKX) and vcx = - ^ s i n 2 a

which completes the proof of the theorem.

Theorem 2. (Mannheim). If P, Pj are the corresponding points of the
Betrand curves and C, Cx are their centres of curvatures, then the cross-ratio
(PC Px Cx) is constant and equal to sec2 a where a is the angle between the tangents
at P and Px to the two curves 7and yx.
Proof. Since the centres of curvature C, Cx of 7 and yx lie on the normals to
the curves atP, Px and PPX is the common normal of 7, ylf the points C, P, Q , Pj lie
on a straight line and so we shall find the cross ratio (PCPXCX).
If r is the position vector of P, the position vector of the corresponding pointPj
is rx = r + An and n : = nx • C and Cx have position vectors r + pn and rx + pxnx

PC = \OC - OP I = |(r + pn) - r | = p

PXCX = IOQ - OPj I = | ( r i + p,n) - vx\ = P l

CP^lOP, - O C | = |(r + An)-(r+pn)| = |A-p|

C1P = |OP-OC 1 | = | r - ( r 1 + p1n1)| = | ( r - r 1 ) - p 1 n | = hA~p 1 |

Let us write down the required cross ratio
PC PC ppA 1
1
(PCPXCX) = *= ^^ =
1
' CPXCXP | A - p | | A + p , | (1-XK)(\ + XKX)
From the previous theorem, (1 - XK) (1 + XKX) = cos2 a where a is constant.
Hence (PCPXCX) = sec2 a which proves the theorem.
Example 1. Prove the following.
(i) When T = 0, every curve has infinity of Betrand mates.
n
(ii) When T * 0, and a = —, the Betrand mates are curves of constant

curvature and each of the curves 7 and yx is the locus of the centres of
curvature of the other curve.
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Theory of Space Curves 61

From the linear relation between K*and r of 7, we get

(1 - /U)sin a + AT cos a = 0 ...(1)
When r = 0, we have (1 - AK) sin a = 0
Since 1 - AJC* 0, we have sin a = 0 or a = 0 ...(2)
The solution of the equation (2) is a = ± nn
Hence all the orthogonal trajectories of normals which are nothing but parallel
curves which are Betrand curves. Hence every curve has infinity of Betrand mates.
n 1
(ii) When T * 0 and a = —, the relation (1) becomes 1 - AK* = 0 or K* = — which
2 A
is a constant. Hence the curve yis of constant curvature.
A point rj on the Betrand mate is rx = r + An. Since A = — and A is a constant,
r x = r + pn which is the locus of centre of curvature of 7.
Since the relation between 7and its Betrand mate yx is reciprocal one, a point
on yis r = rx - pn. Since n = n p we obtain r = r x - pnx which is the locus of the
centre of curvature of yx. Thus each of the curves 7and yx is the locus of the centres
of curvature of the other curve.
Example 2. When fcand T are constants, there are an infinte number of Betrand
associates. Find the Betrand associates of circular helices.
The linear relation (1) of Example 1 can be rewritten as
1
- K+ rcot a = - —
A
Since JC, rare constants, from the above relation, for each A, we can find a a so
that there are infinite number of Betrand associates.
Let us find the Betrand associates of Helices. Consider the circular helix
r = (a cos w, a sin w, bu)
a b
Then we know that K= —, r = — and n = (- cos «, - sin w, 0)
c c
Hence the equation of the Betrand associate is
1-j = r + An where A is a constant
= (a cos w, a sin w, bu) + A(- cos u, - sin w, 0)
1*1 = [(a - $ cos w, (b - A) sin w, bu] so that the Betrand associate is a coaxial
helix. Since the constant A is arbitrary, we have an infinite number of Betrand
associates.

1.15 SPHERICAL INDICATRIX

In our discussion in the previous chapter on Betrand curves, we have considered
curves having common principal normal. Instead of having the same normal, we
can construct curves whose position vectors are either t, n or b. Since t, n, b are
unit vectors, all these curves lie on a unit sphere and they are called spherical
indicatrices which we shall define one by one as follows.
62 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Definition 1. The locus of a point whose position vector is the unit tangent t
to the curve yis called the spherical indicatrix of the tangent to y
From the definition, we note the following properties,
(i) Let O be the centre of the unit sphere. Let us draw through O the unit
tangent vectors of different points of y in the positive direction of the
tangent. Then the curve traced on the unit sphere by the extremities of
these unit tangents through O is the spherical indicatrix of the tangent to
the curve y
(ii) The tangent to the indicatrix of the tangent to y is parallel to the principal
normal at the corresponding points of y
Proof. From the definition of the spherical indicatrix of the tangent to y,
wehaver x =t ...(1)
Differentiating (1) with respect to s, we get
drx dsx dt
— L — L = — = Kn
dsx ds ds
dr\L ds\
Since — = tx, we have t{—L = fen which proves that t{ is parallel to n.
dsx ds
ds\
Hence if we take t{ = n then K - —-.
ds
Theorem 1. The curvature KX and torsion %x of the indicatrix of the tangent to
y are given by
2 K2 + T 2 , KX' - K'%
Kf = K ^ —', a n d rl , =
2
K(K2+T2)

Proof. From the property (ii) after the definition, we have

ds
t{ =nand —- = K ...(1)
ds
Differentiating (1) with respect to s, we have
dt{ dsx _ dn
Kt
ds{ ds ds
and using JC, we have K{nxK= r b - Kt ...(2)
Taking dot product with itselft on both sides of (2)
2 2
K? K2 = T 2 + x2 so that K? =
K2

To find torsion, we must get b! and then we find — -

ds{
Taking cross product of (1) and (2), we get
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Theory of Space Curves 63

KKlbl = Tt + Kb ...(3)
Differentiating (3) with respect to s, we get

K7q—- —- + bx— (KTq) = rt + r/cn + K'b + K(- rn)

d^ & ds

Hence - rCKxxxnx + t^— ( K ^ ) = ^ t + fc'b ...(4)

Taking dot product of (2) and (4), we obtain

- *?K2 rx =TK/- Kif so that
KT - T/C KT - TfC
T,1 =
K:3^ K(T2+K2)

Definition 2. The locus of a point whose position vector is the unit binormal
b of a curve y is called the spherical indicatrix of the binormal.
Form the above definition we have the following properties
(i) As pointed out earlier in (i) of the Definition 1, the spherical indicatrix of
the binormal to y lies on a unit sphere,
(ii) The unit tangent tx to the spherical indicatrix of the binormal to y is - n
ds
andJ —-\ = <7.
ds
From the definition, we have rx = b
Differentiating with respect to s, we get
dr. ds} db . . dst
-r-~ = — giving t , — = - r n .
dsx ds ds ds

Hence t, is parallel to - n and —- = r.

ds
Theorem 2. The curvature KX and torsion xx of the spherical indicatrix of b to
7 are

9 K2 + T2 , K'X - %'K
a i I U
K7
1 =
" ~—
2
9 and M -=
T, 9 9~
T T(/C2+T2)
Proof. As in property (ii) for this indicatrix, we have
ds\
tj = - n and — = r ...(1)
ds
Differentiating (1) with respect to s, we obtain
dtx dsx _ dn
= - (rb - Kt) which gives
dsx ds ds

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64 Differential Geometry—A First Course

TK{U{ = - ( r b - art) ...(2)

Taking dot product with itself on both sides, we have
2
T*K? = (t + K2) so that K{2 = ~Y(T2 + K2)

db}
To find torsion we shall find b{ and — -
ds{
Taking cross product of (1) and (2), we get
TK{b{ = Tt+ Kb ...(3)
Differentiating (3) with respect to sy

b, —(TK { ) + TK{—L — - = r't + Tt' + K'b + Kb' which gives

ds dsi ds

o d
- TKxxxnx + —(TKl)-bl = r't + x-'b ...(4)
ds
Taking cross product of (3) and (4), we get
^r{K{2t{ =(r/K-Kfr)n
Taking dot product with itself on both sides, we get
^x\ K{4 = ( T ' / C - K'T)2 which gives
_ (T'K - K'T) _ T'K - K'T
1
" T3K2 " T(K2 + T ? )

From the above two theorems, we get the following corollary.

Corollary. The tangent lines at the corresponding points of the spherical
indicatrx of the tangent to /and the spherical indicatrix of the binormal to / a r e
parallel.
Proof. Let P, and P2 be the corresponding points with the position vector rt
and r 2 on the spherical indicatrix of the tangent and binormal to y.
ds\
From the proprety (ii) of Definition 1, rx = t, tj = n, —- = K ...(1)
ds
ds~>
and (ii) of Definition 2, r 2 = b, t2 = - n, — - = T. ...(2)
ds
From (1) and (2), we see that tx and r2 are parallel which proves the corollary.
Next we define the spherical indicatrix of the principal normal to y.
Definition 3. The locus of the point whose position vector is equal to the unit
principal normal at every point of the given curve is called the spherical indicatrix
of the principal normal.
We note the following properties from the definition.
(i) As in the case of other two spherical indicatrices, the spherical indicatrix
of the principal normal to a given curve lies on the surface of a unit sphere.
Theory of Space Curves 65

(ii) Let Tj be the position vector of any point on the indicatrix of the principal
normal. Then I-J = n.
Differentiating the above with respect to s, we have
dvx dsx dn . .
— L — L = — = ( r b - Ki)
dsx ds ds
ds\L
Hence tx— = ( r b - Kt)
ds
Taking dot product with both sides of the above, we have

Theorem 3. The curvature of the spherical indicatrix of the principal normal

is

2 (K2 + T 2 ) 3 + ( K T , - K ' , T ) 2
Kf1 =
" (1C2+T2)3

ds]
Proof. As in property (ii) t , - p - = (rb - Kt) ...(1)
~ds
Differntiating (1) with respect to sy we get

dsx {ds J ds2

f ds V d2s
so ^ n , —L + t , — ± =-K't-(K2 + T2)n+r'b ...(2)
V ds J ds
Taking cross product of (1) and (2), we have

K[
[~^L) bl = T
( ^ + ^ ) t + ( * T ' - K / T ) n + K , ( K 2 + T2)b ...(3)

Taking dot product of (3) on both sides with itself

K2(^\6 = T V + T2)2 + (Kf - K'X)2 + * V + T2)2

2 (T2+/C2)3+(/CT/-^T)2
11
Hence we have K\f = • (^2+T2)3
Note. The formula for the torsion of the spherical indicatrix of the unit
principal normal is given in one of the examples at the end of the chapter.
Example 1. Show that the spherical indicatrix of a curve is a circle if and only if
the curve is a helix.
66 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Assuming the spherical indicatrix of 7 to be a circle, we prove that 7 is a helix.

Since the spherical indicatrix lies on a unit sphere and it is a circle, it should be the
section of the unit sphere by a plane so that the spherical indicatrix lies on a plane.
Since the indicatrix of yis a plane curve, xx = 0.
Without loss of generality, let us consider the spherical indicatrix of the
tangent to 7, since we can establish similar results for the other indicatrices of 7 by
the same argument.
Since Tx - 0, we have been Theorem 1,
d (T\ T
KT' - K'T = 0 or — — = 0 which implies — is constant. Hence if the
ds \K J K
spherical indicatrix of tangent to yis a circle on a sphere, then 7 is a helix.
To establish the converse let us suppose the curve 7 to be a helix and show that
its spherical indicatrix of tangent to 7 is a circle.

Kd\-
From Theorem 1, we have T,1 =
-
0C2+T2)"

T
Since yis a helix — is a constant so that r{ = 0 from the above formula for r{.
This shows that the spherical indicatrix is a plane curve. Since the spherical
indicatrix lies on a unit sphere and it is a plane curve, it should be a circle.
Example 2. Find the three spherical indicatrices of the helix 7 given by
r = (a cos w, a sin w, bu).
As in Example 2 of 1.13, we have

t = —(- a sin w, a cos w, b) ...(1)

c
n = (- cos w, - sin w, 0) ...(2)

b = t x n = — {b sin w, - b cos w, a) ...(3)

c
Using (1), (2) and (3), we write down the equations of the spherical indicatrices.
(i) The indicatrix of the tangent to 7 is

vx = t = — (- a sin «, a cos «, b) which gives

c
a . a b
x{ = sin w, yx = — cos w, zx = —
c c c
(ii) The indicatrix of the normal to 7 is
rj = n = (- cos w, - sin w, 0) which gives
jCj = - cos u,y{=- sin w, zx = 0
Theory of Space Curves 67

(iii) The indicatrix of the binormal to / i s

rx = b = — (b sin w, - b cos w, a) which gives

c
b . -ft a
*! = — sin w, Vj = — cos u,Z\ = —.
c c c
From the form of the equation of indicatrices, we find all the indicatrices are
parallel circles. The spherical indicatrix of normal to /lies in the XOY plane and
the other indicatrices are small circles lying in planes parallel to XOY plane.

1.16 INTRINSIC EQUATIONS OF SPACE CURVES

In all our previous study of a space curve, we determine a curve using position
vector of a point on the curve with respect to a fixed coordinate system. The
components of the position vector depend on a parameter which is not necessarily
the arc length of a curve. If the coordinate axes are changed, we get a totally
different representation of the same curve from which it is not immediately
obvious that the two different representations refer to the same curve. It is to be
noted that coordinate systems are frames of reference which are external to the
curve. So the question naturally arises whether one can characterise a curve by a
relation independent of the coordinate system. Next to the coordinates of a curve,
the most important characteristics of a space curve are the arcual length, curvature
and torsion and these characteristics are intrinsic in the sense that they are without
particular reference to a coordinate system. Hence to describe a curve without
particular reference to a set of coordinates, we introduce intrinsic equations of
curves in terms of, s, Kand r as follows.
Definition 1. The equations expressing fcand T as functions of arcual length
s are called intrinsic or natural equations of a curve.
Hence we can write down the intrinsic equations of a curve as /c = f[s) and
T=g(s).
Definition 2. Two space curves are said to be congruent, if one curve be
brought into coincidence with the other by a rigid motion.
Note. The intrinsic equation cannot determine the position vector of a point
on a curve, but the congruent curves will have the same intrinsic equations.
Example. Find the intrinsic equation of the curve
r = (aeu cos w, aeu sin w, beu) ...(1)
We shall find fcand ras functions of s.
Differentiating (1) with respect to w, we get
dx ds
= [aeu (cos u - sin w), aeu (sin u + cos w), beu]
ds du
Hence |ti |2 = [a2e2u (cos u - sin u)2 + a2e2u (sin u + cos u)2 + b2e2u]
68 Differential Geometry—A First Course

so that i 2 = 2a V " + b2e2" or s = e"(2a2 + b2)2

" 1 1
Now 5 = f e" (2a2 + b2)2 cf« = e"(2a2 + b2)2
— oo

From the above two steps, we have s = s. Substituting for i , we have

*= 2 Tl/T [(a c o s M
~a sm u
^ (a sin u + a c o s M
')» b] •••(2)

dt * 1
= Kns = 5 ^TTT t(~ # sin w - <2 cos w), (a cos w - a sin w), 0] ...(3)
ds du (2al + blyu
Taking dot product with itself on both sides, we have

K?S2
~ ==- • 2a2(cos2 u + sin2 u)
2 2
(2a +b )
Substituting for s and simplifying, we get

yfla I
K
~(2a +b2y/2's
2
-(4)

To find r, we need b which can be found as follows. Substituting for KS in (3),

we get

n = —7= [(- sin u - cos w), (cos u - sin w), 0] ...(5)

V2
Taking cross product of (2) and (5), we obtain

t x n = b = —7= ~ T-77T [- b cos u + fr sin w, - fc sin u - b cos w, 2a] ...(6)

V2(2<r + fc2),/2
Differentiating (6) with respect to w, we get
db ds 1 / i i , , . ^
= - Tnj = -7= ~ T—rpr(b s\nu + b cos w,-&cos w + £sin w, 0)
ds du 42(2a2+b2)xl2
Taking dot product with itself on both sides and using
b_ \_
i = s , w e g e t T = / o 2 t 2u2]/2 1/2
(2a'+b ) 's
Hence the intrinsic equations are

V2a 1 ___A__I
'f""(2a2+^2)1/2,/T"(2a2+^2),/2,,
Tlieory of Space Curves 69

1.17 FUNDAMENTAL EXISTENCE THEOREM FOR

SPACE CURVES
As illustrated in the example of previous section, given the curve, we can
determine the intrinsic equations by finding curvature and torsion as functions of s.
Therefore the question naturally arises whether the converse is true. That is, given
curvature and torsion as functions of arc-length s, can we determine the curve
under suitable conditions on K(S) and T(J)? TO answer this question, we impose
some conditions on K(S) and r(s) and then we determine not only position of the
curve in space but also show that all the curves congruent to it will have the same
intrinsic equation. The following theorem known as the fundamental existence
theorem for space curves asserts the existence and uniqueness of space curves
interms of intrinsic equations, when the scalar function K(S) and T(S) defining
curvature and torsion are continuous functions.
Theorem. If K(S) and r(s) are continuous functions for all non-negative real
values of s, then there exists a unique space curve determined but for position in
space for which K the is curvature and T is the torsion and s is the arc length
measured from suitable base point.
Proof. The method of proof is to construct the position vector r(s) at any
point on the curve and the moving triad t(s), 11(5) andb(s) with the help of the given
intrinsic equations.
Now consider the following three simultaneous differential equations of first
order in a, j3 and y.
da
„ d(J dy
as ds ds
where a, /J, y are unknown functions of s and /c, r are given functions K(S) and
r(s). Since K(S) and r(s) are continuous functions, the above set of differential
equations has a unique set of continuous solutions (a, j3, 7) with prescribed initial
conditions at s = 0 as guaranteed by the theorem on existence and uniqueness of
solutions of a set of differential equations of first order.
The whole technique of proof is to use the three solutions (a,, /J,, y), / = 1,2, 3
with three different initial conditions and identify the vectors (a,, c^, a 3 ),
(P\> Ply A$)> (7i» 72» 73) constructed on the basis of solutions with (t, n, b).
The set of equations (1) admits a unique set of solutions which assume the
prescribed value (0^, j30, y0) at 5 = 0.
Let (a,, j3,, yx) be one such solution taking the prescribed value
a,(0) = 1,0,(0) = 0, and y,(0) = 0 ...(2)
In a similar manner, we can find two more solutions (c^, j32, y2) and (03, /33, y3)
having the prescribed conditions.
a 2 (0)=0,/J 2 (0)=l,y 2 (0) = 0 ...(3)
0,(0) = 0, j8j(0) = 0 y3(0) = 1 at s = 0.
The following four steps establish the theorem.
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70 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Step 1. We shall establish the following properties of the above three

solutions.
«i 2 +0i 2 + 7\ =1 «i«2 + P\Pi + 7i72 = 0
ai + Pi + yi = 1 a ^ + p2p3 + y2y3 = 0
2
a3 + j332 + 732 =l a ^ i + A A + %7i = 0 ...(4)
for all values of s. These properties will enable us to introduce an orthogonal
matrix for finding (a{9 c^, <%), (/?,, /J2, A) a n d (7, 72, 73) to define t(^), n(s), b(s).

Itf +fi+ rfc^+W^ + TyQ

ds as as ds
Since (au j3 h Yi) a r e solutions of (1), we get
d (a 1 2 + j312 + 7i) = 2 a 1 ^ 1 + 2/J 1 (T7i-^i) + 271(-Ti81) = 0
ds
Hence a 2 + /J 2 + yx = constant c (say).
Using the initial conditions (2), we get c = 1 and so we have a\ + /3 2 + yf = 1.
In a similar manner, we can prove a 2 +P2 + 72 = *» a 3 +Pz +73= 1-
To prove the other relations in (4), let us consider

—(a 1 o 2 + j31j32 + 7172)

ds
da2 + ^ + ^ A + ft*1 + ^ L ) 4 + y i u ^7
,22
= at
ds ds ds ds ds "" 'l ds
Since (a,, /J,, 7) and (02, p2, y2) are solutions of (1) substituting for the derivatives
from (1)
= a{(Kp2) + fl^/cft) + jS^rji - r a j + p2[ry{ - Kax] + y2[- xpx] + y{[- rp2] = 0
This proves that axa^ + A A + 7i72 = constant d (say). Using the initial
condition (3), d = 0 so that
<*\<h + P\Pi + y\h = 0
In a similar manner, we get

^ « i + M + 737i = 0
Step 2. We prove that t = ( a h 02, 03), n = (ft, /?2, /?3) and b = (7, y2f y3) are
three mutually orthogonal unit vectors.
Now consider the matrix

a, 0. 7\
A= «2 Pi 7i
«3 Pi Yi

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Theory of Space Curves 71

The six relations proved in the first step show that the matrix/! is an orthogonal
matrix. This implies that if A' is the transpose of A, then AA' = I where / is the
identity matrix. Now the equation AA' = I implies A' = A~l so that we have
A'A = I. ...(5)
Now the matrix equation (5) is

<*l a 2 a3l «i Pi 7\
01 Pi 03 cc2 (12 y2
7i Yi r3J a3 p3 y3

«? + a; + aj a , 0 , + a 2 /J 2 + a 3 0 3 a,y, + a 2 7 2 + " 3 / 3
aiPi+cx2p2+aip3 P\ +P\ +P\ P1Y1 + P2Y2 + P3Y3
«i7i + « 2 / 2 + a 3 73 Y\P\ + Y2P2 + Y3P1 Y\ + Y\ + r!

|"l 0 0"
0 1 0
lj
-° °
which gives
af + af + a\ = 1, «i A + a A + <%& = o
P? + P? + P? = h
a1y1 + a272 + a3r3 = 0
The above six relations show that these are three mutually orthogonal unit
vectors
t = (a[ia1> 03), n = (/?!, fa, /J3) and b = (ft, y2> 73) f° r e a c r i v a l u e of
•*•
Step 3. We find the position vector of a point on the curve.

Let us define the curve n(s)= \a(s)ds ...(6)

Jo

dv
Differentiating with respect to s, — = t = a(s).
ds
This shows that the arc-length s and the unit tangent vector to the curve (6) are
sandt = a (s).
dt da
Further — = — = K(s)p from (1)
ds ds
dt
Since — = fen, the unit normal vector n is parallel to the unit vector p and
ds
K = K(S). If we take the sense of n as that of /J, we get n = /?.
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72 Differential Geometry—A First Course

db dy
Since b = t x n = a x / 3 = y , we have b = y. So — = —- = - T(S) ft from (1).
as ds
db
Since — = - rn, we have r = r(s).
ds

Hence if r = [ t ds, then r(s) is the position vector of a point on the curve with
the arc length s as parameter and having (t, n, b) as the moving unit triad and
K= K(S) and T = r(s) as curvature and torsion.
Step 4. We shall establish the uniqueness of the curve. To this end, we shall
show that if the curves have same intrinsic equations, then they are congruent.
Let C and Cx be two curves defined in terms of their respective arc-lengths
having equal curvature and equal torsion for the same value of s.
LetA andAj be two points of Cand Cx corresponding ios = 0. LetCj be moved
so that the points A andAj coincide. If (t, n, b) and (tj, n lf bx) refer to the curve C
and Q, then Cx be suitably oriented so that (th nlt b{) at A, coincide with (t, n, b)
at A when s = 0. Since different points of the curves are determined by the same
values of s and since both the curves have the same curvature and torsion, we get

^ ( t t i ) = t- ^ + ~ t, = t- (101,)+ Kii • t,
ds ds ds
d , v diii dn . . *, r •
L
—(n-n,) = n + — n, =n- [ r b j - ictj + l r b - K:t]n,
ds ds ds
d „ , N . dby db _ . , . v • •
— ( b . b , ) = b . — ± + — • b 1 = b - ( - r n 1 ) + (-Tn).b 1
ds ds ds
Since the sum of the terms of therighthand side of the above equations is zero.

—(t-t1+n-n1 + b b 1 ) = 0
ds
Integrating the above equation, we obtain
t • tj + n • nj + b • bj = c where c is a constant.
As s = 0, t = t p n = n, and b = b, so that c = 3
Thus we obtain t • tj + n • n, + b • bx = 3
Since the dot product of two unit vectors gives cosine, the above equation gives
the sum of three cosines. But the sum of the three cosines is equal to 3 only when
each angle is zero. This implies that at all pairs of corresponding points t = t h
n = nj andb = bj.

Further t = tx gives —(r - r^ = 0 which gives r - rx - a constant d (say). At

ds
s = 0, r = rx so that d = 0. Hence r = rx identically. Thus the two curves C and C,
coincide so that the curve is uniquely determined except as to its position in space.
This completes the proof of the theorem.

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Theory of Space Curves 73

Before proceeding further, we shall illustrate the above theorem by the

following examples.
Example 1. Find the equations of the curve whose curvature and torsion are
constants.
From the fundamental theorem of space curves we have
da „ dp dy 0
— = Kp,-^- = TY-Ka,-±-=-Tp ...(1)
ds ds ds
where a, /3, y are functions of s and K, rare constants.
From the above equation, we have

— r = K-f-= K(Ty-m)
ds ds
73
Hence
ds ds ds ds

u.
, . d3a . 2 2x da
which gives —r- = - ( tr + T Z ) —
ds ds
2 2 2 i da oda _ ,_.
Let us take tr + r = c z , then — r + c z — =0 ...(2)
ds ds
da d2X 9
To solve this equation let X = — . Then (2) becomes —=- + c X = 0 so that the
ds ds1
solution is X = A sin cs + B cos cs.
S i n c e X = — , a= (A sin cs + Bcoses)ds

- A coses Z? sines
a= + + d.
c c
Selecting C = cd, the solution of (1), can be taken as
ac = - A cos cs + B sin cs + C ...(3)
From (3), we have
— = A sin cs + B cos cs
ds
Using (1) in the above equation,
pK = A sin cs + B cos cs ...(4)
dy T
Further —- = (A sin cs + B cos cs)
ds K
TT rfAcoscs flsincs^ ^
Hence 7=— +° -(5)
K\ c c J
 74 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Choosing the constants A, By C and D appropriately, we find (a,-, /?,-, 7),

1=1,2,3.
(i) To find (a„ /J„ 7), let A, = C, = D, = 0 and fl, = - *•
- K" T
Then aj = sin ay, p{=- cos ay, 7 = —sin as
c c
(ii) To find (ofe, #>, 72), let £ 2 = C2 = £>2 = 0, A2 = - K

Then o^ = — cos ay, p 2 = - sin ay, 72 = cos ay.

c c

(iii) To find (a 3 , /J3> 73), let A3 = £ 3 = 0 , C = r, D = K

T h e n a 3 = - , p3 = 0, y3 = - .
c c
Using these values of (a,, /?,, 7), /= 1,2, 3, we can write down thet, n, b at any
point P on the curve as

* / x ( K • K
O
t = (a,, a 9 , a 3 ) = sin ay, — cos ay, —
V c c c)
n = (/Jh )32, /J3) = (- cos ay, - sin ay, 0)

•> = (7b 72* 73) = ~ sin ay, - - cos ay, -

\c c c)
With the help of t, we can find the position vector of any point on the curve as
follows.

'= tds= sin ay, — cos ay, — \ds

Jo Jo V c c cj

K K . x
= I — cos ay, — sin cs, —s
\c" c" c
which can be easily identified with a circular helix with

K= — T and r = —1 5- namely
a" + b a + b*

(f (s\ . fs} bs) I 2 ,2

r = 0 cos - , a sin — , — , c = yja +b .
^ \c) \c) c J
Note. It is easy to check that (ah /?,-, 7,), / = 1, 2, 3 satisfy the orthogonality
conditions of the theorem. For example we can verify a? + a\ + d\ = 1,
a
\P\ + tyPi + a3$3 = 0 a n d other relations easily.

Example 2. Find the curve whose intrinsic equations are K= - 7 = and r = 0

yllas
 Theory of Space Curves 75

If we use this value of K(S) in the differential equations of the theorem, we get
a differential equation with variable coefficients, which is difficult to solve. So by
the following substitution, we reduce these equations to equations involving
constant coefficients.
Let us change the parameter from s to a(s) given by

a(s) = I K(s)ds= \ . ds = J—-,

Jo Jo J2as \a

This substitution gives us — = , ...(1)

ds yjlas
We shall rewrite the equations
da
a dP d
7 o
— = xft -f- =- KCC+ xy - f =-T/3 ...(2)
in terms of a(s). ds ds ds

da da ds 1 da
pj2as =/Jsothat — = p.
da(s) ~1s~ 'da(s) " y[2^ ' da

d/i dfi ds 1 i dp
a-J2as =- a so that —— = - a
da(s) ds da(s) J2as v
da

dy dy ds
Since r == o , - 0 so that ^- = 0.
da(s) ds da da
Hence let us solve the new system of equations

^ = A ^ = - « , ^ = 0 ...(3)
da da da
d2a dp L d2a
Since —=- = — = - a, we have —=-— . =- a ...(4)
V
da
* r2
ds
J„
da
J^.2 '

Hence the solution of (4) is

a = A cos a(s) + B sin a(s)

/? = — = - A sin a(s) + Z? cos a(s)

da
dy
Since —- = 0, yis constant = C (say)
da
Now we shall find (aiy /?,, y), / = 1, 2, 3 with the initial condition (1, 0, 0)
(0, 1,0) and (0,0, l ) a t s = 0.
(i) When a(0) = 1, j8(0) = 0, y(0) = 0, we .get
A, = 1 , £ 1 = 0 , C , = 0
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76 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Hence (al9 P\,Y\) = (cos c(s), - sin cr(.y), 0)

(ii) When a(0) = 0, 0(0) = 1, 7(0) = 0, we get
A2 = 0 , £ 2 = 1 , C 2 = 0
Hence (ofc, j32, 72) = ( s i n <r(J). c o s ^(J)» °)
(iii) When a(0) = 0, 0(0) = 0, 7(0) = 1,
A3 = 0, £ 3 = 0, C3 = 1
Hence (a 3 , j83, y3) = (0, 0,1)
Using the above solutions (a,, /?,-, 7), / = 1, 2, 3 we can define (t, n, b) at any point
of the curve.
t = (a,, On, (%) = (cos (7(5), sin (7(5), 0)
n = (/},, j82, j33) = (- sin (7(5), cos a (5), 0)

[2 2\
b = (7i> 72' 73) = (0^ 0, 1) where a{s) = A-s

and r(s) = tdcr(j) = [ cos J — , sin J — , 0 , ds

Jo Jo^ V a \ a J y/2as
We can easily check the orthogonality conditions of the theorem.
Note. The solutions of the equations involving a, /?, /become difficult in
most of the cases, in particular for the curves of class > 3. If K(S) and T(J) are of
class > 3, eliminating /J, 7, we obtain a third order equation in a with variable
coefficients. In some of the simple cases we obtain solution of the equation by a
change of variable as in Example 2. But such a third order equation can be reduced
to a first order Reccati equation whose solutions are well-studied. Solving this
Reccati equation of first order, we obtain its solution.

1.18 HELICES
We conclude this chapter with a brief discussion of the properties of a wide class of
space curves known as helices which we used as examples in the previous sections.
Definition 1. A space curve lying on a cylinder and cutting the generators of
the cylinder at a constant angle is called a cylindrical helix.
The above definition implies that the tangent to the curve makes a constant
angle a with a fixed line known as the axis of the helix.
We can obtain more general helices than cylindrical helices if the cylinder is
replaced by other surfaces like cone. But we consider only cylindrical helices in
our study. The following theorem characterises the cylindrical helices.
Theorem 1. A necessary and sufficient condition for a curve to be helix is
that the ratio of the curvature to torsion is constant at all points.
Proof. To prove the necessity of the condition, let a be the unit vector in the
direction of the axis. Since the helix cuts the generators at a constant angle, let the

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Theory of Space Curves 77

angle between the generator and the tangent at any point P on the helix be a. So
from the definition of the helix, we have t • a = cos a ...(1)
Differentiating (1) with respect to s, we get
t'a + t a ' = 0 ...(2)
Since a is a constant vector and t' = /en, we get from (2)
/cna = 0 ...(3)
If K = 0, the curve is a straight line and the conclusion of the theorem is
obvious. As we have excluded the case when K= 0, (3) gives n • a = 0 showing that
a is perpendicular to the normal at P. Since a passes through P making a constant
angle a with the tangent t at P and perpendicular to the normal at P, it lies in the
rectifying plane at P. Hence (cos a, sin a) are the components of a in the rectifying
plane so that we can take a = t cos a + b sin a ...(4)
Differentiating (4) with respect to s and using a' = 0,
(f cos a + b' sirfee) = (JCCOS a- rsin a)n = 0
K
Since n * 0, we have /ccos a - r s i n a = 0 giving — =tan a which is constant,
r
proving the necessity of the condition.
K
To prove the converse, let us assume — = constant A (say) and prove that the
T
curve is a helix.
Given any constant A, we can always find the smallest angle a such that
K
tan a = A. So we can take — = tan a giving (KCOS a- rsin a) = 0 ...(5)
r
Since n * 0, (5) implies n(K*cos a- rsin a) = 0 ...(6)
(6) can be rewritten as — (t cos a + b sin a) = 0
ds
This proves that t cos a + b sin a is a constant vector a (say). Then
a • t = (t cos a + b sin a) • t = cos a which proves that the curve is a helix.
In the above definition of the cylindrical helix, we have not specified the base
curve which is the cross section of the cylinder by a horizontal plane. However if
we take the circle to be the base curve, we get a helix on a circular cylinder. Such
helices are called circular helices. With proper choice of the coordinate axes, we
shall find the equations of a circular helix.
Theorem 2. If the z-axis is the axis of the cylinder as well as that of the helix,
the parametric equation of the helix is of the form
x = a cos w, y = a sin w, z = bu
where the base circle is x + y2 = a2, z = 0 and b is a suitably chosen constant.
2

Proof. Let P be any point on the helix with the position vector r and P{ be its
projection on the XOY plane with the position vector rv Let a be the unit vector in
the direction of the axis of the helix. By our choice of the axis of the helix, a is
 78 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Fig. 6

parallel to the z-axis. So P,P is parallel to a and hence PXP = r a. Hence we take
—>
PXP = (r-a)a. Using this we write the position vector of P, as
r, = r - (a r)a ...(1)
Differentiating (1) with respect to s, we get
dvy
— - = t - (a • t)a = t - a cos a ...(2)
ds
Hence taking dot product of (2) with itself,
drx dr{ , x t .9
= ( t - a c o s a) ( t - a cos a) = sin~ a ...(3)
ds ds
If s{ is the arc length of the projection of the helix on the XOY plane,
diytfr, =rfrf. Using this in (3), we get dsx =sin a ds which implies
5-, =sin as. ...(4)
Since the helix is a circular helix t • k = cos a, so that
* • dv . d , . ^ dz
t - k = — k = —(r- k) = — =cos a, since r k = z ...(5)
Hence from the above step, z = s cos a
Using (4) in (5), we obtain z = .v, cot a
From the Fig. 6,4P, = 5-, = AM SO that z =tf«cot a.
If (x, y, z) are the coordinates of P, then we have from Fig. 6,
x = a cos uyy = as\nu,z = bu where & = d cot a
 Theory of Space Curves 79

Note. For this helix, we have already noted that s = au, so that its equation
with s as parameter is

s s bs
a cos —, a sin —, — |, a > 0
a a a
K a
#
and K= —, r = ft— , c 2 = a 2 + b,2 andj — = —, Z? > 0.
-TyT= ^r,c =a + b and — = - ,
c2 c2 x b
Definition 2. If b > 0, the helix is right-handed and if b < 0, the helix is the
left-handed. The pitch of the helix is 2nb. The pitch gives the displacement along
the axis corresponding to one complete rotation round the axis.
Theorem 3. The projection C{ of a general helix C on a plane perpendicular
to its axis has its principal normal parallel to the corresponding principal normal of
the helix and its corresponding curvature is given by
K= K", sin2 a
Proof. Using the same notation as in Theorem 2, we get
r = r t + (a-r)a ...(1)
Differntiating (1) with respect to s
dx dxx ds, ( dr\ ,. , .
— = —! + a . — a which gives
ds ds{ ds v ds)

t = t,^+(a-t)a
ds
Since t • a = cos a and ds{=ds sin a from Theorem 2, we obtain
t = t, sin a + acos a ...(2)
Differentiating (2) with respect to s, we get

dt\ ds* . .o
/en = — L — - sin a= K{n{ sin" a ...(3)
ds{ ds
(3) proves that the normal nj to C{ is parallel to the principal normal n at the
corresponding point of the helix. Taking dot product of (3) with itself, we get
KT = K2 sin4 aor K= K^ sin2 a.
Corollary 1. If the helix C has constant curvature, then C{ is a circle.
If C has constant curvature, then by the theroem, the curvature K{ at any point
of Cj is constant and C{ lies in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder.
Therefore C{ is a circle.
Corollary 2. A helix of constant curvature is necessarily a circular helix.
If the helix is of constant curvature, then by Corollary 1, its base curve is a
circle. Hence the curve lies on a circular cylinder. In other words, the curve is a
circular helix.
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80 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Definition 3. If a curve on a sphere is a helix, then the curve is called a

spherical helix.
In the case of a spherical helix, we have the following theorem.
Theorem 4. A spherical helix projects on a plane perpendicular to its axis in
an arc of an epicyloid.
Proof. The method of proof is to find the intrinsic equation of the projected
curve using the relation between the curvature and arc-length of the helix and the
projected curve. Form of the intrinsic equation of the projection on the plane
perpendicular to the axis gives the solution.
If the helix lies on a sphere of radius r, the sphere is the osculating sphere at
every point of the helix so that radius of the sphere is the same as the radius of the
osculating sphere.
Hence we have R2 = p 2 + (op')2 ... (1)
For a helix, we know that a = p tan a ...(2)

Using (2) in (1), we have . = ± cot a which gives

V*2-P2
pdf>
=± cot ads ...(3)
V^V
Integrating (3) with respect to s and choosing the constant of integration to be
zero, we obtain
R2 = p 2 + s2 cot2 a ...(4)
Since we consider the projection of a helix on a plane perpendicular to the axis,
we have by Theorem 2,
K= JCj sin2 aand^j = s sin a ...(5)
Using (5) in (4) and simplifying, we get
r2sin4 a= p2 + s2cos2 a ...(6)
Since cos a < 1, (6) represents the intrinsic equation of on epicycloid. Thus a
spherical helix projects on a plane perpendicular to its axis in an arc of an
epicycloid.

1.19 EXAMPLES I
1. Find the curvature and torsion of the curves given by
(0 y=f(x),z = g(x)
(ii) r = (a(3u - u\ 3au2, a(3u + w3)}
(i) Taking x as parameter, we represent the position vector of a point on the
curve as
r=(xj(x),g(x))
Now r =(!,/(*),«(*))

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Theory of Space Curves 81

r=(0,/(*),*(*))

r=(0/W,gW) •(1)
The formula for curvature and torsion are

rxr , T [r, r, r ]
K = L
= • ••(2)
|r| 3 ' |rxr|2

To find /cand r, let us find |r|, |r x r|, [r, r, r] as follows.

| r | 2 = l + / 2 + g2 ••(3)

r x f = i(fg - fg) -jg + kf so that

|rxr|2=(/i>-/g)2+ip + / 2 ..(4)

1 / *
[r, r, f ] = 0 / gi = (fg-fg) ••(5)
0 / g

Using (3), (4) and (5) in (2), we obtain

K2 =
(fg-gff+g2+f2 and
(l+/2+52)3/2

X =
(fg-fg)
(fg-fgf+g2 + f2
(ii) From the position vector of a point on the curve,
we have r = {a(3 - 3M2), 6au, a(3 + 3w2)}
r = {-6au, 6a, 6au]
r = { - 6 a , 0, 6a} .(1)
2 2 2 2
|r| = 18a (l + u f so that |r| = 3aj2(l +u ) •(2)
r x f = 1 8 a V - l)i - 36a2uj + 18a2(l + u2)k
|rxf|2 = 182-2aV+l)2
Using the determinant formula for scalar triple product as in (i),
[r, r, r] = 3. 36 • a\{\ - u2) + (1 + u2)] = 6 V ...(4)
Using (1), (2), (3) and (4), we get

|rxf| \%a2Jl{.u2 +1) 1

K =
|r| 3 27a 3 -2V2( M 2 +l) 3 3a(l + « 2 ) 2
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82 Differential Geometry—A First Course

*o 3 -a„
3
[r f r ] 1
T =
|rxr|2 2
18 2.a (w +1) 4 2 2
3a(u + l) 2
2

2. Find the curvature and torsion of the curve

r = \a(\ + cos w), a sin w, 2a sin — u

Now r = - a sin w, a cos w, a cos — u

1
2
-fl . 1
r = I - a cos u, - a sin w, sin — w
i 2 2

-</ 1
r = I a sin w, - « cos i/, cos — «
1
4 2

r 2 = a2[ 1 + cos2 -u I = — ( 3 + cos u)

u u

i2 = « 4 (— sin
1 . 2 2 1 4
rxr —+ cos — + a
4 2 2,

= — ( 1 3 + 3 cos u)

Hence using the formula for K, we get

13 + 3 cos u
«? =
a (3 + cos w)3
2

From the determinant formula for scalar triple product

2 2
[r, r, r ] = - a sin u a u a . u
— sin u cos cos u sin —
4 2 2 2
2 2
- a cos u a u a . u .
— cos w cos — + — sin — sin u
4 2 2 2 -
1 r 2 2 2 • 2 T 3 i W
+ a cos — u [a cos u + a sin w] = — a cos —
2 4 2
From the formula for torsion,

6 cos —

a[l3 + 3 cos w]

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Theory of Space Curves 83

3. Show that the radius of curvature p and radius of torsion a of the curve
K
5a j 5a
r = (a cos w, a sin w, a cos 2u) at u= — are p = — and a = o— ...(1)
4 4 6
Differentiating (1) with respect to w, we have
dr ds . . .
r = = (- a sin w, a cos w, - 2a sin 2w) ...(2)
ds du

which gives — j = a 2 (l+4sin 2 2w) ...(3)

Differentiating (2) with respect to u again

i't + i 2 t' = - <z(cos «, sin w, 4 cos 2w) which gives
St + s2Kn = - a(cos M, sin w, 4 cos 2w) ...(4)
Taking the cross product of (2) and (4)
s3Kb = - 2a2[2 cos u cos 2w + sin 2w sin u]i
+ 2a2[sin 2w cos u - 2 cos 2w sin w]y + fca2
= - 2<z2[cos u + cos u cos 2w]i
+ 2a2[sin u - cos 2w sin u]j + ka2
= - 2a2 cos u (1 + cos 2w)i + 2a2 sin u (1 - cos 2w)y + fca2
i3x:b = - 4a2 cos3 ui + 4a2 sin3 uj + *a 2 ...(5)
Taking dot proudct with itself on both sides of (5),
i V = 16a4(cos6w + sin6w) + a4
= a4[16{(cos2 w)3 + (sin2 w)3} + 1]
= a4[\6 (cos4 u - cos2 w sin2 u + sin4 w) + 1]
= a 4 [16(l-3sin 2 W cos 2 M)+l]

2
= a 16 I 1 - - sin 2M j

So iV= a 4 [17-12sin 2 2w]

a 4 (17 - 12 sin2 2K)

Thus we get ** =
a 6 (l + 4sin 2 2w) 3

1
Hence at u= —, K 2 = 2* 2 orp K
= 5a
4 a 5
Differentiating (5) with respect to w, we get

s K(- rn) i + b—(s K) = (12a2 cos2 u sin w, 12a2 sin2 u cos w, 0) ...(6)
ds
84 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Taking dot product of (4) and (6), we get

- S6H^T = - a\\2 cos3 u sin u + 12a3 sin3 cos u)
So S6I^T = 12a3 sin u cos u

Substituting for s and k 2, we get

12sin wcos u
T =
a(17-12sin 2 2w)

u K 6 5a
Hence at u = —, r = — or <7= — .
4 5a 6
4. Determine the function/(w) so that the curve given by
r = (a cos w, a sin u,j{u)) shall be a plane curve.
We know that r = 0 is the necessary and sufficient condition for a curve to be a
plane curve. So using this condition, we shall find/(w).

Now r = (- a sin u, a cos w, f(u)) ...(1)

r = (- a cos w, - a sin «, f{u)) ...(2)

r = (a sin w, - a cos w, / (w)) ...(3)

r x f =a[(cos uf{u) + sin w/(«))/ + (sin uf(u)~ cos uf(u)j + ak] ...(4)
Taking dot product of (4) and (3),
[r r r] =a 2 [sin w (cos w/ + sin uf) -cos«(sin uf - c o s w / ) + / ]

= *2(/ + / )

Since T = ———, r = 0 implies and is implied by

|rxr|

[r, r , r ] = 7 + / = 0 ...(5)

d2 f
Integrating (5), we get —y- + / = a (say) ...(6)
du

Multiplying both sides of (6) by 2 / and integrating

J d[f]2 = J 2(A -f)f du which gives

2 2
/ =2a/-/ +fo = c 2 - ( a - / ) 2
2
...(7)
2 2 2
wherefeis a constant and b + a = c . Then we have from (7)

JT3-HT-J^
2
Vc -(a-/) 2
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Theory of Space Curves 85

Integrating, we find - sin M — =u- d ...(8)

where d is a constant. Simplifying (8), we get

f=a-csin (d-u)
5. Show that when the curve r = r(^) has constant torsion r, the curve

rj = n+jtofa ...(1)

has constant curvature ± T.

Let the suffix 1 denote the quantities pertaining to the curve rx = r ^ ) .
Differentiating both sides of (1) with respect to s, we get

^L*L = Z^ + b = _ ( l ^ > + b = K t ... (2)

dsx ds T T T

ds} K
Thus we get tx—- = — t showing that t, is parallel to t.
ds T
ds \c
From the above relation —- = — ...(3)
ds T
Using (3), we get tx = ± t ...(4)
Differentiating (4) with respect tos, we get

dt dsx dt t . , (K\
— L — - = ± — which gives K{n{ • — = ± Kn
dsx ds ds \x)
Thus we have Kjiij = ± m which shows that n, is parallel to n and K{ = ± T
6. Prove that the principal normal to a curve is normal to the locus of the
centres of curvature at those points where the curvature is stationary.
The position vector rx of the centre of curvature is given by
r1 = r + pn ...(1)
we have to show that tj • n = 0, when K? = 0.
Differentiating (1) with respet to s> we get

^ r i dsx , ,
dsx ds
= t + p'n + p(rb - art) = p'n + prb.

Hence t! =(p / n + prb)

dsx
Taking dot product with n on both sides, we get

, , -v ds , ds
t r n =(pn + prb)n-— = p - —
dsx dsx
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86 Differential Geometry—A First Course

For stationary values of K ^ = 0 which is the same as p' = 0, since

K" = j-p', p * 0. Hence when K is stationary, tx • n = 0. In other words the

P
principal normal to the given curve is normal to the locus of the centres of
curvature when K! = 0.
7. Show that the locus C of the centres of curvature of a circular helix of
curvature /cis a coaxial helix. Show that the locus of the centres of curvature_of C
is the original helix and prove that the product of torsions at the corresponding
points of the two helices is equal to K2.
Let the equation of the circular helix be
r = {a cos M, a sin w, bu) ...(1)
Let us find the locus C of centre of curvature of (1). If vx is the position vector
of a point on the locus of centre of curvature, then
r1 = r + pn ...(2)
Hence to obtain the locus, it is enough if wefindp and n for the circular helix.
1 a2 + b2
We know that for the circular helix, p = — = and the normal is
K a
Kn = —x =-(- a cos M, - a sin w, 0) ...(3)
{a1 +bl)
Substituting for fc, n = (- cos «, - sin w, 0) ...(4)
Hence using (4) is (2), we get

n = (a cos w, a sin w, bu) + — (- cos w, - sin w, 0)

K

a cos uAa I sin w, bu ..(5)

which is a coaxial helix since (1) and (5) have the concentric base circles and the
same z-axis as the axis of the helix.
Since C is also a circular helix, we deduce from (5) the form of the helix C{
representing the locus of the centres of curvature of C.
Substituting for K any point on Ccan be taken as

rj = cos w, sin w, bu ...(6)

[a a )
If r2 represent the position vector of a point on the locus of the centre of
curvature of C, then
r2 = rj + P\ii\ so that
Theory of Space Curves 87

r2 = I cos w, sin uybu\+ pxiix .-..(?)

a a

where px and iij correspond to the radius of curvature and normal to C. Using the
formula for curvature and normal for the helix (6), we obtain

a
K]=
~a2+b2

2
a cos u sin u
n,1 = 2 2
,0 ...(8)
Kx(a +b )K a

-bl
which we obtain by replacing a by and b by b in the equation (3).

Using (8) in (7), we obtain

(-b2
r? = cos u, sin w, #w (cos w, sin w, 0)
K2x(a2 +b2)

Substituting the value of K\f,

'-* 2
-fc 2 . . , 1 (a 2 +fc 2 ) , . m
r-> = cos w, sin u,bu\ + (cos w, sin u, 0)
a a ) a
which gives r 2 = (a cos w, a sin w, £M) which is the original helix.
To find product of torsions, we need b and b,. Differentiating (2) with respect
to s, we get

— L — L = t + p'n + n'p ...(9)

dsx ds

Since p' - 0 for a helix, (9) becomes

t , ^ = t + p ( r b - Kt) = — b ...(10)

which gives s'x = — and t, = b ...(11)

Differentiating (11) with respect to s

dtx dsx _ db __
r n which gives
dsx ds ds

Kxnx•— = - r n o r Kxnx = - jcnso that

the two normals are parallel. Choosing n, = - n, we find JC, = K ...(12)

88 Differential Geometry—A First Course

To find Th from (11) and (12) we have

b, =t, x n , = b x ( - n ) = t
Thus we have proved b, = t
Differentiating with respect to s,
dbx dsi di T
— - — L = — = Kn giving -Tjiij— = joi
ds{ ds ds K

2 a2
Since n{ = - n, the above equation gives XT{ = \c = —^ J T w^ich proves

that the product of torsions is constant.

8. Show that the necessary and sufficient condition that a curve be a helix is
that

[/»\r"\r"] = -K5-(I-)=0
ds\K J
Using Serret-Frenet formulae, let us find r", r'" and r(,v) where dash denotes
differentiation with respect to s.

Now r' = t so that r" = — = xn ...(1)

ds

r'" = —(KU) = Kn' + idn

ds
= K(rb - Kt) + K?n = K?n - f^t + Krrb ...(2)

r(iv)=—(x'n-^t+CTb)
ds
= (K" - K3 - JO2)!! - 3/C^t + (2^T+ T'K)b ...(3)
Using (2) and (3), we get
r(iv) x Y>» _ (K// _ ^3 _ ^ ( K 2 b ) + (K// _ ^3 _ CT2j ( C T t )

-SKT^b- 3 K V T ( - I I ) + ( 2 ^ T + T'K) (-t) - K 2 (2K'T+ T'tfn

Hence (r(iv) x i-'") r" = 3 K V T - K 3 (2X'T+ T'K)

= _ ^ ( T * - ^ ) = _ ^ T |
K* ds\K J
Thus we have proved that

[r(iv),r,,/,r,,]=-K5—f-1.

Therefore if the given curve is a helix, then — is a constant so that

K

— — = 0. Hence we Bget
ds\K)
Theory of Space Curves 89

[r(iv)( r /» ^j = _ ^£(l) =0 ...(4)

ds\Kj

Conversely if (4) is satisfied, then - JC*—I — I = 0 so that — is constant. This

ds\KJ
ds\Kj K
proves that the given curve is a helix.
9. Show that the helices on a cone of revolution project on the plane
perpendicular to the axis of the cone as logarithmic spirals. Hence deduce the
intrinsic equation of these helices.
Choosing the vertex O of the cone as the origin and the axis of the cone as the
z-axis, let P be any point on the cone with the position vector r and Q be the
projection of P on the XOY plane. Let OQ = u and xdQ= ft We shall find the
locus of Q.
If a is the semi-vertical angle of the cone, then we have QP = ucota which is
the z-coordinate of P. Hence the position vector r of P is
r = (u cos ft u sin ft u cot a) ...(1)
where u and 0are variables.
Let us express u and 0 as the functions of the arcual length s of the helix.
Since the tangent to the helix makes a constant angle j3 with the generator OP,
we get
r dv r
t-— = — •— =cos j3sothatr-dr = |r| cos fids ...(2)
ds
M lrl
Since vdx =xdx + y dy + zdz= -rd(x2 + y2 + z2) = ~d\r\2

Hence we have rdr = \r\d\r\

Using (2) in the above equation, <i|r| = cos /J ds which gives on integration
|r| = jcosj8 ...(3)
Thus wehave« = Oj2 = |r| sin a = s cos /? sin a ...(4)
Havng found out u in terms of s, let usfindout 6 in terms of s using (4)

Now r ^ " ^ ^ - ^ ^

= (cos ft sin ft cot a) sin a cos /} + (- u sin ft u cos ft 0)0'

Substituting for u in the above step, we get
r' = cos P sin a[(cos ft sin ft cot a) + s(- sin ft cosft,0)ft] ...(5)
Since r' = t and t • t = 1, we have
1 = sin2 a cos2 j8 [(cos 6 - Q's sin 0)2 + (sin 6 - 0^ cos 0)2 + cot2 a]
1 = sin2 a cos2 j3[l + s26'2 + cot2 a] from which we have
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90 Differential Geometry—A First Course

cosec a tan B ni
0 = — or 0 = cosec a tan /J log s ...(6)
s
From (6) we obtain s = e6sin acotp
so that
1
0' = tan /3 cosec a 9 sin a cot /J

Using |r'| = cos /J and 0', we get

i ^ = — =cot/Jcos)3sina/sinacol/J ...(7)

Integrating (7) with respect to 0, we get

H
| r | = cos p e
Substituting for | r| in terms of w, we get
w = sinacos/J^sinacot/*
which is the required equation of the logarithmic sprial.
To obtain the intrinsic equation, let us obtain jcand ras functions of s.
Using 0' of (6) in (5), we obtain
t = r' = sin a cos /J (cos 0, sin 0, cot a) + sin /J(- sin 0, cos 0, 0) ...(8)
Differentiating equation (8) with respect to s, we obtain
Kn = sin a cos j3(- sin 0, cos 0, 0)0' + sin (5(- cos 0, - sin 0,0)0'
Taking the dot product of the above kn with itself, K2 = 0'2[sin2 a cos2 /J+ sin2 p\
Substituting for 07 from (6), we get

? cosec2 a tan2
KT = — (sin2 a cos2 /? + sin2 /J) = 2 2 (say).

Then p 2 = «252 or p = as ... (9)

Since the helix makes a constant angle [1 with the generator of the cone, we
have K= rtan /}
Hence o2, = p2 tan2 /3 = a V tan2 /? = b2s2 (say)
so that a =bs ...(10)
(9) and (10) give the intrinsic equation of the helix.
10. Show that the helix on a paraboloid of revolution project on a plane
perpendicular to the axis as circle involutes.
Choosing z-axis as the axis, let the equation of the paraboloid be a(x2 +y2)=z.
If P is any point on the paraboloid, let Q be its projection on theXOKplane. We
shall prove that the locus of Q is the circle involute. If OQ = w, the equation of the
paraboloid is au2 = z. Using these, the position vector r of P on the paraboloid is r
= (u cos 0, u sin 0, au2) ...(1)
Since the tangent to the helix makes a constant angle a with the z-axis
t k = cos a

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Theory of Space Curves 91

, • x i d , Ix dz
Since A: is a constant vector t • k = — (r • k) = —
ds ds
Hence — = cos a which gives z = s cos a ...(2)
ds
Since z = au2, we have au2 = s cos a ...(3)
Differentiating (3) with respect to s, 2auu = cos a ...(4)
2 ->
Further we have r = rx + au ky rx = OQ
Differentiating r with respect to s, we get
dv rfr, dsy , .
— = —! + 2auu k which gives
ds ds{ ds
ds
t = t , — +2auu'k ...(5)
ds
where tj lies in the XOYplane.
Taking dot product of (5) with itself and using t{k = 0>

(ds, N 2
we obtain t-1 = t, • t, — - \ + 4a2u2u2

Substituting for u from (4), we get

(ds\ \ 9 dsi
1= —L + cos a so t h a t — - = s \ n a ...(6)
{ds J ds
Integrating (6) and using (3) for sy we get
s, = au2 tan a
If u = r, then the locus of the projection Q'\s ar1 = s cot a which is the circle
involute.

_i s2 + 4
11. Show that the helix whose intrinsic equations are p = r = —j=— lies
v2
upon a cylinder whose cross section is a catenary.
Let P(x, y, z) be any point on the cylinder. Let the helix make a constant angle
a with the axis. Consider the first ratio p = r~ \ we have from the property of the
helix
K TZ
— = tan a = 1 so that a = —
T 4

Further since — = cos a- —j=, we have z = ~i= ...(1)

ds yfl 4l
If P(JC, y, z) is a point on the cylinder, Q(x, y) gives the point on the plane
perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder, we shall show that the point Q(x, y) lies on
a catenary. For this we shall find K2 using t.
92 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Now = (x',y',z') = \x',y',-jjAby(l)

Hence — =kn = (x", y", 0) so that K2 = x"2 + y"2 •(2)

ds
O O 1 tO tO 1

Further t • t = x + y + — = 1 giving x + >> = — which enables us to choose

, _ cos 0 , __ sin 0
•••(3)

Then .^=_!i^^)/ = ££^# •••(4)

y/2 ds J2 ds
Using (4) in (2), we get

•••(5)

V2
Since K= —~ , equation (5) becomes
si +4

...(6)
CJ2+4)2 2UJJ ds s2+4
Integrating equation (6), we get 0 = tan-1(.s/2)
From the equation (3), we obtain

dx _ _J_
ds 4l
cos tan"
(0
dy_ 1
ds " 4l sin
tan
-l
(II ...(7)

dy 1
Since — = tan ynn the horizontal plane, we get tan y/= tan tan" ± from
dx
s
equation (7). From the above step, we conclude y/= tan,-i I— or 2 tan y/=s which
is the intrinsic equation of a catenary.
12. Find the coordinates of the cylindrical helix whose intrinsic equations are
1
K= T = - .
S
 Theory of Space Curves 93

LetP(x, y, z) be any point on the cylindrical helix. If a is the angle made by the
K
tangent to the helix with the axis of the cylinder, we have — = tan a.
T
K It
By hypothesis — = 1 so that a = —.
T 4
dz 1 s
Since — =cos a- -7=-, wegetz = -=• ...(1)
ds V2 V2
Now t =(x\y\z') = (x\y\-j=) ...(2)

So t t = *'2 + / 2 + i = lor;c' 2 + / 2 = -
7
2 2
n,, n 1 / cos 0 , sin 0
Therefore we can take x = -J , / = —-=±- ...(3)
V2 v2
and determine 0 in terms of s as follows.
Differentiating t in (2), we get
— = KU = (*", / ' , 0) which gives K2 = x"2 + / ' 2 ...(4)
as

Since K = -, using (3) in (4), we find -i-

2
= - (sin2 0 + cos2 0) f — ] which gives
s s 2 yds J

dl=yf2_
ds s
Integrating the above equation, we obtain

0= V2 log5or5= e^2 ...(5)

Having found out 0, we determine x and y by integrating the equations
dx 1 —
r rfy 1 —
/
- = - ^ cos (V2 log ,), - = - ^ sin (V2 log ,) ...(6)

Making the substitution s = e ^ , let us integrate first of the equation (6). Then
we have

2x=\e42 c o s 0 J 0 = — e ^ ( c o s 0 + V 2 sin0)

eJ2
so that * = —=(cos <j> + y/2 sin 0)
94 Differential Geometry—A First Course

A.
In a similar manner, we can obtain v = —7= (sin 0 - V2 cos 0)
3V2
Hence a point on the cylindrical helix is given by

0 0 0
e^ e>/2 „V2
—•= (cos 0 + V2 sin 0), — = (sin 0 - v2 cos 0), ^2 where e^ =s.
3v2 3V2

13. Find the involutes and evolutes of the cubic curve given by
r = (3M, 3M2, 2M3)
The formulae for the involute and evolute are
R = r + (c - s)t

and R = r + pn + p cot I \ ids + c lb.

Hence the problem is reduced to that of finding t, n, b, p, T and i xds for the
cubic curve.
Now we have r = (3M, 3M2, 2M3) ...(1)

Hence = (3, 6M, 6M2) so that ti = (3, 6M, 6M2) ...(2)

ds du
Hence taking dot product of itself, we get
i 2 = 9(1 + 4M2 + 4M4) so that i = 3(1 + 2M2) ...(3)
3
Integrating (3), we obtain s - (3M + 2M )

1 0
Using (3) in (2), we get t = — (I, 2M, 2ir)
(l + 2 w )
Hence the equation of the involute is
R = (3M, 3M2, 2M3) + l
-^-[c - (3M + 2M3)] (1, 2M, 2M2)
(1 + 2M")

To find the evolute, we find the remaining quantities.

Differentiating (2) with respect to M, we get
ti' + KUJ 2 = 6(0, 1,2M) ...(4)
Taking cross product of (2) and (4), we have
Ks3b= 18(2M 2 ,-2M, l). ...(5)
Taking dot product of (5) with itself,
 Theory of Space Curves 95

9 182(l + 2w 2 ) 2 .. 2 1
6 2 6
3 (1 + 2 K ) 3 (1 + 2 K 2 ) 2

Differentiating (5) with respect to K, we get

KS\- rn) + b — ( K \ J 3 ) = 18(4K, -2, 0) ...(6)

Taking dot product of (4) and (6), we obtain

- K'S°T = - 18 x 12 so that T =
K2S6

Substituting for K and i, we obtain

2 1
T =
3 (1 + 2K2x2
Z
)

1 o
From (5), we get b= =- (2K 2 , - 2K, 1) ...(7)
(1 + 2 K 2 )
Taking cross product of (7) and (2), we have
ns = [ - 6 K , - 3 ( 2 K 2 - 1 ) , 6K]
1 9
Hence n = =- [- 2K, - (2K 2 - 1), 2u]
(1 + 2 K 2 )

Now let y/ = \ xds = f =-du = V2 tan-I(V2w)

J J ( 1 + 2K2)
Hence the equation of the evolute is

R = (3K, 3K2, 2K 3 ) + - ( 1 + 2K 2 ) [- 2K, - (2K 2 - 1), 2K]

+ - ( 1 + 2K 2 ) cot (y/+ c) x (2K 2 , - 2K, 1)

where y/ = 42 tan "' ( V2K)

14. Show that the position vector r(s) of any space curve of class > 4 satisfies
the differential equation
(
(4)_(^+i:|r(3)+ 2 2 KY 2K'2-KK') „ 2(K' TM , n
r *r + r + + l
= r" + JC2 r' = 0
KX K ) \ K T )

...(1)
(3) (4)
We shall find r', r", r , and r repeatedly using Serret-Frenet formulae. We
know that
96 Differential Geometry—A First Course

r ' = t , r " = t'=*:n ...(2)

(3)
r = KW + nx' = K(Tb - Kt) + x'n so that
(3)
r = x'n - x^t + KTb ...(3)
(4) / 2
Hence r = it'n + ^(rb - Kt) - 2xrx t - x - KU + rx-'b + xr'b + xr(- rn)
= (x" - x3 - fa^n - 3x'x/t + ( 2 * ^ + i?K)b. ...(4)
Let us substitute (2), (3) and (4) in the left hand side of (1)

( x " - K 3 -- xT*)n- 3KK?t + {2K?T+ r'x-)b- [ — + — W n - x*t + xrb)

KZ + T Z + + ^ |xn + /r t
KT K T

By gathering the coefficients of t, n, b, we show that the above expresson is

zero.

JCV KTV
- 3KK' + 2KK' + + KK -

,, 3 2 2KT/2 TV 3 2 *V 2K:'2
XT - K - XT * + K" + X" T + + K

+ [2x^4- I'X'- 2x'r- t'x-Jb

= Ot + On + Ob = 0
Hence the position vector r(^) of any space curve of class > 4 satisfies the
differential equation (1).
15, Show that the torsion of the spherical indicatrix of the principal normal to
the given curve is

3(X7C' + TT') (JC'T - XT') + Or* + T2 ) (XT" - « " )

(X- 2 +T Z r +(XT/-KT,V\2
T)
From the property (ii) following the definition of the spherical indicatrix of the
principal normal of a given curve.
2
We have
m- K2-^2

From the equation (3) of Theorem 3 of 1.15, we have

...(1)

...(2)

Differentiating (2) with respect to s, we have

Theory of Space Curves 97

3
K(dsL) db1dsL+bd_(K^Lf
l
\ds) dsl ds ds{ ' ds J
= -TCK2 + t V n + [T^K2 + t2) + X(2KK' + 2TT')]t
+ (K? - K'f) (Tb - irt) + [JO" + KY - KV - K"r]n
2 2 2 2 /
+ tf* + T )^ Tn) + [KfiK + T ) + 2K(KTK + T^Jb
x3

Hence ^ (-*,„,) + b | ^ J

= S^Kr^ + T^t + C ^ - T O n + S ^ ^ + TOb ...(3)

From the equation (2) of Theorem 3 of 1.15, we have

n ^ J - M +t1-^=-K/t-(K2+T2)n+r,b ...(4)
V ds J ds
Taking dot product of (3) and (4), we get

- K? h I - j - J = -WI(KK? + ttf) - (K2 + T2) ( « " - « " ) + 3 « ' ( j a ' + TT")

Hence we have

K h = 3(KK + Xi) { X
* [d) ' * ~ KY) + (K2 + T2) (,CT" " ""^ - (5)
"
But from Theorem 3 of 1.15, we have

2_ (K2 + T 2 ) 3 + ( K T ' - I C ' T ) 2

KT
1 =
(r2+r2)3
Using this value of K{ in (5), we finally obtain

?>{KK' + TT') (K-'T - XT') + (K-2 + T 2 ) (CT" - K"'^)

T, =
(K2 +T2)3 +(KT'-k'T)2

16. If Xj and xx are curvature and torsion of the evolute of the given curve C,
prove that

— = - tan (y/+ a) where w- [ r ds

Taking a point Tj = r + pn - p tan ((/• + #)b on the evolute of C, we have as in

corollary of Theorem 3 of 1.13
ds\ ,
—- = [p + prtan ( y + a)] sec (y/+ a) ...(1)
and t{ = cos (y^+tf)n-sin (i/^+a)b ...(2)
98 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Hence differentiating (2) with respect to s, we have

— - — - =cos (y^+^n'-nsin (y/+ a)y/' - sin (y/-\-a)W -b cos (y/+a) y/

dsx ds
Since y/ = T, we have
ds
Kxn{—- = cos (y/+c) ( r b - art)- r n s i n (y/+a)
ds
+ msin(i//'+fl)-bTcos (y/+a)
ds\
Hence jqn,—- =- KCOS (y/+ a)t ...(3)

The above equation shows that the principal normal to the evolute is parallel to
the tangent to the given curve C. Hence we can take from (3), nx = - 1 ...(4)
ds
Using (4), we have K{ = JCCOS (y/+ a)—
ds{
ds
Substituting for — from (1), we get
ds{

p' + p r tan (y/ + #)

Taking cross product of (2) and (4), we get
bj = t{ x n{ = cos (y/+ a)b + sin (y/+ a)n
Differentiating the above with respect to s,
db\ dsx
— - — L = cos (y/+ a) (- rn) - r b sin (y/+ a) + sin (i//+ a) (rb - Kt)
dsx ds
+ rncos (y/+ a)
ds\
Hence - r,n,— L = - Ksin (y/+a)t
ds
ds
Since n{ = -1, the above equation becomes, r, = - K*sin (y/+ a)— ...(6)
ds{
k [ d^ H?
Using the value of K, TX = - sin (y/ + a)
cos (y/ + a) ds dsx

Hence —- = - tan (y/+ a) where y/= o ds.

Theory of Space Curves 99

1.20 EXERCISES I
1. Find the curvature and torsion of the curves

l
(i) r = M, — , —^- I (ii) r = (3a, 3u\ 2u>)
\
(iii) r = (cos 2w, sin 2w, 2 sin w)
(iv) r = (4a cos3 w, 4a sin3 w, 3c cos 2w)
2. Find the equation of the osculating plane at a point on the helix
r = (a cos w, a sin w, aw tan a)
3. Find the equation of the osculating plane at a general point on the cubic
curve r = (w, w2, M3) and show that the osculating planes at any three points
of the curve meet at a point lying in the plane determined by these three
points.
4. Prove the following relations
(i) r'r" = 0 (ii) r'r'" = - / c
(iii) r , -r ,,,/ = -3/c/c/ (iv) r" r'" = KK?
(v) r ^ r " " ^ * " - * 3 - * * 2 )
(vi) r'"1-"" = K V ' + 2K 3 K' + ^TT' + ^ r 2
5. Determine the form of the function (p(u) such that the principal normal of
the curve r = (a cos w, a sin w, 0(w)) are parallel to the XOYplane.
6. Show that the principal normals at two consecutive points of a curve do
not intersect unless r= 0.
7. If there is a one-one correspondence between the points of two curves and
tangents at'the corresponding points are parallel, show that the principal
normals are parallel and so also their binormals.
K
\ ds T,
Also prove that —L = — = —L.
K dsx T
8. Prove that if the principal normals of a curve are binormals of another
curve, then ^(K2 + r2) = bK where a and b are constants.
9. Show that the angle between the principal normals at O and P is
six? + i2)172 where 5 is the arcual distance between O and P.
10. Find the osculating sphere and osculating circle at the point (1,2,3) on the
curve
r = (2w+ l,3w 2 + 2,4w3 + 3)
11. Find the osculating sphere at any point of a circular helix.
12. Prove that r = (a cos2 w, a cos u sin w, a sin u) is a spherical curve.
13. Show that the tangent to the locus C, of the centres of curvature lies in the
normal plane of the given curve C. If 9 is the angle between the tangent to
P
C{ and the principal normal of C, prove that tan 9 =
p'a
100 Differential Geometry—A First Course

14. If s{ is the arc length of the locus of centres of curvature, show that
2
dsx _ V^ V + K '
ds K2
15. If C is a curve of constant curvature K> show that the locus C{ of centres of
curvature is also a curve of constant curvature KX such that *c, = icand that
K2
i*ts torsion is given by xx = — .
T
16. If R is the radius of spherical curvature for any point P(x, y, z) on the
curve, prove that

U,,,)2 + (y/,,)2 + a /,, ) 2 = ^ + - J - y

P P °
17. If the involutes of a twisted curve are plane curves, then show that the
curve is a helix.
18. Show that the unit principal normal and unit binormal of the involutes of a
curve C are
Tb-fCt . Tt + JCb
n, = ,bj =
KKX{C-S) KKX(C-S)
19. Find the Betrand associate of a circle in a plane.
20. Prove that the corresponding points of the spherical indicatrix of the
tangent to C and the indicatrix of the binormal to C have parallel tangent
lines.
21. Prove that the curve r = {au> bu2, cu3) is a helix if and only if 3ac = ± 2b2.
22. Show that if the curve r = r(^) is a helix, thenfindthe curvature and torsion
of the curve r t = pt + | nds where p, t, n and s refer to the curve r = r(s).

23. Prove that the position vector of a current point r = r(.s) on a curve satisfies
the differential equation

d_ d a ,
+ — —r + £ r " =0.
ds ds ds{p t
 2
The First Fundamental Form and
Local Intrinsic Properties of
A Surface

2.1 INTRODUCTION
As in the case of a space curve introduced either as the intersection of two
surfaces or with the parametric coordinates, we shall introduce surfaces in E3
either implicitly by an equation of the type F(JC, y, z) = 0 or parametrically by
expressing x, y, z in terms of two parameters w, V varying over a domain. We shall
make these two notions more explicit before defining a surface locally as
equivalence class of surfaces by a suitable equivalence relation.
After defining the surface locally, we classify the points on a surface as
ordinary points and singular points. Then we take up for study curves on surfaces
and explain how the parametric curves on surfaces help us to study the properties
of surfaces. Then with the help of the tangent plane at a point P and the surface
normal at P, we introduce a coordinate system at every point of the surface. This
system (rl9 r2, N) at any point on the surface is analogous to the moving triad
(t, n, b) at a point on the space curve. After introducing certain standard surfaces
which we often come across in applications, we shall introduce a certain quadratic
differential form on a surface and direction coefficients. This quadratic form is
called the first fundamental form which enables us to study the local intrinsic
properties of surfaces. We shall conclude this chapter with a brief study of the
family of curves on surfaces and isometric transformations.

2.2 DEFINITION OF A SURFACE

We.give the two different definitions of a surface and illustrate them with some
simple examples.
Definition 1. A surface is the locus of a point P(x, y, z) in E3 satisfying some
restrictions on x, y, z which is expressed by a relation of the type F(x, y, z) = 0./
102 Differential Geometry—A First Course

The above definition implies that any point on the surface satisfies the
equation and conversely. The equation F(x, yt z) = 0 is called the implicit or
constraint equation of the surface. This implicit form of the equation describes the
surface as a whole so that one can make a global study of the surface. But when we
restrict ourselves to the local study of the surfaces which means the study of the
properties of the surface in the neighbourhood of a point which is a small region,
the constraint equation is not useful. So we are necessitated to use parametric
representation of the surfaces in most of the cases.
Definition 2. If the parameters w, v take real values and vary over some
domain D, a surface is defined parametrically as
x =f(u, v), y = g(u, v), and z = h(u, v)
where /, g and h are single valued continuous functions possessing continuous
derivatives of r-th order. Such surfaces are called surfaces of class r.
The parameters u and v are called curvilinear coordinates, (w, V) is used to
represent the point determined by u and v.
Thus we have two methods of representation of a surface, one is the global
representation by using a constraint equation and another by parameters w, v
varying over a domain. Hence the question naturally arises whether the two
methods are equivalent under a suitable equivalence relation. Before answering
this question, we point out some disadvantages in these representations by a few
examples.
(i) The parametric equations of a surface are not unique.
To see this, we produce a surface having two different parametric
representations.
Now consider the following two sets of equations
x = u + v,y = u-v, z = 4uv
x = u,y = vyz = u2-v2
Elimination of the parameters in both the representations lead to the same
constraint equation x2 - y2 = z which represents the whole of certain
hyperbolic paraboloid,
(ii) Sometimes the constraint equation obtained by eliminatipg the parameters
represents more than the given surface.
To see this consider the parametric equation
x = u cosh v, y = u sinh v, z = u2
for all real values of u and v.
Eliminating u and v among the equations, the constraint equation of the surface
is x2 - y2 = z. The constraint equation represents the whole of hyperbolic
paraboloid, while the parametric equations give only that part of the hyperbolic
paraboloid for which z > 0, since u takes only real values.
Definition 3. Let there be two parametric representations w, v and u\ v of the
same surface. Any transformation of the form u = 0(w, v) and v = I/A(W, V) relating
these two representations is called a parametric transformation.
The First Fundamental Form and Local Intrinsic Properties of A Surface 103

Definition 4. A parametric transformation is said to be proper if

(i) (p and i/^are single valued functions

and (ii) The Jacobian — ^ 0 in some domain D.

d(«,v)
Note. Let D' be the domain of u\ v corresponding to the domain D of the w,
v plane. The conditions in the above definition are the necessary and sufficient
conditions for the existence of the inverse in the neighbourhood of any point D'
which means that the transformation is locally one to one. However it should be
noted that the transformation 0, i//may not have the inverse on the whole of D.

2.3 NATURE OF POINTS ON A SURFACE

To describe the nature of points on a surface, we introduce the following notation.
Let r = (x, y, z) be the position vector of a point on the surface. Since JC, y, z are
continuous functions of parameters w, v possessing partial derivatives of required
order, we can take r = r(w, v) as the paramatric equation of the surface. If the
suffixes 1 and 2 are used for partial derivatives of r with respect to u and v
9r 9r
respectively, let r, = — and r 2 = — ...(1)
ou ov
d\_ _ 32r _ 32r _32r
r r r
' . . -D^ 2T' .1 2' —
B -3 ^3 : .' -21i - , -3 ^3 : ». '2 2» - - T ~!
i 3
ou ouov ov ou ov
Since r possesses continuous partial derivatives, we have r, 2 = r21.
Since r = (x, y, z), we can express r^ r 2 componentwise as

(dx dy dz\ , ,
I ou ou ou )

dx dy dz
ro = {dv* 9 v ' d v = (x2iy2iz2) ...(2)

and we have similar expressions for r22, r H , r,2 and r21

Definition 1. If r, x r2 * 0 at a point on a surface, then the point is called an
ordinary point. A point which is not an ordinary point is called a singularity.
From the very definition of an ordinary point, we note the following properties
of a surface.
(i) using (2), we have
r, x r 2 = i(y,z2 - Z[y2) +j(z{x2 -x{z2) + k(x{y2 - yxx2) ...(3)
r, x r 2 * 0 means that one of the coefficients in (3) is different from zero. That
is at least one of the members
(yi*2 - zxy2), (z,* 2 -*\Zi), (*\y2 ~ y\xd * 0 ...(4)
104 Differential Geometry—A First Course

(ii) Let us consider the matrix

*i y\ zi
M=
x2 y2 z2_

Since at least one of the members in (4) is different from zero at an ordinary
point, there exists at least one determinant minor of order 2 of M which is different
from zero. In other words the rank of M is two at an ordinary point. As a
consequence, if the rank of M is either zero or one, the point on the surface is a
singular point.
(iii) If r, x r 2 * 0 or equi valently if the rank of the matrix M is two, then JC, y, z
uniquely determine the parameters w, v in the neighbourhood of an ordinary point.
Since the matrix M is of rank two, there exists at least one non-vanishing

Jacobian which we can take as - — — * 0.

3(w, v)
As the condition of the inversion theorem is satisfied, there exist
neighbourhoods Ns(x0, y0) and Ne(w0, v0) such that for every x, y e N5(;c0, y0),
there exist w, v e Ne(w0, v0) such that u = u(x, y) and v = v(x, y). Hence u and v are
determined by x, y, z in the neighbourhood of an ordinary point.
(iv) The points where the rank of M is 1 or zero are singular points.
If the rank of M is 1, then every determinant minor of order two of M is zero.
This implies
(yi^2 " ^l)^)' (*i*2 -*i*2)» C*^ ~y 1^2)are a ' l z e r o s o l ^ a t r i x r 2 = 0. Hence the
point where the rank of M is one is a singular point.
When the rank of M is zero, then all the determinant minors of order 1 or 2 are
zero. This implies as in the previous case r{ x r 2 = 0 at these points so that the point
where the rank of M is zero is a singular point.
Note. When only one determinant minor of M is zero, we cannot conclude
that the point is a singular point.
We shall illustrate the above properties by the following examples.
Example 1. Consider the surface given parametrically by
x = u + v, y = u + v, z = uv.

^ _ ^ _ 9 y = 3 y = 1 ^ _ 9^ =

du dv ' du 9v du ' 9v
Hence x{y2-yxx2 = 0butx x z 2 -x 2 z { = u-v*0.
Thus the rank of M is 2 at every point of the surface so that every point on the
surface is an ordinary point.
(v) A proper parametric transformation transforms an ordinary point into an
ordinary point.
Let r = r(w, v) be the equation of the surface,
and let u' = 0(«, v), v' = y<«, v) be the given proper parametric transformation
The First Fundamental Form and Local Intrinsic Properties of A Surface 105

3r dr du' 3r dv'
Now
du du' du dv' du
3r 30 dr d\f/
and so
du' du dv' du
3r dr 30 3r dy
Similarly
dv du' dv dv' dv
3r 3r 3r 3r
Since •r—x--- = 0, — x — = 0, being parallel vectors
du du dv dv
3r ^r 3r 3r 30 dty dlf/ 30
du dv 37*37 3M 3V 3M 3V

m , 3r 3r 3r 3r 3(0, v)
Thus we have ^ - x — = T T X^TT ->
3M 3V 3M 3V 3(M, V)
Since the given parametric transformation is proper,
3(0, v0
*0.
3(M,V)

Hence — X — * 0 implies -— x —- ^ 0. That is r/ x r{ * 0, proving that an

3M 3V 3M' dv'
ordinary point is invariant after proper parametric transformation.
Note 1. Since I*! x r2 * 0 at an ordinary point, I*! x r2 = 0 at a singularity.
Due to some geometrical nature of the surface, some singularities continue to
be singularities, whatever may be the parametric representations. Such
singularities are called essential singularities. There are other singularities
depending upon the choice of parametric representation. Singularities of this type
are called artificial singularities.
Note 2. Tofindthe nature of a point on the surface, we use either the matrix
M or r, x r2. We shall illustrate the essential and artificial singularities in the
following examples.
Example 2. Consider the circular cone represented by
x = M sin a cos v, y = u sin a sin v, z - u cos a
where a is the semivertical angle of the cone with the vertex 0 as origin and
OP = u,P any point on the cone.
We show that the vertex of the cone is an essential singularity. Since u and v
are parameters, we have

sin a cos v sin a sin v cos a

M=
-u sin a sin v u sin a cos v 0
106 Differential Geometry—A First Course

At u = 0, the determinant of every second order minor of M is zero. Hence the

rank of M is zero so that u = 0 is an essential singularity. This singularity is essential
since it arises as a result of the vertex of the cone.
Taking r = (u sin a cos v, u sin a sin v, u cos a), r{ x r 2 = 0 at u = 0 showing that
u = 0 is an essential singularity.
Example 3. Taking any point 0 as the origin in the plane,x = u cos v, y = u sin v,
z = 0 is the representation of the plane in polar coordinates.
Now r, = (cos v, sin v, 0), r 2 = (- u sin v, u cos v, 0) then r, x r 2 = wk. Hence
Fj x r 2 = 0, when w = 0 so that u = 0 is a singularity. It is an artificial singularity,
since it arises due to the choice of the parametric coordinates and not due to the
nature of the surface. It is to be noted thatw = 0 is not a singularity in the coordinate
system. We can arrive at the same conclusion by noting that the rank of the matrix
M is zero at u = 0.

2.4 REPRESENTATION OF A SURFACE

In our study of surfaces, we shall consider only ordinary points on surfaces. This
means that the domain of parameters w, v will be restricted so that every point (w, v)
of the surface is an ordinary point. Also we shall study the properties of the surface
in the neighbourhood of an ordinary point. For such a study, the proper parametric
transformation is very useful, since it is locally one-to-one. Since such a study
depends upon a portion of a surface, we consider the entire surface as a collection
of parts, each part being given a particular parameterisation and the adjacent parts
are related by a proper parametric transformation. Using these ideas, we shall
define the representation of a surface as follows.
Definition 1. A representation R of a surface S of class r in E3 is a collection
of points in E3 covered by a system of overlapping parts {Sy} where each part Sj is
given by a parametric equation of class r. Each point lying m the common portion
of two prats 5,-, Sj is such that the change of parameters from one part S( to its
adjacent part Sj is given by a proper parametric transformtion of class r.
Note. Since we cannot parametrise the whole surface without introducing
artificial singularities, we resort to consider a surface composed of many
overlapping parts. Since the points in the adjacent parts have two parametric
representations one for St and another for its adjacent Sy, these two parametric
representations are connected by a proper parametric transformation.
In the definition of the representation R of a surface, we are concerned with the
system of overlapping parts Sj covering the whole surface. Hence it is possible to
have many representations of the same surface by considering different systems of
overlapping parts (SJ), each part is given by a parametric equation of class r. Since
we have different representations of the same surface, it is but natural to state
precisely, when the two representations R and R' behave alike. This leads to the
notion of equivalence of representations of surfaces of class r and consequent
definition of a surface as an equivalence class.
Definition 2. Let R an R! be two representations of class r of the surface S.
Let (Sj) and (Sj') be two different systems of overlapping parts covering S
TJie First Fundamental Form and Local Intrinsic Properties of A Surface 107

corresponding to R and R'. Then they are said to be equivalent, if the composite
family of parts {Sp Sf} satisfy the condition that each point P lying in the common
portion of the overlap of two parts, the change of parameter of P considered as a
point of Sj to the parameter of the same point considered as a point of Sf is given
by a proper parametric transformation of class r. That is if P is a point in the place
of overlap, the change of parameter from S- to Sf at the point P is given by a proper
parametric transformation of class r.
Theorem. The notion of r-equivalence of representations of a surface is an
equivalence relation.
Proof. Let R be a representation of S and let S be composed of overlapping
parts {Sj}. Since the change of parameters from 5,- to Sj is given by a proper
parametric transformation of class r, the relation of r-equi valence of representation
R is reflexive.
Let the relation R be equivalent to R' and let Sj and Sj' be two overlapping parts
in two representations with a pointP in the overlapping portion. Since/? and/?' are
equivalent, there exists a proper parametric transformation 0 at P from Sj to Sj'.
Since the proper parametric transformation is locally one-to-one and possesses
inverse transformation, 0~l exists at the point P of overlap of S. and Sj. In other
words, there exists a proper parametric transformation 0~l from S' to Sj. Thus R' is
equivalent to /? so that the relation of r-equivalence of class r is symmetric.
Let /?, R' and R" be any three representations of class r of a surface S and let
them be r-equi valent such that/? ~ /?' and/?' ~ /?". We shall show that/? - /?". Since
/? and R' are equivalent, there exists a proper parametric transformation 0 at the
common point Px in the overlap of the family [Sj, Sj'}. Since R' ~ /?", the change of
parameter of a point in the overlap of Sj' and Sj" is given by a proper parametric
transformation i//from S,' to Sj". Since 0and y/are locally one-to-one, y/o(p is
locally one-to-one transformation giving the change of parameter from Sj to Sj".
Hence the representation /? and R" are equivalent so that the relation of
equivalence of class r of surfaces is transitive.
Since the notion of the relation of equivalence of class r is reflexive, symmetric
and transitive, it is an equivalence relation which completes the proof of the
theorem.
This equivalence relation introduces a partition into the family of surfaces of
class r splitting them into mutually disjoint equivalence classes, each class
containing the surface equivalent to one another in the above equivalence relation.
This leads to the formal definition of a surface as follows.
Definition 3. A surface S of class r in E3 is an r-equivalence class of
representations.
Thus a surface consists of different overlapping portions related to one another
by proper parametric transformations and all other surfaces related to the given
one by the equivalence relation of class r. We make a study of local properties
without investigating the extent of the region of the surface in which the local
properties are true.
108 Differential Geometry—A First Course

2.5 CURVES ON SURFACES

Let r = r(w, v) be the equation of a surface of class r where w, v vary over a domain
in the wv-plane. Let u = u(t) and v = v(/) be a curve of class s lying in the domain D
of the wv-plane.
Now consider r = r[u(t), v(t)]. Then r gives the position vector of a point in
terms of a single parameter t so that r = r [w(0, v(r)] is a curve lying on a surface
with class equal to smaller of r and s. The equation u = u(t) and v = v(t) are called
curvilinear equations of the curve on the surface.
Definition 1. (Parametric Curves). Let r = r(w, v) be the given surface of
class r. Let v = c where c is an arbitrary constant. Then the position vector
r = r(w, c) is a function of a single parameter t and hence r = r(w, c) represents a
curve lying on the surface r = r(w, v). This curve is called the parametric curve
v = constant.
For every value of c, there is one such curve on the surface. Since v = c, where
c is an arbitrary constant, we get a system of parametric curves for different
constant values of c. In a similar manner, if we keep u constant and vary v, we get
a system of parametric curves u = constant.
Since we are concerned with the ordinary points on the surface, we note the
following basic properties of parametric curves. These properties are the
consequences of the fact that we are concerned only with ordinary points on the
surface.
(i) Through every point of the surface, there passes one and only one
parametric curve of each system.
Let P(x0, y0, z0) be a point on the surface. Then as explained in (iii) of 2.3,
(M0, V0) are uniquely determined by (*0, y0, ZQ). Hence there are only two
parametric curves u = w0» v = v0 passing through the point P.
(ii) No two curves of the same system intersect.
Let us consider the system at the point (w0, v0). Let u = u0 and u = ux be two
curves of the same system. If these two curves of the same system
intersect, u = ux at the point of intersection so that the parametric
coordinates determined by P(x0, y0, z0) is (ux, v0) contradicting the
uniqueness of (w0, v0). This contradiction proves that no two curves of the
same system intersect,
(iii) The curves of the systeem u = u0 and v = v0 intersect once but not more
than once if (w0, v0) e D.
Since the point of intersection (M0, V0) is uniquely determined by
P(xo> yo» Zo)» tlie y c a n n o t intersect more than once,
(iv) The parametric curves of the system u = cx and v = c2 cannot touch each
other.
For a curve v = c, u serves as a parameter and determines a sense along the
curve. The position vector of a point on the curve v = c is r = r(«, c). Hence the
dr
tangent to the curve v = c in the direction of u increasing is rx = —-. Similarly
au
The First Fundamental Form and Local Intrinsic Properties of A Surface 109

r 2 = — gives the direction of the tangent to the curve u = c in the direction of v

dv
increasing. They do not vanish and have different directions. Since we consider r{
and r 2 only at an ordinary point on the surface rx x r 2 * 0. This shows that the two
parametric curves are neither coincident nor parallel but cut at the point (MQ, V0)
determined by (x0 y0, ZQ). Hence they do not touch each other.
Definition 2. Let u = cx and v = c2. When the constants cx and c2 vary, the
whole surface is covered with a net of parametric curves, two of which pass
through every point, (w, v) are called the curvilinear coordinates of P. The
parametric curves are called coordinate curves.
Definition 3. Two parametric curves through a point P are said to be
orthogonal if rx. r 2 = 0 at P. If this condition is satisfied at every point (w, v) of the
domain, than the two system of parametric curves are orthogonal.

2.6 T A N G E N T PLANE A N D SURFACE N O R M A L

Let r = r[w(0, v(r)] be a general curve lying on the surface passing through
[w(0, ^(01- Then the tangent to the curve at any point P on the surface is

dx dr du dr dv du dv /1X
— =- + = r, — + r2 — ...(1)
dt du dt dv dt dt dt
Definition 1. Tangent to any curve drawn on a surface is called a tangent
line to the surface.
dr
From (1), we see that the tangent vector — is a linear combination of the
dt
vectors rx and r2. Since rx x r 2 * 0, rx and r 2 are non-zero and independent. The
tangents to different curves through P on a surface lie in a plane containing two
independent vectors rx and r 2 at P. This plane is called the tangent plane at P.
Theorem 1. The equation of a tangent plane at P on a surface with position
vector r = r(w, v) is either
R = r + arx + br2 or (P - r) • (r{ x r2) = 0
where a and b are parameters.
Proof. Let r = r(«, v) be the position vector of a point P on the surface. The
tangent plane at P passes through r and contains the vectors vx and r2. So if R is the
position vector of any point on the tangent plane at P, then R - r, rx and r 2 are
coplanar. Hence we have
R - r = arx + br2
where a and b are arbitrary constants.
r{ x r 2 is perpendicular to the tangent plane at P. Hence r{ x r 2 is perpendicular
to R - r lying in the tangent plane so that (R - r) • (r{ x r2) = 0 is another form of
the equation of the tangent plane at P.
110 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Definition 2. The normal to the surface at P is a line through P and

perpendicular to the tangent plane at P.
Since r{ and r 2 lie in the tangent plane at P and pass through P, the normal is
perpendicular to both r, and r 2 and it is parallel to r{ x r 2 as in the adjoining
Figure 6. The normal at P is fixed by the following convention.

Fig. 6

If N denotes the unit normal at P, then r,, r2 and N in this order should form a
right handed system. Using this convention we have

2l
Mr2| H
Since r, x r 2 * 0, H = \r{ x r 2 | ± 0 which shows that it is always a positive
number and NH = r{x r2.
Theorem 2. The equation of the normal N at a point P on the surface
r = r(w, v) is R = r + a(r{ x r2).
Proof. Let R be the position vector of any point on the normal to the surface
at P whose position vector is r = r(w, v). Since r , x r 2 gives the direction of the
normal and (R - r) lies along the normal, r, x r 2 and (R - r) are parallel so that we
have R - r = a(r{ x r 2 ) where a is a parameter. Hence R = r +.fl(r, x r 2 ) gives the
equation of the normal at P.
Using the convention that r h r 2 and N form a right handed system, we establish
the following theorem.
Theorem 3. A proper parametric transformation either leaves every normal
unchanged or reverses the direction of the normal.
Proof, r = r(w, v) be the given surface and let the parametric transformation
be
u = <j)(u, v) and v' = y/(w, v)
The First Fundamental Form and Local Intrinsic Properties of A Surface 111

Since the parametric transformation is proper,

3(K',V')
*0
3(w, v)

As in the case (v) of 2.3, we have

3r 9r d(u\v')(dr dr}
du dv d(u,v) dw' dv'

Using H and //' in the above step, we get

d(w, v)

Since H and //' are always positive, N and N' are of the same sign if J > 0 and
are of opposite sign if J < 0. Since J is a continuous function of the parameter w, v
in the whole domain and J does not vanish in D, J retains the same sign in D. This
proves that N and N' have the same sign.
Example 1. Obtain the surface equation of sphere and find the singularities,
parametric curves, tangent plane at a point and the surface normal.
A sphere is a surface of revolution of a semi-circle lying in the XOZ plane
about the z-axis. The curve meets the axis of revolution in two points. If P is any
point on the circle lying in the XOZ plane, its equation can be taken as
x- a sin w, y = 0, z = a cos u
where u is the angle made by OP with the z-axis. u is called the co-latitude of the
point P. After rotation through an angle v about z-axis, let PM be perpendicular on

P(x, y, z)

Fig. 7
112 Differential Geometry—A First Course

the XOY plane. Then XOM is called the longitude of P and it is v. Hence the
position vector of P on the sphere is
x = OM cos v = OP cos (90 - u) cos v = a sin u cos v
y = OM sin v-OP sin w sin v and z = acos u.
Thus the surface equation of the sphere is
r = (a sin u cos v, a sin w sin v, a cos w)
where u and v are parameters and 0<u< K, 0 < V < 2 7T.
(i) We shall find the singularities
Now r{ = (a cos u cos t>, a cos u sin v, - # sin u)
r2 = (- a sin w sin v, a sin w cos v, 0)
Hence the matrix

T a cos u cos v a cos w sin v - a sin u]

M=\ . . . „
[_- a sin w sin v A sin u cos v 0 J
At u = 0 and w = ;r, all the three determinant minors of M are zero so that the
rank of M is zero. Thus u = 0, u = Trare singular points. Since these singularities are
due to the choice of parameters, they are artificial singularities. The same
conclusion may be arrived at by considering r^ x r2 also.
(ii) Parametric curves. First let us find the parametric curves of the system
u = constant. When the colatitude u is a constant, a cos u is a constant. Let it be A.
Then z =A is a plane parallel to theXOK-plane. If P is the point of intersection of
this plane and the sphere where u is constant, then the locus of P is a small circle.
Hence the parametric curves of the system u = constant is a system of parallel small
circles which are called parallels.
When the longitude v = constant, the plane ZOM is fixed and the point P where
v is constant is the intersection of the sphere and this plane passing through the
centre of the sphere. Hence the locus of P is a great circle. Thus the parametric
curves of the system v = constant is a system of great circles called meridians.
From (i) rx • r2 = 0 so that the parametric curves are orthogonal.
(iii) Now r{ x r2 = a2(i sin2w cos v +j sin2w sin v + k sin u cos v)
The equation of the tangent plane is (R - r) • (r, x r2) = 0
In the cartesian form, the above equation becomes
(X-x) sin wcos v + (y~;y) sin wsin v + (Z-z)cos v = 0.
Now H=\rlxr2\ = a2 sinu
r xr 1
Hence N=— = (sin u cos v, sin u sin v, cos u) = — r
H a
where r is the position vector of a point on the surface so that the surface normal is
the outward drawn normal.
The First Fundamental Form and Local Intrinsic Properties of A Surface 113

Example 2. Obtain the surface equation of a cone with semi-vertical angle a and
find the singularities, parametric curves, tangent plane at a point and the surface
normal.
Proof. Taking the axis of the cone as the z-axis, let P(x, yy z) be any point on
the cone. Draw PN and PM perpendicular to the axis of the cone and XOFpane.
Let NP = u and v be the angle of rotation of the plane so that XOM = v
Hence x = u cos v, y = u sin v, and z = u cot a
Thus the parametric representation of a point on the surface of the cone is
r = (w cos v, u sin v, u cot a)
Further r{ = (cos v, sin v, cot a) and r2 = (-u sin v, u cos v 0)
Now Tj x r2 = 0 at u = 0. Hence the vertex of the cone is the only singularity. As
we have already pointed out, it is an essential singularity.

\Z
^v
N P(xt y, z)

r \
\a
if
o) *y
V \ ^
M(x, y, 0)

Fig. 8

When u = constant, the distance of P from the z-axis is constant so that P

describes a circle. Hence the system of pararmetric curves when u = constant is a
system of parallel circles with centres on thez-axis. When v = constant, the plane of
rotation through z-axis makes a constant angle with the *-axis so that the
parametric curves are the intersection of this plane with the cone along a generator.
Hence when v = constant, the system of parametric curves are the generators of the
cone through the origin.
Further i y r 2 = 0 so that the parametric curves are orthogonal.
Further rx x r2 = i(-u cos v cot a) +j(-u sin v cot a) + ku.
Hence the equation to the tangent plane at any point is
(X-x) (-W cos v cot a) + (Y-y) {-u sin v cot a) + (Z-z)u = 0
Further \rlxr2\ = u cosec a.
114 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Thus N= = (- cos v cos a, -sin v cos a, sin a)

|r,xr2|

2.7 THE GENERAL SURFACES OF REVOLUTION

We shall introduce some special standard surfaces of revolution which will be used
in the illustrations for the study of local intrinsic properties of surfaces. To start
with let us define a general surface.

A(g(u), 0, f(u))

M(x, y, 0)

Fig. 9

Definition 1. A surface generated by the rotation of a plane curve about an

axis in its plane is called a surface of revolution.
Theorem 1. The position vector of any point on the surface of revolution
generated by the curve [g(w), o,f(u)] in the XOZ plane is
r = [g(u) cos v, g{u) sin v, f(u)]
where v is the angle of rotation about the z-axis.
Proof. Let us take the z-axis as the axis of rotation and let [g(u), o,f(u)] be
the parametric representation of the generating curve in the XOZ plane. Let A be
any point on the curve. Then its jc-coordinate g(u) gives the distance of A from
the z-axis. When the curve revolves about the z-axis, A traces out a circle with
radius g(u). When the plane through the z-axis has rotated through an angle v, let P
be the position of the point corresponding to A on the curve after rotation. Draw
PM and PN perpendiclar to XOY and XOZ planes. Then AN = PN = g(u) and
OM = PN.
If (JC, y, z) are the coordinates of P, then we have
x = OM cos v = PN cos v = g(u) cos v
The First Fundamental Form and Local Intrinsic Properties of A Surface 115

y = OM sin v = PN sin v = g(u) sin v

z = PM=f(u)
Hence the position vector of a point P on the surface is
r = [g(u) cos v, g(u) sin v,/(w)]
where the domain of (w, v) is 0 < v < In with a suitable range for u which depends
on the surface.
Next we shall find the parametric curves.
Let P be a point on the surface with u = constant so that g(u) is also a constant.
Then the locus of the points like P is a circle with radius g(u) for a complete
rotation as v arises from 0 to In. Thus the parametric curves u = constant are circles
parallel to the XOY plane as in the case of sphere we call them as parallels.
Let v = constant. Since v gives the angle of the plane of rotation in this position,
the parametric curves are the curves of intersection of this plane of rotation with
the surface. We call these curves meridians.
Further rx = (g' cos v, g' sin v,/')
r 2 = (~g sin v, g cos v, 0)
and Tj • r 2 = 0 so that the parametric curves are orthogonal. To find the direction of
the normal, we find
r{ x r 2 = K-gf cos v) -j(f'g sin v) + kgg'
and | r 1 x r 2 | = s ( T + *' 2 )
2 2 2

si
Hence N = !12lJl = L Z ^ W " ^'>

Note 1. By specialising the curve to be a circle in the XOZ plane, we get the
representation of a point on the sphere. The parametric representation of a point on
the circle is {a sin w, 0, a cos u) so that g(u) = a sin w, and/(w) = a cos u. Hence the
representation of a point on the sphere is
r = (a sin u cos v, a sin u sin v, a cos u)
Note 2. In the case of the cone, the curve in the XOZ plane is a generator. The
parametric representation of a point on the generator is («, 0, u cot a).
Hence taking g(u) = u and /(w) = u cot a, we obtain the representation of a
point on the cone as,
r = (w cos v, u sin v, u cot a)
Another important surface is anchor ring or torus which is defined as
Definition 2. The anchor ring is a surface generated by rotating a circle of
radius a about a line in its plane at a distance b > a from its centre.
This circle does not meet the axis of rotation, whereas in the case of a sphere,
the curve is a semi-circle meeting the axis of rotation at two points.
 116 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Theorem 2. The position vector of a point on the anchor ring is

r = [{b + a cos u) cos v, (b + a cos u) sin v, a sin u)] where (&, 0,0) is the centre of
the circle and z-xis is the axis of rotation.
Proof. Taking the axis of revolution as the z-axis and the generating circle in
the XOZ plane with centre C(b> 0, 0) on the *-axis, we shall first find the
coordinates of the point A on the circle. Let CA make an angle u with the x-axis.
The ^-coordinate of A is b + a cos u and the z-coordinate of A is a sin u. Hence as
in the Fig. 10, A has coordinates
(b + a cos w, 0, a sin u)

\Z

Fig. 10

Let P(x9 y> z) be the position of the point A after the generating circle has
revolved through an angle v. Since the point A describes a circle about the z-axis,
the distance of P from the z-axis is the radius of this circle given by (b + a cos w).
Since it*has been revolved through an angle v, its x and y coordinates are
(b + a cos u) cos v, (b + a cos u) sin v
For the point A as well as for the point P, its z-coordinate a sin u is always a
constant. Hence the position vector of the point P on the anchor ring is given by
[(b + a cos u) cos v, (b + a cos u) sin v, a sin u]
where 0 < u < In and 0 < v < In.
When u = constant, CA is fixed and revolves about the z-axis. Hence it is a
circle on the anchor ring and these curves are parallels. When v = constant, the
rotating plane is fixed. Hence the parametric curve for 0 < u < 2/ris the intersection
or the cross section of this plane and the anchor ring so that it is a generating circle.
Thus the meridians are circles.
The First Fundamental Form and Local Intrinsic Properties of A Surface 117

Further I*! = (- a sin u cos v, - a sin u sin v, a cos u)

r2 = (- (b + a cos u) sin v, (b + a cos u) cos v, 0)
Since r{ • r2 =0, the parametric curves are orthogonal.
r x r
i 2 = "(* + a c o s w) tfl c o s u c o s v» # c o s u sm v » a s i n wl
Since & > a> the above vector is negative for the range of values of u and v so
that the normal is directed inside the anchorring,since \rx x r2| is always positive.
Note. The coordinates of a point A on the generating circle in XOZ plane is
(b + a cos w, 0, a sin w). Hence taking g(u) = b + a cos w, /(«) = a sin w in
Theorem 1, we can obtain the representation of a point on an anchor ring.

2.8 HELICOIDS
In the above examples, we considered surfaces obtained only by rotation about an
axis in its plane such as spheres, cone and anchorring.But there are surfaces which
are generated not only by rotation alone but by a rotation followed by a translation.
Such a motion is called a screw motion. The simplest case of a screw motion is the
motion of the x-axis through a rotation about the z-axis and translation in the
positive direction of the z-axis. Usually we take the angle v through which the
positives-axis rotated is proportional to the distance X in the upward direction so
A
that — is constant. The surface generated by the screw motion of the *-axis about
v
the z-axis is called a right helicoid. So we shall derive the equation of the right
helicoid before taking up the general case.
(i) Representation of a right helicoid. This is the helicoid generated by a
straight line which meets the axis at right angles. If we take the *-axis as the
generating line, it rotates about the z-axis and moves upwards. Let O'P be the
translated position of the *-axis after rotating through an angle v. Let (*, y, z) be the
coordinates of P. Draw PM perpendicular to the XOY plane and let OM = u. Then
x = u cos v, y = u sin v, and z = PM.
By assumption the distance PM = z translated by the s-axis is proportional to

the angle v of rotation. Taking the constant of proportionality to be a, let — = a.

v
Hence the position vector of any point on therighthelicoid is
r = (u cos v, u sin v, av)
Now Tj = (cos v, sin v, 0), r2 = (-u sin v, u cos v, a)
Since r{ • r2 = 0, the parametric curves are orthogonal. When u = constant c
(say), then the equation of the helicoid becomes r = (c cos v, c sin v, av) which are
circular helices on the surface. The parametric curves v = constant are the
generators at the constant distance from the XOY plane.

a +u

Hence the unit normal N = , (a sin v, - a cos v, u)

118 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Definition. If v = In, then 2na is the distance translated after one complete
rotation. This is called the pitch of the helicoid.
(ii) Representation of the general helicoid. The general helicoid with thez-axis
as the axis is generated by the curve of intersection of the surface with any plane
containing z-axis. Since the section of the surface by such planes are congruent
curves, without of loss of generality, we can take the plane to be XOZ plane and
generate the helicoid. Thus the equation of the generating curve in the XOZ plane
can be taken as* = g(u),y = 0, z =f(u). Let the curve in the XOZ plane rotate about
the z-axis through an angle v and let it have the translation proportional to the
angle v of rotation which we can take it as av. Since any point on the generating
curve traces a circle with centre on the z-axis and radius g(u) and z-coordinate is
translated through av> the pbsition vector of any point r on the general helicoid is
r = (g(u) cos v, g(u) sin v,/(w) + av)
Now r, = (g'(u) cos v, g\u) sin v,/'(«))
r 2 = (- g(u) sin v, g(u) cos v, a)
Further rY • r 2 =f'(u) a.
Hence when the parametric curves are orthogonal, then either f'(u) = 0 or
a = 0. lff(u) = 0,/(w) is constant so that the surface is a right helicoid. If a = 0, we
do not have screw motion and we have only rotation about z-axis so that the
helicoid is a surface of revolution.
When v = constant, the parametric curves are the various positions of the
generating curve on the plane of rotation. When u = constant/it follows from the
equation of the helicoid, the parametric curves are helices on the surfce.

2.9 METRIC ON A SURFACE—THE FIRST

FUNDAMENTAL FORM
Analogous to the arcual length ds2 in the case of a space curve, we shall introduce
a metric on a surface called the first fundamental form.
Let r = r(w, v) be the given surface. Let the parameters M, V be functions of a
single parameter t. Then r = v[u{t\ v(f)] is a function of a single variable t and
hence it represents a curve on the surface with t as parameter. The arc length in
terms of the parameter t is given by
2
« =*.*=r*Y ...(1)
\dt) dt dt \dt)
_ dr dr du dr dv
But — =- +- ...(2)
dt du dt dv dt
Using (2) in (1), we get
\2

{dtj {l dt 2
dt)
The First Fundamental Form and Local Intrinsic Properties of A Surface 119

(du\2 „ du dv fdv\2
= iyr,

Let E = iy r, = if, F = iy r 2 and G = r2- r 2 = r2 ...(4)

Using the above notation, (3) can be rewritten in terms of the differentials as
ds2 = Edu2 + IF du dv + G dv2 ...(5)
Definition 1. The differential quadratic form (5) is called the first
fundamental form or metric on the surface. It is usually denoted by /.
Note 1. The expression for ds1 in (5) is independent of t and so it can be
considered as the infinitesimal distance between two points with parameters (w, v)
and (u + du,v + dv) on the surface.
Let P and Q be two neighbouring points on the surface with position vectors r
and r + dr corresponding to the parameters M, V and u + du, v + dv.

Now dr = — du + —-dv = rxdu + r2dv ...(1)

du ov
Since P and Q are two neighbouring points, the length ds of the element of the arc
joining them is equal to \dr\. Using (1), we get
ds2 = drdr -dr2 = {rxdu + r2dv)2
= r2du2 + 2rl'T2 du dv + r 2 dv 2
= Edu2 + IF dudv + G dv2
Thus if ds denotes the length of the elementary arc joining (w, v) and
(u + du,v + dv) lying on the surface, then
ds2 =Edu2 + IF dudv + G dv2 .. .(2)

From (2), we get — = E\ — + IF +G — .

5
{dtj \dt) dt dt \dt)
V \J<b\ ^^dudv ^fdvY J
Hence s=\ JE\— +2F + G — dt
Jto\ \dt) dt dt \dt)
Note 2. ds is no longer a perfect differential in the sense that there exists no
function 0(M, V) such that ds = d(j>.
Note 3. Since the square root of the first fundamental form gives the length
\dr\y it is called the metric of the surface. Though the metric is usually employed
for calculation of the arc length of a curve on the surface, the coefficients E, F and
G are used to study many important properties of the surfaces. They are functions
of parameters w, v and called first fundamental coefficients.
Note 4. On the parametric curve v = constant, we have dv = 0 and the metric
reduces to ds2 = E du2. In a similar manner, on the parametric curve u = constant,
ds2 = Gdv2.
120 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Theorem 1. The first fundamental form of a surface is a positive definite

quadratic form in du, dv.
Proof. A quadratic form Q = an x2 + 2 a[2x{ x2 + d22x2 f° r r e a l values of JC,,
x2 is called positive definite if Q > 0 for every (*,, x2) * (0, 0). The conditions for
Q to be positive definite are
aX2 = a2l,an >0and an a22-al2 >0 ...(1)
We shall verify that
I = Edu2 + 2Fdudv + G dv2 ...(2)
satisfies the above conditions for a positive definite quadratic form.
Since we are concerned only with an ordinary point, r, x r 2 ^ 0 and
// 2 = | n x r 2 | 2 > 0
Now H2 = |rj x r 2 | 2 = (i^ x r2) • (r, x r2)
= r 1 2 r 2 2 -(r 1 .r 2 ) 2 = E G - F 2 .
Since H2 > 0 always, EG-F2>0 and
Also we have from the definition E = r r r{ = r 2 > 0 and G = r2- r 2 > 0
Hence (2) satisfies the conditions (1) for a positive definite quadratic form.
So we have
E du2 + 2Fdudv + G dv2 > 0
for all values of (w, v) * (0, 0)
Note. We can also directly verify / > 0 as follows. We shall rewrite / as
follows

E du2 + 2Fdudv + G dv2 = —[(Edu+F dv)2 + (EG - F2)dv2] ...(1)

E
Since EG - F2 > 0 and E > 0, we have / > 0.
To prove that / is positive, we have to show that / * 0 for all (w, v) * (0, 0).
If possible, let 7 = 0. Then (1) implies
(Edu + F dv)2 = 0 and (EG - F2) dv2 = 0 ...(2)
2
Since EG-F > 0, we get from (2), dv = 0
The above condition (2) reduces to E du + F dv = 0 and dv = 0.
which implies Edu = 0. Since E*0,du = 0. Thus we have du = 0 and dv = 0 which
cannot be, since u and v are not constants. Thus we get / * 0 so that / > 0.
Theorem 2. The metric is invariant under a parametric transformation.
Proof. Let the parametric transformation be
u' = Q(u, v) and V = y/ («, v)
In the parametric system u\ v\ let the equation of the surface be r = r(u\ v')
, dr dr du dr dv du dv
Hence r{ = — - — — + — — = rx — + r2 —• ...(1)
du du du dv du du du
Tlie First Fundamental Form and Local Intrinsic Properties of A Surface 121

du dv_
Similarly r2 = r, • + r, -.(2)
dv'

du
Further du = . du'^dv' ...(3)
du' dv'
dv , dv ,
and dv = z—;du + ^—dv ...(4)
du dv
If E', F ' and G' are the first fundamental coefficients in the new parametric
system, then we have
E'du'2 + 2F'du'dv' + G'2dv'2
= r,/2du'2 + 2r,'• r2'du'dv' + r2'2 dv'2
= [r{ du' + r{ dv']2
Using (1) and (2) in the above step, we obtain
12
du dv du dv
- + Yj \du + r, + r2 —- \dv'
du' l du' dv' dv'

du , du , dv , , dv , ,
du + dv + r, ^—du'
du'
+ ^—dv'
dv'
du' dv'
Using (3) and (4) in the above step, we obtain
E' du'2 + 2F' du'dv' + G'dv'2 = (r 1 du + r2 dv)2
= r,2 du2 + 2r{'r2dudv + r22 dv2
= Edu2 + IF dudv + G dv2
Note. Though the metric as a whole is invariant under parametric
transformation, F, F and G are not individually invariant. That is, the coefficient
F', F ' and G' considered as a function of u\ V does not give the function F, F, and
G when the variables u, v' are replaced by <p(u, v) and i//(w, v) respectively.
However we have the following relation

9(w, v)
E'G'-F'2 = (EG-F2)
_3(w',v')

Using (1) and (2) of the theorem, we have

d(u,v)
r x r>' = (r, x r 2 )

Hence (r,' x r 2 ) • (r,' x r 2 ) = (r,xr2)-(r,xr2)

122 Differential Geometry—A First Course

so that Ir/xr,'|2 = r{ x r 2 | 2 which proves that

E'G-F'1 = (EG-F1)
_9(M',V')_

Hence r{ x r 2 * 0 continues to hold good in the new system provided

3(«',v')
Theorem 3. If G) is the angle between the parametric curves at the point of
intersection, then
H
tan co = —
F
Proof. Let P be the point of intersection of the parametric curves with
m 9r 9r , ,
position vector r. Then we have r{ = — , r 2 = — are along the tangents to the
ou ov
parametric curves v = constant and u = constant. If co is the angle between the
parametric curves, then we have
*V r 2 = | r j |r 2 | cos CL>
and rx x r2 = | r j |r 2 | sin coN.
Since rx• r 2 = F, |rj x r 2 | = //, r\. = Ey and r22 = Gx
F H
we have
cos co = 4EG
- T ^ = F and sin co =JEG

sinew /f
Hence we have tan co =
coso) F
We conclude this section by deriving a formula for element of area of the
surface r = r(w, v).
Theorem 4. If dS represents the element of area PQRS on the surface
dS = H du dv.
Proof. Let the parametric coordinates of P, g, R and S be («, v), (w + 5w, v),
(u + 5M, v + 5v), (M, v + Sv) respectively. When 5M, 5V are small, the small portion
PQRS is a parallelogram.
NowPQ = OQ-OP = r(w + 5M, V)-r(w, v)
Using approximate Taylor expansion, we have
9r
PQ = T(M, v) + — • 5M - r(M, v) = r{ Su.
ou
In a similar manner PS = r2 5v. Using JM, dv instead Su and 5v,
The First Fundamental Form and Local Intrinsic Properties of A Surface 123

We have the vector area of the parallelogram is r{ du x r2dv.

so that dS=\rlduxr2dv\ = \rl x r 2 | du dv = H du dv.
This proves that H du dv gives the elementary area dS on a surface.
Example 1. Find E, F, G and H for the paraboloid x = u, y = v, z = u2 - v2.
Any point on the paraboloid has position vector r = («, v, u2 - v2).
Hence r{ =(1,0, 2w), and r 2 = (0, 1, -2v).
E =r 1 -r 1 = 1 + 4w2, F = i y r 2 = -4wv, G = r 2 r 2 = 1 +4v 2 .
Further I*! x r2 = (-2w, + 2v, 1).

Hence H = | r{ x r21 = ^ w 2 + 4v2 + 1 , which is also equal to J EG - F2 .

Example 2. Calculate the first fundmental coefficients and the area of the anchor
ring corresponding to the domain 0 < u < In and 0 < v < In
The position vector of any point on the anchor ring is
r = {{b + a cos u) cos v, (b + a cos u) sin v, a sin u]
Hence r{ = {-a sin u cos v, - a sin u sin v, <s cos u]
r 2 = {-(& + a cos w) sin v,{b + a cos w) cos v, 0}
Now E = r 2 = r{ • r } = a2 sin2 w (cos2 v + sin2 v) + a 2 cos 2 v = a2 ...(1)
As we have already noted F = r{ • r 2 = 0 ...(2)
G= r22 2 2 2
= r2- r 2 = (Z? + a cos w) sin v + (b + a cos u) cos v2
...(3)
2
Hence we have G = (b + a cos «)
(1), (2) and (3) give the first fundamental coefficients.
To find the area, let us find H.
H2-EG-F2 = a\b + a cos uf so that H = a(b + a cos u) ...(4)
By Theorem 4, the elementary area of the surface is H du dv. Using (4), the
entire surface area is given by
*2K fi2n pin tin

J Hdudv=\ a(b +a cos u)dudv

o Jo Jo Jo
f27r ?
= 2na (b + a cos u)du = 4nab
Jo
2.10 DIRECTION COEFFICIENTS ON A SURFACE
In the case of curves in space, we are able to obtain a moving triad of mutually
perpendicular unit vectors (t, n, b) with the help of which we are able to express
any vector at a point on the curve linearly in terms of (t, n, b). Though we cannot
have an exact analogue of (t, n, b) at a point on the surface, we are trying to have
something similar to this triad at any point on the surface. This leads to the notion
of tangential and normal components of a vector at a point P on the surface.
124 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Let r = r(w, v) be the equation of a surface and let P be any point on the
surface. Then we know that the vectors r{ and r2 are tangents to the parametric
curves v = constant and u = constant passing through P. Let N be the surface
normal at P. Since r{ x r 2 * 0, neither rx nor r 2 can be a scalar multiple of the other
so that rx and r2 are linearly independent. Further N cannot be a scalar multiple of
either r{ or r2. For if N = ar{i then N • N = arx -N = 0 which is absurd, since it gives
1 = 0 . Thus at any point P on the surface, there are three linearly independent
vectors N, r lf r2.
Hence every vector a through P can be expressed uniquely as a linear
combination of three vectors N, r{ and r2. Thus there exist unique scalars ani A, and
fi such that a - anN + Xrx + jjr2 ...(1)
Thus (1) expresses any vector through P as the sum of two vectors anN normal
to the surface and Xvx + /zr2 lying in the tangent plane to the surface at P.
On taking dot product with N on both sides of (1),
we obtaina N = an N-N = an as N• rx = N-r 2 = 0. The scalaran is called the normal
component of a. From this it is easily seen that the vector lies in the tangent plane
of a if and only if the normal component an is zero.
The vector Xr{ + /ir2 lying in the tangent plane at P of the surface is called the
tangential part of a and A, ji are called the tangential components of a. These
components A, ji depend only on the tangential part of a and A, /n are zero if and
only if the vector a is normal to the surface.
Definition 1. The direction of any tangent line to the surface at the point P is
called a direction on the surface at the point P.
From the very definition of a direction on the surface, we see that there are
infinitely many directions at each point of the surface.
In the remaining part of this chapter, we shall make a study of the tangential
vectors to the surface. These are the vectors whose normal components are zero.
As noted in the previous paragraph, such a vector a is of the form a = Xrx + jnr2.
The components of the tangential vector a at P are (A, /J) so that we write a as
a = (A, /J)- (A, fi) is a direction on the surface at P means that Arj + fir2 will
represent a vector at P along a tangent to the surface at P. In all our discussion,
components will mean tangential components and the vector (A, ji) stands for the
tangential vector with components (A, ji). From the definition, we note the
following property.
If a = (A, jS) is tangential vector at P on a surface, then its magnitude
|a| = (JB:A2 + 2FAiu + Giu2)1/2.
From the definition, we have a = Xrx + \ir2.
Hence \a\2 = a-a = (Xrx + /ir2) • (Ar, + jur2)
= A 2 r 2 + 2r! • r2 Xfi + r22//2.
Since E = r 2 , F = rx • r 2 and G - r 2 , we get
The First Fundamental Form and Local Intrinsic Properties of A Surface 125

\a\2 = {EX2 + 2 FX\i + Gfi2) which gives

\a\ = ^EX2 +2FXn + Gii2 ...(1)

Note. The above formula expresses the magnitude of the tangential vector in
terms of the components and the first fundamental coefficients.
Definition 2. Let b be the unit vector along the tangential vector a at P. Let
the components of b be (/, m) so that b = lr{ + mr2. The components (/, m) of the
unit vector b at P along the direction a are called the direction coefficients of a.
These direction coefficients are written as (/, m). From the definition of (/, m)
(- /, - m) gives the direction opposite to (/, m).
Since b =lrl + rar2and|Z>| = 1, we have from the property following Definition 1,
El2 + 2Flm + Gm2=l ...(2)
Hence the direction coefficients satisfy the above identity.
Note 1. The direction coefficients (/, m) are analogous to the direction
cosines (/, ra, n) satisfying the identity I2 + m2 + n2 = 1 in the Cartesian geometry of
three dimensions.
Note 2. In the case of the plane with rectangular cartesian coordinates, a
direction is determined by the angle i/made by the line with the positive direction
of the *-axis. The direction coefficients are cos y/> sin y/. The metric becomes
dx2 + dy2 and the above identity (2) becomes cos2 y/+ sin2 y/= 1.
We use the following convention in measuring the angle between two
tangential directions at the same point. The sense of rotation of the angles in the
tangent plane is from the direction r{ to that of r 2 through angle between 0 and n
which means the smaller of the angle between r{ and r2. This is also the positive
sense of rotation about N.
Theorem 1. If (/, m) and (/', m') are the direction coefficients of two
directions at a point P on the surface and 6 is the angle between the two direction at
P, then
(i) cos 6 = Ell' + Film' + I'm) + Gmm
(ii) sin 0=H(lm'-I'm)
Proof. If (/, m) and (/', m') are the direction coefficients of the two directions
at the same point P on the surface r = r(«, v), then the corresponding unit vectors
along these directions at P are
fl=/rj + mr2, a' = l'r{+ m'r2 ...(1)
Let 0 be the angle between the two directions. Measuring 6 from the direction
rx to r2 through the smaller angle, we have
a a' = cos 0,a xa' = sinON ...(2)
Now a a' = (lr{ + mr2) • (l'rl + m'r2)
= ll'r2 + (lm' + I'm) r, • r2 + mm' r2
= Ell' + F(lm' + I'm) + Gmm' ...(3)
126 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Using (2) in (3), we get

cos 6 = Ell' + Film' + I'm) + Gmm'
Further a xa' = (lrx + mr2) x {l'vx + m'r2)
Since rx x rx = r 2 x r 2 = 0, we have
ax a' = (/m'- mf) (i*! x r2)
Using rj x r 2 = N#, the above equation becomes
ax a' =(lm'-ml')NH ...(4)
Using (2) in (4), we obtain

sin 0 = ilm' - ml')H where H = yjEG - F2

When the two directions are orthogonial, then cos 9= 0 which gives in terms of
direction coefficients,
Ell' + F{lm' + ml') + Gmm' = 0
Note. From the theorem, we easily get

tan 9 = Hjlm'-I'm)
Ell' + Film' + ml') + Gmm'
Next we shall introduce the direction ratio of a direction on the surface.
Definition 3. If (/, m) are the direction coefficients of a direction at a point P
on the surface, the scalars (A, ji) which are proportional to (/, m) are called the
direction ratios of that direction.
Note. We can take the components of a tangential vector to be the direction
ratios. From the definition of direction ratios, we have the following properties.
(i) Given the direction ratios (A, ji) let us find the direction coefficients from
them. Since (/, m) are proportional to (A, ji), let

— = — = k (say) so that l-Xk,m = jdk ...(1)

X ix
We know that the direction coefficients satisfy the identity
El2 + 2Flm + Gm2=l ...(2)
Using (1) in (2) and solving for k, we get

k= . = so that
JEX2 + 2FXjU + Gil2

ft*. <i«—. ...<3)

JEX2 + IFXji + Gil2
(ii) The direction coefficients of the parametric directions v = constant and
u = constant are

, 0 and 0, —j= respectively.

4E* ) rjG
The First Fundamental Form and Local Intrinsic Properties of A Surface 127

The vector i^ at P is tangential to the parametric curve v = constant passing

through P. Writing r{ = lrj + 0r2, we find the components of the tangential vector
as (1, 0) giving its direction ratios as X = 1, ji = 0 by the preceding note. Using
these values of A, [i in (3), we obtain the direction coefficients

M=
;/¥ ( 1 ' 0 ) = Br 0
In a similar manner, treating r2 = Oi^ + lr 2 , the components of the tangential
vector to u = constant are (0, 1). Using direction ratios in (3) of (i), the direction
coefficients of the tangential direction r2 are,

(Z,m) =-jL(0,l) = 0,4,

(iii) Let us find the angle between the two tangential direction at a point on the
surface in terms of direction ratios.
Let (A, jJ) and (X\ //) be the direction ratios of two directions on the surface. If
(/, rri) and (/', rri) are the corresponding direction coefficients of the directions,
then by (i), we have

(/, m) = (**0 (r , w 0 = (A'.*')

2 2
V^A + 2FA^ + GJI V^ + 2F^ /*' + G^ /2

Using these (/, rri) and (f, rri) in Theorem 1, we obtain

EXV + F{Xii' + X'n) + Gw'
cos 0 =
4 EX + 2FX/U + Gji2 J EX'2 + 2FX'fi' + G/i' 2
2

H(Aju/ - MO
sin 0 =
^EX2 + 2FA/i + G/i2 J EX'2 + 2FX'\i' + Gm'2
7T
When 0 = —, cos 0 = 0 so that the two directions at P cut orthogonally if and
only if the direction ratios of the directions satisfy
EXX' + F(XJH' + X'jX) + Gwt = 0
(iv) If (/, rri) are the drection coefficients of any direction at a point P on the
surface, let us find the angle between this direction and parametric directions.
Now the direction coefficients of the parametric direction corresponding to

the curve v = constant are -j=9 0 . If 6X is the angle between (/, rri) and this

direction, taking /' = —= and rri = 0 in Theorem 1, we have

128 Differential Geometry—A First Course

cos 6X =-j= (El +

-7= (El Fm\ sin
+ Fm), sin 00{ =1 = ^ B

In a similar manner, if 62 is the angle between (/, m) and the parametric

direction 0, —j= corresponding to u = constant, we have

cos 62 = -7= (Fl + Gm), sin 0 = - J J

Theorem 2. If (/', m') are the direction coefficients of a line which makes an
n
angle — with the line whose direction coefficients are (/, m), then

/' = - — (Fl + Gm)tm'= — (El + Fm)

H H
Proof. If (/, m) and (/', m') are two directions at a point on the surface, then
by Theorem 1, we have
cos 6 = Ell' + Film' + I'm) + Gmm' ...(1)
sin 6 = H(lm'- I'm) ...(2)
71
When 6= —, we have from (1)
2
Ell' + F(/m' + I'm) + Gmm7 = 0
That is I'{El + Fm) + m'(Fl + Gm) = 0
The above equation is satisfied for
/' = -a(Fl + Gm\ m' = a(El + Fm) ...(3)
for some scalar a
We shall find a with the help of (2).

When 0= - , we have from (2), H(lm' - I'm) = 1 ...(4)

Using (3) in (4), we obtain

Hl[a(El + Fm)] + Hm[a(Fl + Gm)} = 1

which gives — = H[El2 + 2 Fml + Gm2]

a
Since (/, m) are direction coefficients, we have

El2 + 2Fml + Gm2 = 1 so that a = —

H
Using this value of a in (3), we obtain
The First Fundamental Form and Local Intrinsic Properties of A Surface 129

V = -— (Fl + Gm\ m'= — (El + Fm)

H H
(v) If (/, m) are the direction coefficients of the tangential direction to the curve

u - w(0» v = v(t) at a point on the surface r = r (w, v), then / = — , m = — .

ds ds
The unit tangent vector at any point P on the curve is

A dr 3r du 9r dv du dv
t= — = + =i*j — + r 2 — .
ds ou ds ov ds ds ds
dr
Since — represents the unit tangent vector at P along the tangential direction
ds

to the curve, its components —,— give the direction coefficients of the

tangent at P on the surface. Hence / = — , m = — .

ds ds

As (du. dv) are proportional to fe * \ (du, dv) give the direction ratios of
V ds dsj
the tangential direction to the curve at P.
Note. Using (iii), the angle between the tangential directions (du, dv) and
(<5w, Sv) is given by
. _ H(duSv- dv 8u)
sin 6 = , .

yjEdu2 +2Fdudv + Gdv2 ^ESu2 +2FSu8v + G8v2

cos 0 = EduSu + F(du8v + Sudv) + GdvSv

^Edu2 + IFdudv + Grfv2 V ^ w 2 + 2FSu8v + G8v2

(vi) If the equation of the curve on the surface r = r (w, v) is given in the implicit
form 0 (u, v) = 0, then (- 02» 0i) are the direction ratios of the tangent at any point
on the curve.
Differentiating the equation of the curve <f>(u, v) = 0, we obtain
90 i 90 , du 09
-^- du + - ^ dv = 0 so that — = - —
aw av dv 0!
Hence (dw, dv) are proportional to (- 02, 0i). Using (v), we see that (- 02, 0!)
are the direction ratios of the tangent to the curve.
Example 1. Find the parametric directions and the angle between the parametric
curves.
For the parametric curve v = constant, the parametric direction has the
direction ratio (du, 0) by (v),
130 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Using (i), its direction coefficients (/, m) = , = '

jEdu2 v^
In a similar manner, the direction ratios of the curve v = constant are (0, dv) so

that its direction coefficients are (/', rri) = • , ' = 1—

Let 6 be the angle between the parametric curves. Then by Theorem 1,

cos 6 = , and sin 6 = •

/£G VEG

When 0 = —, cos 0 = 0 so that the condition of orthogonality of parametric

curves is F = 0.
It should be noted that we have obtained the angle between the parametric
curves in Theorem 3 of 2.9 by considering rx • r{ and \rx x r2|.
Example 2. For the cone with vertex at the origin and semi-vertical angle a,
show that the tangent plane is the same at all points on the generating line.
The position vector of any point on the cone with semi-vertical angle a and the
axis of the cone as z-axis is
r = (u cos v, u sin v, u cot a)
Now let us find the fundamental coefficients.
r{ = (cos v, sin v, cot a), r 2 = (- u sin v, u cos v, 0)
E = rx • I-J = 1 + cot2** = cosec2a, F = 0
G = r2- r 2 = «2(sin2 v + cos2 v) = u2.
H2 = ^ G -F2 = u2 cosec2a so that // = u cosec a
Now r{ x r 2 = (- u cos v cota, - u sin v cot a, u)

Hence N=~ = (- cos v cos a, - sin v cos a, sin a)

H
Thus the surface normal N is independent of u. This implies that the tangent
plane is the same at all points along a generating line.
Example 3. For a right helicoid given by (u cosv, u sinv, av), determine
(rj, r2, N) at a point on the surface and the direction of the parametric curves. Find
n
the direction making angle — at a point on the surface with the parametric curve
v = constant.
Now any point on the right helicoid is r = (u cos v, u sin v, av)
Hence r{ = (cos v, sin v, 0), r 2 = (- u sin v, u cos v, a)
E = rl-rl = ltF = 0iG = r2-r2 = u2 + a2.
The First Fundamental Form and Local Intrinsic Properties of A Surface 131

H2 = EG - F2 = u2 + a2 so that H = yju2 + a 2
Again iyx r 2 = (a sin v, -. a cos v, w)
f
F X
XT M l ^
Now N = —// sin v, — , 2 cos v, • 1
Vw2 + a2 ju + a2 J- ,
A. a
yju +

Let the components of N be (Nx, N2, N3).

Using (ii), the direction coefficients of the parametric curves are

^.oj-aw-d o.-^L
{ ' yju2 + a2 j

If yis the angle made by N with the z-axis, then cos y= N3 =

yTa2
If (/', m') is the direction coefficient orthogonal to the parametric direction

v = constant, then by Theoem 2 we have V = (Fl + Gm), rri = — (El + Fm).

H H
Substituting for /, m, E, F, G and H in the above step, we have /' = 0 and

m' = , which is the direction of the parametric system u = constant. This

yju2 + a2
is what we expect, since the parametric curves are orthogonal.

2.11 FAMILIES OF C U R V E S
So far, we were concerned with a single curve lying on a surface and associated
tangential direction. Now we shall introduce families of curves on a surface and
study some basic properties of such families.
Definition 1. Let 0(«, v) be a single valued function of w, v possessing
continuous partial derivatives </)v 02 which do not vanish together. Then the
implicit equation 0(«, v) = c where c is a real parameter gives a family of curves on
the surface r = r(w, v).
For different values of c, we get different curves of the family lying on the
surfaces. From the very definition, we note the following properties.
(i) Through every point (w, v) of the surface, there passes one and only one
member of the family.
Let 0(K O , V0) = cx where (w0, v0) is any point on the surface. Then
(j> (w, v) = cx is a member of the family passing through («0, v0). Hence
through every point (w0, v0) on the surface, there passes one and only one
member of the family,
(ii) As noted in (vi) of 2.10, the direction ratios of the tangent to the curve of
the family at («, v) is (- 02» 0i)-
132 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Theorem 1. The curves of the family 0(w, v) = constant are the solutions of
the differential equation
<l>xdu + <p2dv = 0 ...(1)
and conversely a first order differential equation of the form
P(w, v)du + Q(uy v)dv = 0 ...(2)
where P and Q are differentiable functions which do not vanish simultaneously
defines a family of curves.
d<p 30
Proof. Since <px = — and 02 = — , we get from (1),
ou ov

dd dd
-^-du + -^-dv = 0 giving dip = 0
ou oy
Hence we conclude that 0(w, v) = c. Thus as the constant c varies, the curves of
the family are the differnt solutions of the differential equation.
Conversely let us consider the equation (2). Unless the equation is exact, it is
not in general possible to find a single function 0(w, v) such that <px = P and 02 = Q-
However we can find integrating factor A(w, v) such that XP = <px and XQ = 02.
Rewriting the equation (2) in the form. XPdu + XQdv = 0, we get <px du + <j>2dv = 0,
so that the solution of the equation is 0(w, v) = c.

Further from (2), — = so that the direction ratios of the tangent to the
dv P
curves of the family at the point P is (- Q, P).
The next theorem gives the geometrical significance of the tangent vector
(-fo 0i)«
dj>
Theorem 2. For a variable direction at P, is maximum in a direction
\ds\
orthogonal to the curve 0(w, v) = constant through P and the angle between
u
(-0 2 , 0j) and the orthogonal direction in which 0 is increasing is —.

Proof. Let P(w, v) be any point on the surface. We shall show that 0
increases most rapidly at P in a direction orthogonal to the curve of the family
dd
passing through P. For this, we prove that — has the greatest value in such a
ds
direction.
Let (/, m) be any direction through P on the surface. Let ju be the magnitude of
the vector 0 = (- 02, </>x). Let 0 be the angle between (/, m) and the vector 0.
Let us take a =lrx+ mr2, b = - 02rj + 0jr 2
The First Fundamental Form and Local Intrinsic Properties of A Surface 133

We shall find a x b expressing sin 6 in terms of H and // where \x = \b\.

From the definition \a\ = 1.
Wehave |axft|=^sin0 ...(1)
and axb = (/0j + m02) (^ x r 2 ) so that
\axb\ = //(/0,+/?i0 2 ) ...(2)
Equating (1) and (2), we obtain
\i sin 0 = H(l<p{ + m<p2) ...(3)
Since (/, m) are the direction coefficients of any direction through P, we have

I = —,m = — ....(4)
ds ds
d<b
Using (4) in (3) and simplifying, we get ;U sin 0 = / / —
ds
Now fi and H are always positive and do not depend on (/, m).
d(t> u
Hence — has maximum value — when sin 6 has maximum value in which
ds H
case 0 = —. Iii a similar manner, — has minimum value - —, when 0 = .
2 A H 2
Since // > 0, and ^ > 0, the orthogonal direction for which — > 0 is such
ds
that 6= —.Hence has maximum in a direction orthogonal to
2 ds
0(w, v) = constant.

2.12 ORTHOGONAL TRAJECTORIES

Among the families of curves on a surface, we are interested in those families
which cut each other orthogonally. This leads to the definition of orthogonal
trajectories.
Definition. Let 0(M, V) = c be the equation of the given family of curves on
the surface r = r (w, v). If there exists a second family of curves y/(u9 v)=k lying on
the surface such that at every point of the surface two curves one from each family
are orthogonal, then the curves of the second family are called the orthogonal
trajectories of the first family.
Note. The above definition of trajectories is a generalisation of orthogonal
parametric curves. Each family of orthogonal parametric curves can be considered
as an orthogonal trajectory of the other.
The following theorem gives the existence and parametrisation of orthogonal
trajectories of the given family.
Theorem 1. Every family of curves on a surface possesses a family of
orthogonal trajectories.
134 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Proof* Let r = r (w, v) be the equation of the surface. Let the given family of
curves be defined by
Pdu + Qdv = 0 ...(1)

Since — = - —, the tangent at any point of the curve has the direction ratios
dv P
(-Q, P). Let (du, dv) be the direction ratios of the tangent at (u, v) of a member of
the orthogonal trajectories of the given family.
We know that the two directions (A, ji) and (A', ji') are orthogonal, then
E XX + F(X\x' + juA') + Gw' = 0
Applying this condition of orthogonality to the two directions (- Q, P) and
(du, dv), we obtain
E(- Q)du + F ( - Qdv + Pdu) + GPdv = 0
which simplifies to (FP - EQ)du + (GP - FQ) dv = 0 ...(2)
which is the differential equation of the orthogonal trajectories of the given family
of curves.
Since EG - F 2 * 0 and P and Q do not vanish simultaneously, the coefficients
of du and dv are continuous and do not vanish together. Hence the differential
equation of the orthogonal family exists and it is the solution of (2).
Theorem 2. The parameters on a surface can always be chosen so that the
curves of the given family and the orthogonal trajectories become parametric
curves.
Proof. Let the given family </>(u, v) = c of curves be given by the differential
equation
Pdu + Qdv = 0 ...(1)
Then by Theorem 1 of 2.11, there exists an integrating factor A = A(w, v) * 0
such that P = A0J and Q = A02.
By Theorem 1, the orthogonal family y/(u, v) = k of the given family is the
solution of
(FP - EQ)du + (GP - FQ)dv = 0
Hence there exists an integrating factor JJL (w, v) * 0 such that F P - EQ = jUy^

and GP-FQ = IA\J/2 where y/{ = ^ - a n d v^= ~r~

ou dv
d0 80 Q
Hence
9(0, V) du dv X X
3(w,v) dyr dy/ 1 1
-(FP-EQ) -(GP-FQ)
du dv

= — [P(GP - FQ) - Q(FP - EQ)}

An
The First Fundamental Form and Local Intrinsic Properties of A Surface 135

= 4~ [EQ2 - 2FPQ + GP2] ...(3)

X\x
In (3), E,G>0 andEG -F2 > 0 so that (3) i&a positive definite quadratic form
and P and Q do not vanish simultaneously. Hence we have
EQ2-2FPQ + GP2*0

This shows that ^ 0. Thus the proper parametric transformation

d(w,v)
u' = 0(w, v) and V = y/(u9 v) transforms the given family of curves 0(w, v) = c and
the orthogonal family y/(u> v)-k into two family of parametric curves u' = constant
and v' = constant. Hence the parameters can always be chosen so that the curves of
the given family and their orthogonal trajectories become parametric curves.
Example 1. On the paraboloid x2-y2 = z, find the orthogonal trajectories of the
section by the planes z = constant.
The parametric representation of the surface can be taken as
x = w, y = v, z = u2 - v2.
Hence the position vector of a point on the surface is r(w, v) = (w, v, u2 - v2).
Since we are concerned with the section by z = constant, the first family of
curves is
0(w, v) = u2 - v2 = constant ...(1)
The tangential direction at any point on the surface (1) is (- 02» 0i) = (2v, 2w) or
we can take it as (v, u). If (du, dv) is the direction ratios of the orthogonal direction
at (M, V), we get from the condition of orthogonality
Evdu + F(udu + vdv) + Gudv = 0. ...(2)
Let us find E, F and G for the paraboloid.
r 1 = ( l , 0 , 2 w ) , r 2 = (0, l , - 2 v )
Hence E = r{ • r, = 1 + 4M2, F = iy r 2 = - 4wv
and G = iyr2=l+4v2 ...(3)
Using (3) in (2), we obtain
(1 + 4u2)vdu - 4uv(vdv + udu) + (1 + 4v2)udv = 0
which simplifies vdu + udv = 0 or d(uv) = 0 ...(4)
Integrating (4) we get uv = constant which gives the family of orthogonal
trajectories.
Example 2. Find the orthogonal trajectories of the circle r = a cos 0 ...(1)
Since the given family of curves With (r, 6) as parameters lies on the plane
surface, the metric of the plane in polar coordinates is ds2 = dv2 + r2dd2 so that
E = l , F = 0andG = r 2 ...(2)
136 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Let us derive the differential equation of the given family. From (1), we have

— =-asin0 ...(3)
dO
Eliminating a between (1) and (3), we have

— = - r tan 0 o r - d r + tan 9dd=0

dO r

so that we have P = - , Q = tan 0 ...(4)

r
By Theorem 1, the differential equation of the orthogonal trajectory is
(FP - EQ) du + (GP - FQ)dv = 0 ...(5)
Using (2) and (4) in (5), we get
,1 „ A dx dd
-ter\0dr + r2-d0=0 or — = ...(6)
r r tan 0
Integrating (6) and simplifying we have r = c sin 0 ...(7)
where c is a constant to be found out.
From (1), when 0 = 0, r = a. Using this initial condition, we have from (7),
c = a. Hence the system of orthogonal trajectories of the given system is r = a sin 0.

2.13 DOUBLE FAMILY OF CURVES

Earlier we have characterised a family of curves by a differential equation of the
form Pdu + Qdv = 0. So it is natural to expect a quadratic equation in {du, dv) will
give a double family of curves. In this connection, we have the following
definition.
Definition. If P, Q and R are continuous functions of u and v which do not
vanish together and if Q2-PR> 0, then the quadratic differential equation
P du2 + 2Q du dv + Rdv2 = 0 ...(1)
represents two families of curves on the given surface.
Since (du, dv) give the direction ratios of the tangential directions at a point on
the surface, we obtain the two directions of the double family at a point on the
surface by solving the quadratic

Hence the question naturally arises under what conditions the two directions
become orthogonal directions. The answer is contained in the following theorem.
Theorem 1. The two directions given by
The First Fundamental Form and Local Intrinsic Properties of A Surface 137

Pdu2 + 2Q du dv + Rdv2 = 0 ...(1)

are orthogonal on a surface, if and only if ER - 2QF + GP = 0
Proof. If (/, m) and (/', m') are the direction coefficients of the two families of
/ /'
curves (1) at a point P on the surface, then — and — are the roots of the quadratic
m m

Hence — + - — = - -5£, =- ...(3)

mm P mm P
By Theorem 1 of 2.10, (/, m) and (/', m') are orthogonal if and only if

£ J L + F ( ± + I1] + G = 0 ...(4)
mm \m m )
Using (3) in (4), we obtainER-2FQ + GP = 0 ...(5)
Corollary. The parametric curves are orthogonal if and only if F = 0.
The differential equation of the parametric curves is du dv = 0. ...(6)
Hence (6) is a double family (1) with P = 0, Q * 0, R = 0. Using these the
condition of orthogonality becomes QF = 0. Since Q * 0, F = 0 which proves the
corollary.
Theorem 2. If 6 is the angle between the two curves given by the double
family
Pdu2 + 2Qdudv + Rdv2 ...(1)
at a point (M, V) on the surfaces, then

f 2H(Q2-PR)y2
tan0a =
ER-2FQ + GP
Proof. If (/, m) and (/', m') are the direction coefficients of the tangential
directions at a point of the double family (1), they are the roots of the quadratic

m 2 ,
+ 2Q^-+R
dv
=0 ...(2)

so that — + — =—=•, - =— ...(3)

mm P mm P
If 6 is the angle between the two directions, then from Theorem 1 of 2.10, we
know that
H(bn'-l'm)
tan 6 = r r -(4)
Ell' + F(lm' + ml') + Gmm'
138 Differential Geometry—A First Course

(4) can be rewritten as

-|l/2
( ] /' V //'
H\ I + ilY-4^-
m my mm
tan 0 = ••(5)
£Jil+Fl+il,+G
mm
Using (3) in (5) and simplifying

tmd=2H(Q>-PRf\
ER-2FQ + GP
71
Corollary. When 0 = —, the two curves of the double family at any point on
the surface are orthogonal. Hence the above condition reduces to
ER - 2FQ + GP = 0.
Example. Show that the curves du2 - (u2 + c2) dv2 = 0 ...(1)
form an orthogonal system on the right helicoid
r = (w cos v, u sin v, cv) ...(2)
(1) is a double family of curves on (2) with P = 1, Q = 0 and R = - (w + c2)
2

For the right helicoid (2), we have

r{ = (cos v, sin v, 0), r 2 = (-w sin v, u cos v, c)
Hence E = rj • r, = 1, F = iy r2 = 0, G = r2- r 2 = (w2 + c2)
Now Efl - 2FQ + GP = 1 [-(w2 + c 2 )] + (u2 + c2) 1 = 0 so that the condition of
orthogonality is satisfied. Hence the family of curves (1) form an orthogonal
system on (2).

2.14 ISOMETRIC CORRESPONDENCE

We are concerned with the parts of two different surfaces S and 5' locally and a
correspondence or a transformation between them. Two surfaces are considered to
be equivalent if this correspondence or transformation preserves some geometrical
structure of the surface.
We will assign a parametric system (w, v) to each portion of surface S so that if
the point (u\ v') on S' corresponds to a point (w, v) on 5, then u\ V are single
valued functions of w, v given by
u = 0(M, V), V' = y/(u, v) ...(1)
If S and S' are of class r, r respectively, we assume that 0 and i/^are functions
VV
of class min (r, /) with Jocabian J = ' ^ 0 in the domain w, v. We assume
O(M,V)

that the correspondence is one-to-one throughout the domain. Thus we implicitly

restrict the maps between a part of S and a part of S' to be differentiate
homeomorphism of sufficiently high class regular at each point of the domain.
The First Fundamental Fortn and Local Intrinsic Properties of A Surface 139

Theorem. To each direction of the tangent to a curve C at P in S, there

corresponds a direction of the tangent to C at P' in S' and vice-versa.
Proof. Let C be a curve of a class > 1 passing through P and lying on S. Let
it be parametrically represented by u - u(i) and v = v(t). If S' is the portion
corresponding to S under the relation (1) in the preceding paragraph, then C on S
will be mapped onto C on S' passing through P' with the parametric equations
n/ = 0{M«,v(O},/=^{«W,v(r)}

The direction ratios of the tangents atP to C are (w, v) where w = — , v = — .

dt dt
f
Now the direction ratios of the tangents at P to C" are (w', v') where
., du d(j> . 90 .
df aw dv
., dv' 9I/A . 3^ .
<# aw ov
Solving the above equations for w and v, we get

J[ dv dv

1
v = — aw aw
J
which shows that a given direction to a curve C" at P' corresponds to a definite
direction at P to C and vice-versa.
Afote. Since the functions 0 and y/ satisfy the conditions for a proper
parametric transformation, after transforming the parameters of S' in this way, S'
can be reparametrised with (w, v) as parameters. To each point P' of S\ we can take
the corresponding point P of S and assign the parameter (w, v) of P to P'. Thus P
and P' have identical parametric values. We also assume that such a
correspondence preserves some geometrical properties. These lead to the
following definition of isometry between S and S'.
Definition. Two surfaces S and S' are said to be isometric or applicable if
there exists a correspondence u - 0(w, v), v' = i//(w, v) between their parameters

where 0 and y/ are single valued and — ^ 0 such that the metric of S is
a(w, v)
transformed into a metric of S'. The correspondence itself is called an isometry.
From the very definition of an isometry, we find that the length of an arc of a
curve C in S must be equal to the length of the corresponding arc C in S'. That is
ds = ds' where ds and ds' are the corresponding linear elements and this must be
true for all w, v, du, dv and w', / , du\ dv' given by the proper parametric
transformation. This shows that an isometric transformation maps the first
fundamental form of S into the first fundamental form of S'.
 Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com
140 Differential Geometry—A First Course

The following Examples 1 and 2 are some obvious cases of an isometry

between surfaces.
1. If a plane sheet of paper is slightly bent, the length of the curve drawn on it
is not altered. Thus the original plane sheet and the slightly bent sheet are
isometric.
2. A plane sheet may be isometric with a portion of a cylinder of sufficiently
large dimension, but the entire plane is not isometric with the cylinder.
Thus the plane and the cylinder are locally isometric.
Example 3. Find the surface of revolution which is isometric with the region of
the right helicoid.
Let S be r = (g(u) cos v, g(u) sinv,/(w)) the surface isometric with the right
helicoid S' given by
r' = (u cos v', u' sin v\ av')
Using the fact that the isometry preserves the metrics, we determine g(u) and/(«)
and then indicate the region of correspondence.
dr
I-J = — = (g{(u) cos v, g, (u) sin V,/,(M))
du
dr
r 2 = — = (- g(u) sin v, g(u) cos v, 0)
ov
Now E = r{ r, = gftu) +/?(«), F = r r r 2 = 0, G = r2- r 2 = g2
Hence the metric on S is (g2 +ff) du2 + g2 dv2 ...(1)
For the surface S\ we have
r / = (cos v', sin v', 0), r 2 ' = (- u sin v', u' cos v\ a)
Hence E' = r/- r,' = 1, F ' = r/- r 2 ' = 0, & = r2'- r 2 ' = (w/2 + a2)
Hence the metric on S' is du'2 + (w'2 + a2) dv2 ...(2)
The problem is to find the transformation from S to S' such that (1) and (2) are
identical. Without loss of generality let us take u' - 0(w), v' = v.
Then we have du' = (j){(u) du, dv = dv. ...(3)
2 2 2 2 2
Using (3) in (2), we get (j) du + (0 + a )dv ...(4)
(4) is the metric after transformation. Hence (1) and (4) are identical so that we
have
£ = «? + a2), g? +/,2 = 0,2 ...(5)
From the equations (5), we have to obtain/and g eliminating 0. However, we
can guess the solution of (5) as follows.
Let us take 0(«) = a sinh u and g{u) = a cosh u. ...(6)
2 2
(6) satisfies g = $ + a . Using (6) in the second equation of (5), we get
a2 sinh2 u + f2(u) = a2 cosh2 w so that f2(u) = a2.

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The First Fundamental Form and Local Intrinsic Properties of A Surface 141

Thus fx(u) = a. Integrating and choosing the constant of integration to be zero,

we get/(w) = au.
Hence the surface of revolution is generated by
x = a cosh w, v = 0, and z = au
where the generating curve lies in the XOZ plane and the curve in the XOZ plane is
a catenary with parameter a and the directrix as z-axis. Such a surface of revolution
is known as catenoid.
Let us briefly describe the region of correspondence. The correspondence
u = a sinh w, v' = v shows that the generators V = constant on the helicoid
corresponds to the meridian v = constant on the catenoid and helices u = constant
correspond to the parallels u = constant of the catenoid. Further u\ v' take all real
values on the helicoid, but on the catenoid we have 0 < v < 2n. Hence the
correspondence is an isometry only for the region of the helicoid for
which 0 < V < 2K. Thus one period of right helicoid of pitch 2na corresponds
isometrically to the whole catenoid of parameter a. If we do not insist on this
condition, the correspondence is locally isometric.
Note. Instead of taking u' - <p(u) and V = v, let us take V =pv wherep > 1, we
prove that the region of the right holicoid given by

|t/| < , 0 < V < 2pn

corresponds isometrically to the surface obtained by revolving that part of the

curve

(cosh2 t - p2 sinh2 f)1/2 dt.

o

\
given by |w|<cosh" about the z-axis.
l ^ J
Making the transformation u' = 0(w), V - pv, the metric of the right helicoid
becomes
<j)?du2 + (<p2 + a2)p2dv2 ...(7)
Comparing (7) and (1), we get
/i 2 + ^i 2 =0i 2 J and^ 2 = (0 2 + flV.
Now choose 0(w) = a sinh w, we find g(u) = ap cosh u.
Hence the curve in the XOZ plane is
x = ap cosh w, y = 0, and we determine/(w) by integration,
f2 (u) = 0 2 - g 2 = a2(cosh2 u-p2 sinh2 u)

(cosh 2 f-/? 2 sinh 2 r) 1/2 ^

o
142 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Using the variation of u and v', let us find the variation of w, V.

From the hypothesis u < . , 0 < V < 2p K.

We 'iave u - <p(u) = a sinh u < .

ylp2-l
From the basic relation a2 cosh2 u = a2 + a2 sinh2 w,
2 2 2
a a
9 2 2 P
we find <r coslr u <a + —= = y-r r
p2-l (p2-l)

so that cosh u < , or I u I < cosh"

\J7^\
about the z-axis and 0 <,v7 <2pn.

2.15 INTRINSIC PROPERTIES

We conclude this chapter by explaining what is meant by intrinsic properties of
surfaces. In the study of surfaces so far, the metric or thefirstfundamental form
I = Edu2 + 2F du dv + Gdv2
played a very important role. In fact, there is an existence theorem which states that
if E, F, G are any given singled valued functions with E > 0 and EG - F~ > 0 in
some domain D of uv plane, then every point of D has a neighbourhood D' of D in
which E du2 + IF du dv + G dv2 is the metric of the surface referred to w, v as
parameters. The proof of this first fundamental existence theorem is beyond the
scope of the book.
It is important to note that any two isometric surfaces have the same metric,
when the corresponding points are assigned the same parameters. Thus the family
of surfaces having a given metric is the class of surfaces isometric to one another.
Thus any formula of a surface which is deducible from the metric alone applies to
the whole class of isometric surfaces. The properties of this kind deducible from
the metric alone without using the vector equation r = r(w, v) of the surface and
preserved by surfaces which are isometric are called intrinsic properties of
surfaces. Also in the study of intrinsic properties of surfaces, we have never made
use of the normal component an = a -N. The properties involved with the use of
normal components of a vector at a point P on the surface are called non-intrinsic
properties. We shall make a study of the local non-intrinsic properties in
chapter 4.
The First Fundamental Form and Local Intrinsic Properties of A Surface 143

2.16 EXAMPLES II
1. Show that (i) the hyperbolic paraboloid can be represented parametrically
as
r = (a(u + v), b(u - v), uv)
(ii) The hyperboloid of one sheet can be represented as

( (u-v) , (1 + uv) (uv - 1)

r= a ,b ,c
u+v u+v u+ v
Find the curves u = constant and v = constant for (i), (ii) and
(iii) Find the surface (w, v, uv).
(i) From the parametric representation, we have
x v
— = w + v, — -u-v, z = uv ...(1)
a b
2
Hence —J - — = 4wv = Az so that

fHtf- 4z which is the equation of a hyperbolic paraboloid.

(ii) From the parametric representation, we have

x u-vy 1 + uv z uv-l
..(2)
a u+v b u+v c (u + v)

fz\2 _ 4KV
Now
l)'- [cj ~ (u + v)2

fz\2 _(u-v)2 +4uv _(u + v)2 _

Hence

2 2
ff- 2
[cj ~ (u + v)2 ~ (u + v)2 ~

x y z = wn cn t n e
Thus —J + - y Y * ^ is equation of a hyperboloid of one sheet.
a b c
Let us find the parametric curves for (i) and (ii)
For the surface (i), the parametric curve u = c{ is given by
x = a(cx + v), y = b{cx - v), z = c, v ...(3)
In the above equations v is the parameter. Eliminating the parameter v, we
obtain the equation of the parametric curve u = cx
Now from equation (3), we have

x y
— = C, + V, — = Cj - V, Z = C, V.
a b
144 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Substituting the value of v in terms ofz in the first two equations, we have

a [l cxjb (l cx

which are the equations of two planes whose intersection is a straight line. Hence
the parametric curve u = cx is a straight line.
Next let us find the parametric curve v = c2.
The parametric curve v = c2 are given by
x =a(u + c2), y = b(u-c2), z = c2u

x c 2 + A
Eliminating the parameter u in the above equations, we have — C
2
a
z which is a straight line. Hence the parametric curves v = c2 are also
b Co

straight lines.
For the surface (ii), the parametric curve u = cx are given by
x _ c{ - v y _ 1 + cxv z __ c{v - 1
a Cj+v'Z? q+v'c q+v

Let us eliminate the parameter v to obtain the parametric curve u = cx. We have
from the above equations
z 2 x 2c
y - , -
.+ i !_ = •
i

He
nce L i B i A a i f i + i)
b c cx cx+v cx\a J

Further —+-= —, 1 =
b c cx + v a cx + v

Hence ^ + - = - c , (- - l) = c, f 1 - -
Z? c \a ) K a,
So the parametric curve u = cx is the intersection of the two planes

£ + l=Cl(*-i)andl-£ = i - p U i
a \b c) a cx \b c
Let us find the parametric curves v = c2. They are given by
x _ u- c2 y _ l + c2u z _ c2u - 1
a u + c2' b c2+u' c u + c2
The First Fundamental Form and Local Intrinsic Properties of A Surface 145

y z 2c2u x f 2w
Hence - + - = — — and — + 1 =
b c c2 + u a c2 + u
Eliminating u between the above equation, we obtain

Similarly we have = and 1= — which gives

b c u + c2 a (c2 + u)
x
1
..(5)
a c b.
The intersection of the planes (4) and (5) is the parametric curve v = c2.
(iii) From hypothesisxy = uv = z so that the equation of the surface xy = z which
is a hyperboloid, since the section of the surface by the plane z = c is a rectangular
hyperbola.
2. A helicoid is generated by the screw motion of a straight line skew to the
axis. Find the curve coplanar with the axis which generates the same helicoid.
The helicoid is generated by a straight line which does not meet the axis of
rotation, since thez-axis of rotation and the straight line generating the helicoid are
skew lines. Let# be the shortest distance between them and a be the angle between
z-axis and the skew-line.
We shall find the coordinates of any point P on the generating skew line. Let
OP' be parallel to CP in the YOZ plane where C is the point (a, <?, o) at which the
skew line meets the;t-axis. Hence the coordinates of P* are (w sin a, u cos a) where
u = OP'. Since CP and OP' are parallel, the coordinates of P are
(a, wsin a, wcos a) ...(1)
Let us rotate the axis about thez-axis through angle v and translate it through a
distance av parallel to the axis. Using the relation between coordinates in (1) and
after rotation, we get
X -a cos v - u sin a sin v
Y = a sin v + u sin a cos v
Since the z-coordinate is subjected to only translation,
we obtain z = u cos a + cv.
Hence the position vector of any point on the helicoid is
(a cos v - u sin a sin v, a sin v + u sin a cos v, u cos a + cv) ...(2)
The required plane curve is the section of the helicoid with the XOZ plane.
Since the equation to the XOZ plane is y = 0, we get

^ ,. , . a tan v
a sin v + w sin a cos v = 0 which gives u = ...(3)
sin a
146 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Substituting the value of u in (2), we get the equation of the generating curve as
r = (a cos v + a tan v sin v, 0, cv - a cot a tan v)
= {a sec v, 0, cv - a cot a tan v) where v is the parameter of the curve.
3. Show that the curves bisecting the angle between the parametric curves are
given by
Edu2-Gdv2 =0
The direction coefficients of the parametric curves v = constant and

_
u = constant are I —j=, 0 land ( \} respectively.

Let — , — be the direction coefficients of the direction bisecting the angle

\ds ds J
between the parametric curves. Let 0X be the angle between the parametric curve

v = constant and the direction — , — . Using the formula,

V ds ds J
cos 0 = E If + F{lm' + I'm) + G mm'
i du dv ., 1 ,
by taking / = — , m = — , / = - T = , m = 0, we get
ds ds yjE
1 du ^ I dv
cosfy =E--7=
7= —+F- =r —
+ F 7—r= ...(1)
4E ds y/E ds
In a similar manner, if 02 is the angle between the curves u = constant and the
fdu dv\
direction — , — , then
\ds' ds J

cos0 2 = F--^L — +G--^r — ...(2)

2
VG ds yfG ds
fdu dv\
Since —,— bisects the angle between the parametric curves,
\ds 9 ds
[ds ds)J
cos 0X = ± cos 02 where plus sign gives the internal bisector and the minus sign
gives the external bisector. Using (1) and (2) in this relation for cos 0, we get

„dv\ j l f„du „dv\ ,. , .

•IE \ ds + F— = ±-;= F— + G— which gives
&
ds) -jGKds ds)
(EjG du + F-jG dv) = ±(FjE du + GjE dv)

Squaring both sides and simiplifying, we get

E(EG - F2) du1 = G(EG - F2)dv2
The First Fundamental Form and Local Intrinsic Properties of A Surface 147

Since EG-FZ* 0, we get Edul-G dv1 = 0

4. Show that the direction of curves bisecting the angle between the
orthogonal parametric curves are

+ _L_L + _L.JL

Using the same notation as in the previous problem

1 du „ 1 dv
cos 0X = B—T=- — + F>-j==- — ...(1)
y/E ds JE ds

n _, 1 du _ 1 dv „.
cos 02 = F - - = — + G - T = — ...(2)
VG ds y[G ds
Since the parametric curves are orthogonal F = 0 so that (1) and (2) become

cos 6X = JE —, cos 62=yfG— ...(3)

As the parametric curves are orthogonal 0X = 02 = — so that (3) gives

-i- = , and — = , which gives the direction of the internal bisecting

ds JIE ds JIG
curve. Taking the external bisecting curve also into consideration, the direction of
the curve bisecting the orthogonal parametric curves are
+ _L._L + _L_L
V2 y[E\ V2 y[G
5. Show that the parametric curves on the sphere given by
x = a sin u cos v, y = a sin u sin v, z = a cos u

where 0 < M < — TT, 0 < v < 2 ; r form an orthogonal system. Determine the two

71 37T
families of curves which meet the curve v = constant at angles — and — . Find the
4 4
metric of the surface referred to these two families as parametric curves.
The position vector of a point on the sphere is
r = (a sin u cos v, a sin u sin v, a cos u)
rx = {a cos u cos v, a cos u sin v, - a sin u)
r2 = {-a sin u sin v, a sin u cos v, 0)
£ = i y r , =fl2cos2w(cos2v + sin2v) + a2sin2w = a2 ...(1)
2
F = rx- r2 = <z (-cos « cos v sin u sin v + cos M COS V sin u sin v) = 0
148 Differential Geometry—A First Course

G = r2- r2 = a2 sin2 w(sin2 v + cos2 v) = a2 sin2w ...(2)

Since F = 0, the parametric curves are orthogonal.
Further H2 =EG-F2 = a4 sin2 u so that H = a2 sin u * 0 ...(3)
First let us consider the curve v = constant. The direction coefficients of the

tangent to this curve is -7=, 0

As the direction ratios are proportional to the direction coefficients, we can

take the direction ratios of the tangent to the curve v = constant as (1, 0). Let
(du, dv) be the direction ratios of the tangent to the required parametric curve
71
making an angle — with the curve v = constant.
4
71
Using 6 = —, X - du, ji' = dv, X - 1, jx = 0 in the formula,
4

~ EM + Flfoi' + MO + GJUJU'
n
, • a sin u . , , ,
we obtain tan — = —= dv so that dv = cosec u du ...(4)
4 a du
Integrating (4), we have log tan — = v + log cx which can be rewritten as

U
V

e cot-=c{ ...(5)
71
(5) Represents a family of curves making on angle — with the curve
4
v = constant.
2>7t
Next let us derive the equations of the family of curves making an angle —
4
with v = constant.
Using the formula (3) again, we have
2>7t a sin u
tan — = —^ dv which gives - cosec udu-dv
4 a du
Integrating the last equation and simplifying as in the previous case , we get

evtan — =c 2 ...(6)

Let us find the metric on the surface with respect to (5) and (6) as parametric
71
curves. First note that the angle between these two families is — so that F'= 0.
The First Fundamental Form and Local Intrinsic Properties of A Surface 149

Let us make the parametric transformation

u = 0(w, v) = £vcot —, v' = y/(uy v) = evtan —.

Now J = '}^ ¥ = - 2 evcosec w * 0 for 0 < w < - , 0 < v < 2;r.

3(w,v) 2
Since the parametric transformation is proper, by Theorem 2 of 2.12, it
transforms the given family of curves and the orthogonal family into two families
of parametric curves.
From the above two equations, we obtain e2v = u'v' ...(7)

and cot J = K ...(8)

2 Vv
We shall find E' = r/ • v{ and G' = r2'- r2' for the new parameters u' and v'.

If r/ = -T-—, and r2' = — - , then

aw dv
, _ 9r 3w dr dv
r , = ^ ^ + ^^_ ___(9)
du du' dv du'

3r du dr dv
^ =— — +— •— ...(io)
du dv' dv dv'

™ _•/ox i . r- J ^w du dv , dv
Using (7) and (8), let us find — • , — - , — - and — -
du ov ou ov
du
(i) To find ——, let us differentiating (8) and simplifying, we obtain
ou

9" 1 . 2 "
3 / = - / sin —

U W • 2u V'
Since cot - = /— , sin - = — so that
2 \v' 2 u' + v'
du 1 v' W \
du' VwV (u' + v') \u' (u' + v')

(ii) To find —-, let us differentiate (8) partially with respect to v'. Then
dv

2 u du r-j 1
cosec — ^r~7 = V u /x3/2
2 9v' (v'>
 Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com
150 Differential Geometry—A First Course

9u du \u' 1
Using the value of sin — in (i), we get -— = J—
2 dv V v' (w' + v')
dv
(iii) To find - — , let us differentiate (7) partially with respect to w', then
~\ »\ i

2 e2v - — = v'. Eliminating e2v using (7) again, -— =

du du 2u
dv
(iv) To find - — , differentiating (7) partially with respect to v'
ov'
, ,. . . 9v ^V 1
and eliminating e , we get =
dv' 2v'
Now let us calculate £' and G' in terms of w' and V
Using (i) and (iii) in equation (9), we obtain,
(H7 ! ^ 1
r{ = -rx 2
2w'
K*u' u' + v'j

Since the parametric curves are orthogonal,Tj • r2 = 0, using this we have

v
/2 _ / / _ 2 ' 1 2 1
r r r r +r
l - r i - i 'TTTTTT^T
K' (ii' + v'r 2 7772"
4w
Substituting for r 2 and r22 from (1) and (2), we get

r'? = a2 —=• + a2 sin2 u — ^ ...(11)

1
u' (u' + v')2 4u'2 }

c •M [u7 . U \ V' W I I?
Since cot — = J— , sin — = J and cos — =

9 4 wV
so that sirr K = =- ...(12)
(u' + v')2
Using (12) in (11), we get
2_ 2 v' 1 , 2 v' 1 9 v' 1
f 7 2 7 2
u' (u + v ) K' (K' +v ) «' (W' + v') 2
Further using (ii) and (iv) in (10),

(Z_L_ _L
~Xx\v' u' + v'*Xl2v'

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The First Fundamental Form and Local Intrinsic Properties of A Surface 151

, , 2"' 1 2 1

Hence r 2-r 2 = r, - ^ - ^ + r 2 ^

Substituting for r 2 and r2, we obtain

/2 2 u' 1 a
-2
r2 =a + — T sin u.
T
2 2
v' (w' + v') 4v /2

Using (12) in the above equation and simplifying,

v' («' + v')2
r',2 = 2 a 2 K ' '
Thus we have found £ ' = 2 a2 4 • —-^—^r,-P* = 0, G' = 2 a2 "' *
«' («' + v') 2 ' ' V (K' + V') 2
Hence the metric on the surface having the parametric curves u' = c, and v' = c2
is

^ =2 o 2 - X
-^ &? + ! * - ^</v2.
7 72
w' (M + V ) v (u' + vO2
7

6, A helicoid is generated by a screw motion of a straight line which met the

axis at an angle a. Find the orthogonal trajectories of the generators. Find also the
metric of the surface referred to the generators and their orthogonal trajectories as
parametric curves.
The general equation of the helicoid with the generating curve on the XOZ
plane is
r = (g(u) cos v, g(u) sin v,/(w) + av).
where x = g(u) and z =f(u). If the generator cuts thez-axis making an angle a with
it, then
We have g(u) = u sin a,/(w) = u cos a. Hence the position vector of any point
on the helicoid is
r = (u cos v sin a, u sin a sin v, u cos a + av)
Hence rx = (cos v sin a, sin a sin v, cos a)
r2 = (- w sin v sin a, M sin a cos v, a)
so E = r1-r1 = 1,F= r1-r2 = acos a, G = r 2 r 2 = w 2 sin 2 a+a 2 ...(1)
Since the generators are the parametric curves v = constant we can take the
equation of the family of generators as
v = constant so that as in the previous problem, the direction ratios of the
parametric curve v = constant can be taken as (1, 0). Let (du, dv) be the direction
ratios of the orthogonal trajectory of this family v = constant.
Applying the condition of orthogonality,
E XX + F(XJX' + X'n) + G wz' = 0 by taking X = 1, \i = 0
152 Differential Geometry—A First Course

X - du, ji' = dv and using (1), we obtain du + acos adv = 0 ...(2)

(2) gives the differential equation of the orthogonal trajectory of the family
v = constant. Integrating the equation (2), we obtain u + av cos a = c{ ...(3)
where c{ is a constant gives the orthogonal trajectories of the generators of the
helicoid.
Let us consider the parametric transformations
u - 0(w, V) = u + av cos a, v = y/(u, v) = v. ...(4)

Now J= — = 1 ^ 0 showing the parametric transformation is

d(«, v)
proper. Since the parametric transformation is proper, by Theorem 2 of 2.12, it
transforms the given family of generators of the helicoid and the orthogonal family
into two families of parametric curves. Now we shall find the metric on the surface
referred to (4) as parametric curves.

Now r'l =
r'i =
_dr == _dr_ du
_ +
9r
_ _dv ...(5)
+
du' dM d~v~d~u~'
dr dr du 9r dv
r'2 = = + ...(6)
dv' du d7 ^v"d7
From (4), we have u = u- a cos av\v = v

Then — - = l, — = - a cos a, — = 0, — = l ...(7)

du dv du dv
Using (7) in (5) and (6), we obtain

du

r 2 = — (-a cos a) + — = (r 2 - r, a cos a)

du dv
Now E* = r'j • r'l = ri • rx = l
F' = r\ • r 2 = a cos a - a cos a = 0
G' = ( r 2 - r , a c o s a) 2 = r2- r 2 - 2 i y r 2 acos a + a 2 c o s 2 a i y r,
Substituting for iy vx and r 2 • r 2 and r{ • r2, we have
G' = (w2 + a 2 )sin 2 a
= [(*/- av'cos a)2 + a2] sin2 a
Since F ' = 0, the metric on the surface with respect to u'= cx
and v'= c2 as parametric curves is
ds'2 = du'2 + [a2 + (u'-acos av')2] sin2adv/2
The First Fundamental Form and Local Intrinsic Properties of A Surface 153

7. The metric on the surface is v2 du2 + u2 dv2. Find the family of curves
orthogonal to the curve uv = constant and find the metric referred to new
parameters so that these two families are parametric curves.
From the given metric, the fundamental coefficients are E = v2, F = 0 and
G = u2 ...(1)
Using the given family of curves uv = constant,

du dv ^ , du u
v— + u— = 0 so that — = —
ds ds dv v
Hence the tangential direction at any point in the curve has the direction ratios
(- w, v). Let {du, dv) be the direction ratios of the orthogonal direction.
Applying the orthogonality condition by taking X = - w, [i = v, X - du, \x' = dv
and substituting for E, F and G from (1), we obtain - uv2 du + u2vdv = 0 giving the
differential equation of the orthogonal trajectory as v du - u dv = 0.
w =c .
Integrating this equation, we have — 2
v

Hence uv = c{ and — = c2 are the orthogonal curves on the surface with the
v
given metric. To find the metric on the surface with respect to these two families of
curves as parametric curves, let us define the parametric transformations as

u' = 0(w, v) = — , v' - \\f(u, v) - uv ...(2)

v
3(0, w) 2u
Now J = — = — * 0, the parametric transformation is proper. Since the
d(w, v) v
parametric transformation is proper, by Theorem 2 of 2.12, it transforms the given
family of curves and the orthogonal family into two families of parametric curves.
Using (2), let us express u and v in terms of u' and V

u2 = ua v2 = u/2 ^r- or u2 = uV ...(3)

u
2 V'2 V2 V' 2 V'
v = —Y- = = — or vl = — ...(4)
2
u u'v' u' u'
Further using the parameters u\ v', let the position vector r be r'. Using the
relations (3) and (4), we have
9r _ 9r du dr dv
du' du du' dv du'

•«[£)->[ 2vu' 2
154 Differential Geometry—A First Course

, _ 9r _ 9r du 9r 9v
dv' du dv' dv dv'
l
=r
'*'] ( ^
— + r2 7
\2u) with respect
Let us find the metric \2vu toj the new parameters; Since F = r • r = 0,
{ 2
we have
V'2 2, V'2 ,
V !•' r' — .r \- .r 2
£ r ,r
- ' '-4«2,i ' ^V * 4

v'2 Gv' 2 v' v'2 ii'v'v'V _ 1 v'2

~ 4w2 4vV4 w' 4 - K V 4M' 4 -v' " 2 M'2
+

G
=r2'r2 = y-Trl + 2 ,2 F2
4w 4v w
( 1 nVw / _ 1
+
4M 2 4vV2 4 uV u' 4 «'V 2
the metric referred to the new parametric coordinates is
' 2 . 1 . „'
ds'2 = r- dw'2 + — dv'2 for which u'v' = c, and — = c0 are parametric curves
2
2 u' 2 u'
on the surface.
8. Show that on a right helicoid, the family of curves orthogonal to
u cos v = constant is the family (w2 + a2) sin2 v = constant.
The equation of the right helicoid is
r = (u cos v, u sin v, av) where a is a constant. ...(1)
Now r{ = (cos v, sin v, 0), r2 = (-w sin v, w cos v, a)
Hence E = I1! • r, = 1, F = i^ • r2 = 0, G = w2 + a2 ...(2)
From the given family of curves, we obtain
du dv . du u sin v
cos v u sin v — = 0 so that — =
ds ds dv cos v
Hence the direction ratios of the tangent to the given family u cos v = constant
are (u sin v, cos v) ...(3)
Let (du, dv) be the direction orthogonal to the given family. Hence applying the
condition of orthogonality taking X = u sin v, ji = cos v, X' = du, jx' = dv, we get
u sin v du + (u2 + a2) cos v dv = 0 ...(4)
(4) gives the differential equation of the orthogonal trajectories of the given family.
The First Fundamental Form and Local Intrinsic Properties of A Surface 155

llldu 2 COS V ,
From (4) we have —^ =- = dv
(it* + a ) sin v
Integrating the above equation, we obtain
log (vC + a") sin" v = log c where c is a constant and hence
(u2 + a2) sin2 v = constant is the required family of orthogonal trajectories on the
right helicoid.
9. Show that the curves u = c exp (v sin a cot ft) on the cone as the surface of
revolution.
g(u) = usin atf(u) = ucosa
where ens the semi-vertical angle cuts the generators at a constant angle /? and the
curves project on the XOY plane as logarithmic spirals.
The position vector of a point on the surface is
r = (u sin a cos v, u sin a sin v, u cos a)
so r | = (sin a cos v, sin a sin v, cos a)
r2 = (-u sin a sin v, u sin a cos v, 0)
Thus £ = r,-r, = 1, F = 0,G = i y r 2 = w2sin2 a
Hence the metric on the surface is ds2 = dw2 + w2 sin2 a dv2.
and // = w sin a.

The equation of the generator is v = constant so that dv = 0. Since -j= ,0 are

& • ) •
direction coefficients of the tangential direction at any point on the curve
v = constant, we can take its direction ratios to be (1, 0). Let us find the tangential
direction at a point on the given curve
du = c exp (v sin a cot /J) sin a cot p dv so that

du dv
c exp (v sin a cot /3) sin a cot /? 1
If 0is the angle between the directions, then applying the formula

g (
tan 0= „, j ^" ^ V takingX = 1,\i = 0, X = du,/i' = dv,

we get
u sin a
tan 9 =
c exp (v sin a cot j8) sin a cot /3
Substituting for w, we get
. sin a c exp (v sin a cot /3) ^
1
tan 6 = -±—- ^ — - = tan p
c exp (v sin a cot p) sin a cot p
156 Differential Geometry—A First Course

so that tan 0 = tan P or 6 = P showing that the curves cut the generators at the
constant angle p.
The projection of the curve on the-XOY plane is given by
r = u sin a = c exp (v sin a cot p) sin a = d exp (lev)
where k is a constant and d = c sin a. This is the equation of the logarithmic spiral.
10. A surface of revolution is defined by the equation

r = cos u cos v, cos u sin v, -sin u + log tan — + — ...(1)

n
where 0 < u < — and 0 < v < In. Show that the metric is
2
o o o o o
ds =tan udu + cos udv
71

and prove that the region 0 < « < — ,0<v<7ris mapped isometrically on the region

— < « ' < — , 0 < V < In by the correspondence

u' - cos" * I——cos
coswu, I,v'V= =! 2v,

To show that there is a local isometry between the two regions, it is enough if
we prove that the metrics of the parametric system (w, v) and (u\ v') are the same.
From(l), we have

( . . . i
rl = \-smu cos v, - sin u sin v, - cos u + •
cos u

d (. (n 1 Vl 1
since —
du\ log tan —
\A + 2—u)) cosu
r 2 = (-cos u sin v, cos u cos v, 0)

^ . 0 (1 ~ cos2 w)2 = sin2 u 2

E = r{ • rj = sin u + ~ —T~ = t a n u-
cos u cos u
F = i y r 2 = 0,G = cos2w. ...(2)
2 2 2 2 2
Hence the metric is ds = tan u du + cos u dv .
The parametric transformation is

u' - cos"1 — cos u , v' = 2v .(3)

The First Fundamental Form and Local Intrinsic Properties of A Surface 157

9(w', v') sinw _ . A r .

Since 7 = — = * 0, the transformation is a proper
9(w,v) 1 2
Jl COS M
V 4
parametric transformation.
From (3), we have cos u' = — cos w, v' = 2v. ...(4)
r
/9 dw 9r 9v ,_x
Now r = _ . _ +_ . _ -(5)
ow dw dv dw
9r 9w 9r 9v
and r^ = — • — + — ' — -(6)
9w 9v' 9v 9v'
Using (4), we have
9« _ 2 s i n w ' _ 2 sinw' _^__n J ^ - - n -^.-1
au sinw J l - 4 c o s w' ^ v "" c v
' 2
Using (7) in (5) and (6), we obtain,
r^sinw' 1
- - r0 = —r,
^ COS w' 2

2 4 sin2w' sin2 w 4 sin2 w'

Hence E' = r , 1 -r , 1 = if
(l-4cos2w') cos2w ( l - 4 c o s 2 w ' )
Using (4) in the above equation.
1 - 4 cos2 W' 4 sin2 w' 2 ,
E' = = = = tan2 w'
4 cos w' ( 1 - 4 cos w')
Now G' = rVr'o = — r, -r, = - - 4 cos2 u' = cos2 w' and F ' = 0
2 2
4 2 2 4
Thus the metric is ds' = tan2 w'dw'2 + cos2 u'dv'2
1

2 7T
Hence we find from (4) the variation of the metric ds for 0 < u < — and
2
1 K 1
0 < v < ;ris the same as the variation of the metric^ for — < u' < — n andO < v' <
3 2
2K. Hence the former region is mapped isometrically onto the latter region.
11. Determine 0(v) so that the surface given by
x = wcos v, y = wsin v, z = 0(v) ...(1)
shall be isometric to the surface of revolution.
If the two surfaces are isometric, besides the one-to-one correspondence, the
metrics of the two surfaces are the same.
From (1), Tj = (cos v, sin v, 0), r2 = (-w sin v, w cos v, <p2(v))
158 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Hence E = 1, F = 0, G = w2 + 022 so tnat tne

metric on the surface is
ds = du2 + (u2 + 022) dv2
2
...(2)
Let the surface of revolution isometric with (1) be
r = (g(u) cos v, g(u) sin v,/(w))
As in Example 3 of 2.14, the metric of the surface of revolution is
ds'2 = (g2+f2)du2 + g2dv2 ...(3)
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Since ds = ds' , we haveg +f = 1 and u + 02 = g ...(4)
2 2
From the second equation of (4), 02(v) = yjg (u) - u

Hence 0(v) = y]g2(u) - u2 dv so that 0(v) = yjg2(u) - u2 v + c

Choosing c = 0, we get 0(v) = y]g2(u) - u2 v

2.17 EXERCISES II
1. The following surfaces are given in the parametric form
(i) Ellipsoid (a sin u cos v, b sin w sin v, c cos w)
(ii) Elliptic paraboloid (au cos v, bu sin v, w2)
(iii) Cone (a sin /zw sin hvt b sin /zw cos hv, c sin ftw)
(iv) Cylinder (u cos v, w sin v, u)
(v) Plane (u + v, w - v, w).
Obtain in each case the representation of the surface in the form
/(*,)>, z) = 0.
2. Discuss the nature of the points on the following surfaces,
(i) r = (w,v,0)
(ii) r = (u cos v, u sin v, 0)

(iii) r=fW,v,Vl-w2-v2l

3. Show that on the surface

r = (a(u + v), b(u - v), wv), the parametric curves are straight lines.
4. Find the parametric curves u = constant and v = constant oh the surfaces of
revolution
r = (u cos v, u sin V,/(M))

5. Show that the parametric curves are orthogonal on the surface

r = (u cos v, u sin v, a log {u + (u2 - a2)112}
6. Establish the formulae
(i) {N, r i ,r 2 ] = //

(ii) r 1 x N = - i ( F r 1 - ^ r 2 )
ti
The First Fundamental Form and Local Intrinsic Properties of A Surface 159

(iii) r 2 x N = ^ - ( G r , - F r 2 )
7. Find r,, r2 and also the tangent plane at an arbitrary point on the surface
r = (a cos uy a sin w, v)
8. Obtain the first fundamental form on the surface of revolution
r = (u cos v, u sin v,/(w))
9. For the surface
f
r = a sin u cos v, a sin u sin v, a\ cos u + log t a n -
v
compute the first fundamental coefficients and unit normal at any arbitrary
point on the surface.
10. Taking x, y as parameters, calculate the first fundamental coefficients and
the unit normal to the surface,

1 O 9
z = - {cue + 2hxy + by)
11. Show that the angle between the curve u - v = constant and u = constant on
n
the right helicoid r = (u cos v, u sin v, cv) is —.
4
12. If the parametric curves are orthogonal, show that the differential equation
of lines on the surface cutting the curves u = constant at a constant angle /?
is

du Q [G
— = tan B HJ—
dv \E
13. Find the orthogonal trajectories of the parametric curve u = constant on
the surface.
r = (u + v, 1 - «v, u - v).
14. If the curves du = (u2 + c2) dv2 form an orthogonal system on the surface
2

r = (u cos v, u sin v, 0(v)), determine 0.

15. If v2 du2 + u2 dv2 is the metric on a surface, find the family of curves

orthogonal to the curve — = constant and find the metric referred to the
v
new parameters so that these two families are parametric curves.
 3
Geodesies on a Surface

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Defining a geodesic on a surface, we shall obtain canonical geodesic equation and
its normal property. Then after establishing the existence theorem of a geodesic on
a surface, we shall explain what is meant by geodesic parallel and geodesic
coordinates. We shall take up for detailed study the geodesic curvature Kg leading
to Gauss-Bonnet theorem which states that for any curve C which encloses a
simply connected region R, the excess of C is equal to the total curvature of R
where excess of the curve C is suitably defined. Motivated by these ideas, we shall
briefly study the surfaces of constant curvature. We conclude this chapter by a
short account of conformal mapping and geodesic mapping. All the properties of a
geodesic on a surface are illustrated with the help of surfaces introduced in tjie
previous chapter.

3.2 GEODESICS AND THEIR DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS
We know that the straight line joining two points A and B in a plane is the
shortest distance between A and B. The extension of the notion of a straight line in
a plane to curves on surface leads to a special class of curves called geodesies
which we shall define precisely with the help of the notion, Shortest distance' or
Stationary length'. So before proceeding further, we shall explain these two
notions.
If A and B are two points on a surface 5, we can find lengths of different arcs
joining them. Though this collection of lengths has non-zero greatest lower bound,
we cannot say that there is an arc AB on the surface corresponding to this greatest
lower bound. Since the shortest distance between two points on a surface has this
shortcoming, we choose the alternative method of defining a geodesic on a
surface as an arc of stationary length on a surface. This method of definition of a
geodesic on a surface is amenable to the treatment of differential calculus and
enables us to use differential equations for the study of such intrinsic curves.
Geodesies on a Surface 161

Definition 1. Let A and B be two given points on a surface S and let these
points be joined by curves lying on S. Then any curve possessing stationary
length for small variation over S is called a geodesic.
Let A and B be two points on a surface r = r (w, v). On the surface, let us
consider all the arcs joining A and B given parametrically as u = u(t), v = v{t)
where u(t\ v(t) are of class 2. For every arc a, let us assume that t = 0 at A and
t = 1 at B so that the arcs are defined in [0, 1].
Let a be one such arc and S(a) be the length of the arc a joining A and B on
the surface. Then we know that
ds2 = Edu2 + IFdudv + Gdv2 which gives

s2 = Ew2 + 2 Fit v + Gv 2 so that we can take

j(a) = [ sdt = [ yJEii2 +2Fuv + Gv2 dt

Keeping the end points A and B fixed, let us deform the arc a slightly and
obtain d. Then we can take the equation of the new arc a! parametrically as
u'(t) = u(t) + eA(0, At) = v(0 + ep(f).
where e > 0 is small and X(i)y fi{t) are such that /L(0) = jU(0) = 0 and A( 1) = ji{ 1) = 0.
After the deformation let the length of the arc be s(c/) which we can obtain by
replacing w, v in S(a) by u\ V. The variation in s(a) is s(tf) - s(a) which is of
order e in general.
Definition 2. If a is such that the variation in s(a) is atmost of order e2 for
all small variations in a for different X{t) and ji(t)y then .y(a) is said to be
stationary and a is a geodesic.
Note. Thus the geodesies on a surface are intrinsic in the sense that it is
defined by the metric on the surface independent of any particular parametric
representation of the surface. The following theorem gives the differential
equations of a geodesic.
Theorem 1. A necessary and sufficient condition for a curve u = w(f), v = v(t)

on a surface r = r(«, v) to be a geodesic is that U— V-zr— = 0 ...(1)

ov ou
dT_dT_
where U = — —- - —- = —
dt{du) du 2\T dt' du

dfdT] dT 1 dT dT
V= — ...(2)
dt\dv) dv IT dt dv
Proof. Equations (2) are called geodesic equations and we use the usual
method of calculus of variations to derive the equations (2). With the help of (2),
we obtain (1) and then prove that the converse of (1) is also true.
162 Differential Geometry—A First Course

To prove (2), we need the following lemma.

Lemma. If g(t) is a continuous function for 0 < / < 1 and if | v(t) g(t) dt = 0
Jo
...(3)
for all admissible functions v(f) as defined above, then g(t) = 0.
Proof of the Lemma. Suppose v(t) g(t) = 0 for all admissible functions
Jo
v(r) and g(t) * 0. Then there exists a t0 between 0 and 1 such that g(t0) * 0. Let us
take g(t0) > 0. Since g(t) is continuous in (0, 1) and t0 e (0, 1), there exists a
neighbourhood (a, b) of t0 such that g(t0) > 0 in (a, b) where 0 < a < t < b < 1
Now let us define a function v(f) as follows.
/x \(t-a)3(b-t)3fora<t<b
v(t) = <
[Qfor0<t<a2indb<t<\

The v(r) is an admissible function in (0, 1) so that (3) can be rewritten as

fv(t)g(t)dt = f v(t) g(t)dt + f v(0 g(t)dt + fv(t) g(t)dt

JO JO Ja Jb
Using v(t) in [0, 1] in the above step,

fv(t)g(t)di = \\t-a)3(b-t)3 g(t)dt ...(4)

JO Ja

Since (t - a)3 (b -t)3>0 in (a, b) and g(t) > 0 for a < t < b, we get from (4)

[ v(r) g(t)dt > 0 contradicting the hypothesis [ v(f) g(t)dt = 0 for all admissible
Jo Jo
functions v(t).
Hence our assumption that there exists a t0 such that g(t0) * 0 is false.
Consequently g(0 = 0 for all / in (0,1) and thus the lemma is proved.
Proof of the Theorem. To prove (2), we proceed as follows.

Let /(w, v, li, v) = y/2T where

27XK,v,ii,v) =s2 = Eu2 +2Fuv + Gv2

In terms of/, the arc length s(a) is

s(a) = [ ss dt
dt == ff JJ2T
2 T *dt == f /(w, v, M, v) A
Jo Jo Jo
After a slight deformation the arc-length s(a') is

,?(«') = [ / ( w + eA, v + e/i, w + s A , v + efi)dt.

Jo
Hence the variation in 5(a) is
Geodesies on a Surface 163

s((/)-s(a)= \ {/(w + eA, v + £ju, it + eA, v + ejx)-f(u, v, w, v)}dt •••(5)

Jo
Using Taylor's theorem for several variables, we get

f(u + eX, v + £jU, w + eA, v + efi)

=/(M, v, w, v) + eX-^- + en^J- + eX-t-+eii~ + 0(#) .-(6)

ou ov ou dv
Using (6) in (5), we obtain

s(a')-s(a) =e\lU^ +^ + X^ + jii^Adt + 0(e2) •••(7)

Jo[ du ov ou ov)
We shall simplify the integral on the right hand side of (7) as follows.
Using integration by parts, we have

Jo ou Jo ou ou L Jo dtidu

-il

Since X = 0 at f = 0 and / = 1, we have =0

OU
JO

Hence f X^dt =-f X ^ ) d t ...(8)

Jo oil Jo dt\ou)
In a similar manner, we have

•••(9)
JoM3v k*dt\dv)
Using (8) and (9) in (7) and simplifying,

s(a')-s(a) =e\ <X\ + n\ 'H-±[;LL >dt + 0(t?)

du dtydu dv dtidv

= e\ {XL + nM)dt + 0{e2) ...(10)

Jo

where L =
<UL_±(d£\ ,M =
du dtydii) dv dt[dv
164 Differential Geometry—A First Course

For the arc a to be geodesic on 5, s(a) should be stationary. It is stationary if

and only if the variation s(a) - s{od) is atmost of order e2 for all small variations.
Since e > 0 and s(a) - s(a') is of s2, equation (10) implies that

Jo
...(H)
for all admissible functions A, jx of class 2 in 0 < t < 1 such that A=jU = 0aW = 0 and
f=l.
Since £, F, and G are of class 1 and A(0, ju(0 are of class 2, functions L and M
are continuous functions satisfying the conditions as that of g(t) of the Lemma.
Hence we can apply Lemma to (11) choosing A, ji and g as follows.
(i) Let v(0 = A, ji = 0, and g(f) = L

Then | (AL + uM)dt= \ XL dt = 0 which implies L = 0 by the Lemma.

Jo Jo
(ii) Let A = 0, v(t) = \i and g(t) = M.

Then | (XL + /j,M)dt= \ fiM dt = 0 which implies M = 0 by the Lemma.

Jo Jo
Hence L = 0, M = 0 are the differential equations for u(t) and v(r). Since these
two equations do not involve these two points A and B explicitly, the equations
L = 0, M = 0 are the same for all geodesies on the surface.
Let us rewrite L = 0, M = 0 in terms of T.

•3/ dfdf)
Since becomes
du dt du J

1 dT d_ 1 dT
L =
Tf du dt J2T du

1 dT 1 dT JrdT dT
^ | - ( 2 7 V ^ ~
JlT du 2T dt au I dt ou

1 d]^_d_ 1 dT dT
312
J2T du dt du (2T) dt du

1
Since T* 0, cancelling - 7 = throughout, L = 0 becomes
J2T

...(12)
dtyduj du 2T dt du
In a similar manner we obtain forM,
Geodesies on a Surface 165

1 1 dT dT ,_. u .
r+ ^T; ^— which gives
' (27) 3 / 2 dt dv

4-1
dtidv
ar _ i </r ar
dv ~ 2T <fc 3v
...(13)

Equations (12) and (13) give the differential equations of a geodesic. (12) and (13)
are usually written as

dtidu du IT dt du

dT 1 dT dT
dt dv dv 2T dt dv

1 -
where T(u, v, w, v) = — [E,2u + 2F uv + G v ]. This completes the proof of (2)

To prove (1) as the necessary and sufficient condition for a to be a geodesic on

the surface 5, we proceed as follows.
To prove the necessity of the condition, let a be a geodesic on the surface so
that w(r), v(/) satisfy the differential equations (2).
From the second expression of U and Vin (14) and (15)

we have — = —— / —— so that U— V-r— = 0 which proves the necessity of the

V du/ dv dv oil
condition.
To prove the sufficiency of the condition, we need the following lemma which
is true for any curve whether it is a geodesic or not.
AT
Lemma. If (/and Vare as in (1), then uU + vV= — ...(16)
dt
Proof of the Lemma. Since each of U and V have two equal expressions for
it, we shall prove (16) by considering the following two cases.
Case (i) In this case, we prove (16) by considering the first expression for U
andV.
Since T is a homogeneous function of degree two in u and v, we have by
Euler's Theorem.
•97 .dT ^
u— + v—=2T ...(17)
ou dv
Since Tis a function of w, v, u, v, we get
dT dT . dT . dT.. dT..
— = -r— u + — v + — u + — v ...(18)
dt du dv du dv
Using (17) and (18), we prove (16).
166 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Substituitng for U and V, we have

uU+vV =u a n dr +v
d_f 37; |_ 37;
...(19)
dt du ) dii dt { d v J 3 v

Now consider, — it —-
dty oil) dt\dii) ydu)

. d
so that ...(20)
u — du) dty du) {du
dt
In a similar manner,

JdT ...(21)
V
dt{dv) dt{ dv
Using (20) and (21) in (19), we obtain

... ... d(.dT) ..dT .dT

dt{ du J du ou

±('^Z\_..dT_^^dT_
dt\ dv) dv dv

d_ .dT .dT dT . dT . dT.. 37\.

— U + — V + —-U + —rV
dt ou ov ou ov du ov

= —(2T) - — = — using (17) and (18).

dt dt dt
Case (ii) In this we take the second expressions for U and V.

. 1 dT dT}
Now u U + v V = u\ -r— + v
IT dt du IT dt dv

1 dT ( . 3 7 .37] 1 dT 0 _ dT n „
= w—— + v—• = 2T= — by (17)
IT dt {dii dv) IT dt dt
Hence we have u U + v V =
A'
The sufficiency is established by showing that a curve on the surface satisfying
the condition (1) of the theorem is a geodesic. For this it is enough if we show the
condition (1) implies that t/and V satisfy the geodesic equations (2).
Let U and V satisfy the condition (1). Let us assume that u and v are not zero
for the same value of t. For if u = v = 0 simultaneously, then

— = Eu + Fv, and — = Fit +Gv

du dv
Geodesies on a Surface 167

implies — = 0, — = 0 simultaneously so that the condition is trivially satisfied.

ou ov

U V
From the given condition, we have -j=- = 3=- = ©(say)

du dv

Then [/ = 0 ^ - and V= 0 ^ - ...(22)

oil dv
We shall find 0 using the Lemma.

From the Lemma, we have Uu + Vv = —

dt

Using (22) in the above equation, we get

dT w ^ r + v .dT
(.dT ^ r 0=270by(17)
dt du dv

1 dT
From the above equation, we find 0 = .
2T dt
Using this value of 9 in (22), we get

~ 2T dt du' " 2 7 df 3v
which are the geodesic equations. Hence (w(0, v(r)) is a point on the geodesic of a
surface which proves the theorem completely.
dT
Note. By the lemma, U and V satisfy the equation u U + v V = — . Hence

both the expressions satisfy the same equation so that the two expressions for U
and V are not independent. Hence these two equations are equivalent to one
equation for two functions u = u(t) and v = v(t) so that the curve can be defined by
v =/(«)•
Specialising the above theorem for the parametric curves v = constant and
u = constant on a surface, we have the following theorem.
Theorem 2. (i) When v = c for all values of u, a necessary and sufficient
condition that the curve v = c is a geodesic is
EE2 + FEl-2EFl=0
(ii) When u = c for all values of v on a surface, a necessary and sufficient
condition that the curve u = c is a geodesic is GG; + FG2 - 2GF 2 = 0.
Proof. On the curve v = c, u itself can be taken as a parameter so that the
equations of the curve are u = t and v = constant.
168 Differential Geometry—A First Course

By Theorem 1, we know that a curve on a surface is a geodesic if and only if

ov ou
So to obtain the condition for the parametric curve v = constant to be a
geodesic,

We find U, V, — and — and use them in (1)

oil flv
From the definition, we have

T = -{Eii2 + 2Fu v + Gv 2) where F, F and G are function of w, v.

2
ar i
Now -r^=i[E 1 « 2 +2F 1 «v + G1v2]

— = - [E 2 W 2 + 2F2wv + G 2 v 2 l
dv
9v 2L J

— = Eii + Fv, — = Fii + Gv ...(2)

oil ov
According to the choice of the parameters, ii = 1, v = 0

Hence f , l E „ | I - I « , f ? . « , |?.J- ...(3,

dw 2 ov 2 ow dv
Using (3), we get

'dT^ dT ^dE 1
dt 9M " dr 2 '
Using the formula for the derivative of £ as a function of u, v, we obtain
., dE du dE dv 1. _ . _ . 1_
U=- + E.=E,u +E2v E,
2
du dt dv dt 2 ' ' 2 '
Since « = 1, and v = 0, we have U= —Et ...(4)

and v=±(dl)_*L=*L_LE2
2
dt{dv) dv dt 2

!
9w <// 3v A 2 ^ 2 ^
Using (4) and (5) in (1), we obtain

-E1F-(FI ~-E2 j £ = 0 which gives EE2-2EFl + FEl = 0

Geodesies on a Surface 169

(ii) When u = constant, let v itself can be taken as a parameter so that v = t.

Hence u = 0, v = 1. Using these two, (2) becomes

ST i ar i ar „ ar
= - G „ T " = _G 2> — = F> — = G. ...(6)
ou 2 dv 2 dw dv
Using (6), we get

U =—
dt 3ii J du dt 2
By the formula for the derivative of F as a function of w, v
rj dF du dF dv 1 „ . „ . 1
we obtain £/ = — +— G, = F,w + F 2 v G,

Using ii = 0andv = l,£/ = F 2 - - G y ...(7)

d far^ dT ^dG 1
Also we have V = . 2
df I 3v dv~ dt 2

2 2
3w dr 3v df 2 2
Using (7) an (8) in equation (1), we get

F 2 - i G 1 J G - ^ G 2 F = 0giving

GG 1 +FG 2 -2GF 2 = 0
Converse follows by retracing the steps in both (i) and (ii)
Corollary. When the parametric curves are othogonal,
(i) v = constant is a geodesic if and only if E2 = 0
(ii) u = constant is a geodesic if and only if Gx = 0
Since the parametric curves are orthogonal, F = 0.
Taking F = 0 in the theorem, we get the above particular cases.
In the following, we obtain a generalised form of the above theorem by taking
u = t and v = v(w) and this incidentally illustrate the complicated nature of the
geodesic equation in general.
Theorem 3. If u * 0 in the neighbourhood of a point on a geodesic, then
taking u(t) = f, the curve v = v(w) is a geodesic if and only if v satisfies the second
order differential equation
v + Pv3 + Qv2 + Rv +S = 0
where P, Q, R and S are functions of u and v determined by E, F and G.
 Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com
170 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Proof. Using the condition U — V — = 0, we shall derive the

av ou
differential equation of the geodesic.

Now T = - [ F w 2 + 2Fwv+Gv 2 ]

= Eu + F v = F + v F , w =1 ...(1)
du

d (dT) dE dF . _..
— — = + v + Fv
dtidu dt dt
dE du dE dv (dF du dF dv . . _
du dt dv dt [du dt dv dt

As • i d dT
= Ex + (E2 + F{)v + F 2 v 2 + F v

| I = I [ F l + 2F1v + G 1 v 2 ] , « = l .
aw 2

Hence
dt du I ou -H> v* + E2v + -El .(2)

Let usfindV.
dT
—- = F« + Gv = F + Gv •(3)
dv
rf far"! (dF . dF .\ (dG . dG .) .
Hence — \-r7\ = \T—u + —v\ + « + ^—v v + Gv
dt[dv [du dv du dv

As u =l,weget-^- | ? =F,+'(F 2 + G,)v+G 2 v 2 + Gv

dt {av I

So
dt\dv) dv

= Fx + (F2 + G,) v + G2v2 + Gv - ~ [ F 2 + 2F2v + G2v2].

1 o
= Gv + - G 2 v 2 + G 1 v+F 1 ...(4)

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Geodesies on a Surface 171

Changing the sign, we use the condition of a geodesic in the form

vd-L-u¥=o
oil ov
Substituting (1), (2), (3) and (4) in the above equation,
1 1 1 ,
(E + Fv) Gv + - G , v 2 + G1, v +T F1
" ' 1 2 2

1 1? 1
- (F + Gv) Fv + F 22 —2 G ,l v 2 + F 22v + 2- F ,I ' = 0

Writing the above equation as a second order differential equation, we have

(EG - F2) v + -(GG 7 + FG 2 - 2 GF2) v3

+ - [G2F + 3 G,F - 2 F F 2 - 2 E2G]v2

+ -[2G,F+2F1F-3F2F-F1G]v

+ -(2FF1-F2F-F1F) = 0

which can be rewritten as V— U-—

oil ov
= H2[v +Pv3 + Qv2 + Rv+S] = 0 where

_L.i
P = ^2-±(GG l + FG2-2GF2),
H22

Q = -^j (G2E + 3 GXF-2FF2-2E2G)

R = -rj-^ (2 G,F + 2 F F , - 3 E2F -Efi)

//22

S= \--{2EF,-E2E-E,F)
H2 2
Hence the equation of the geodesic is given by
v + Pv3 + Qv2 + Rv + S = 0

Example 1. Prove that the curves of the family —r- = constant are geodesies
u
on a surface with the metric
v'-dic -2uv dudv + ,2 J.2u
.2 2
dv\u>0,v>0
172 Differential Geometry—A First Course

—=- = c is a geodesic at any point on the surface if and only if

u

ov du
Choosing t as a parameter, the parametric representation of the curve can be
taken as u =ct3, v = ct2 ...(1)
2
Hence we have u = 3cr , v = 2ct. ...(2)
From the given metric, we define T as

T= - [ v V -2uvuv + 2u2v2] ...(3)

Using (1) and (2), we obtain

—- --Vuv + 2uv2 = 2c3t5

du

^=vu2-uuv = 3c3t6
OV

dT 0. • 3 6
— = v u -wvv =c t
oil
dT . _ ?• 37
9v

Hence U = — —-
^ I 3w J 3M Jr
r
3v J 3v rf/

Hence £/ f ! l _ y f l l = 4 c3/5- c3/7 - 4 c ¥ - c 3 r 6 = 0

3v dii

v
Therefore the curve —3-
3 = c is a geodesic on the surface for all values of c.

Example 2. Prove that the parametric curves on a surface are orthogonal, the
curves v = constant is geodesic provided E is a function of u only and the curve
u = constant is a geodesic if G is a function of v only.
The parametric curves v = constant are all geodesies if and only if
EE2 + FE{-2EF{=0 ...(1)
for all values u and v by Theorem 2(i).
Since the parametric curves are orthogonal, F = 0 and consequently F{ = 0. If
E is a function of u only, E2 = 0 Thus£2> F and F, are all zero so that the condition
(1) is satisfied for all u, v. Hence v = constant is a geodesic.
Geodesies on a Surface 173

Now the parametric curves u = constant are all geodesies if and only if
GG 1 +FG 2 -2GF 2 = 0 ...(2)
for all values of u and v by Theorem 2(ii).
As in the previous caseF = 0 and F 2 = 0. Since G is a function of v only, G{ = 0.
Thus F, F 2 and Gx are all zero so that the condition (2) is satisfied. Hence
u = constant is a geodesic.

3.3 CANONICAL GEODESIC EQUATIONS

Treating the parameter t to be arbitrary, we have derived the geodesic equations on
the surface in the previous section. Hence in place of f, we can choose the arc
length s of the curve measured from a fixed point on it as parameter and obtain the
geodesic equations in a much simpler form and also modify the condition uU+vV
rlT
= — for a curve on a surface to be a geodesic in terms of s. We shall use prime to
dt
denote differentiation with respect to the parameter s.
Theorem 1. If the arc length s is the parameter of the curve, then the geodesic
equations are

d 'dT}
U = — du'
J IT'0
ds du
(
v = ±dT\
a 'l
dT
a =0 -(1)
ds ov I dv
The equations (1) are called canonical geodesic equations.
Proof. Since the geodesic equations are true for any arbitrary parameter t, it
is equally true for the parameter s also. Hence if prime denotes the differentiation
with respect to s, the geodesic equations become

d(dT) dT 1 dTdT
U=— ...(2)
ds du' du IT ds du'

ds{dv') dv IT ds dv'

where T=-[Eu'2 + 2F u'v' + G v'2]

2
du dv
Since u = — = /, v = — = m are the directional coefficients at a point on the
ds ds
curve and El + 2F/m + Gm2 = 1,
2

T= - [El2 + 2F/m + Gm2] = - so that — = 0 ...(4)

2 2 ds
174 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Using (4) in the right hand side of (2) and (3), we obtain the canonical geodesic
equations (1).

Note. One should note that T = — only along the curve and it is not equal to

1 AT AT
— identically for all values of w, v, u' and v'. The partial derivatives and
2 ' du' dv'
are calculated from T before we substitute the values of u' and V in 7.
Theorem 2. (i) If the curves on a surface are not paramietric curves, then the
sufficient condition for a curve to be a geodesic is either U = 0 or V = 0.
(ii) For a parametric curve u = constant to be a geodesic a sufficient condition
is U = 0 and v = constant to be a geodesic, the sufficient condition is V = 0.
Proof, (i) When s is used as a parameter, then the second Lemma of Theorem
1 of 3.2 becomes

ds

AT
Since — = 0 by (4) of the previous theorem. We have
ds
Uu'+Vv' = 0 ...(1)
If the curves are not parametric curves, u' * 0 and v' * 0. This implies from (1)
that U and V are not independent. Hence U is a scalar multiple of V and vice-versa
so that either £/ = 0 o r V = 0 i s a sufficient condition for a curve to be geodesic.
(ii) For a curve to be a geodesic on a surface, it should satisfy the following
canonical equations of Theorem 1.

Um±(%L)no ...(2)
ds I du ) du
d (dT
%-0 ...<3>
ds I dv' ov
If we take the parametric curve u = constant so that u' = 0 and V * 0. Using this,
(1) implies that V = 0 and conversely. Hence the equation (3) is automatically
satisfied for all s. Hence the condition for u = constant to be a geodesic is U = 0. In
a similar manner, V = 0 is a sufficient condition for the parametric curve
v = constant to be a geodesic.

3.4 GEODESICS ON SURFACES OF REVOLUTION

Using canonical equations, we shall investigate the nature of geodesies on a
surface of revolution in the following two theorems.
Theorem 1. Three types of geodesies on a surface of revolution
r = (g(u) cos v, g(u) sin v,/(w)) are ...(1)
Geodesies on a Surface 175

(i) v = a<p (w, a) + /} where a and p are constants

(ii) Every meridian v = constant
(iii) A parallel u = constant is a geodesic if and only if its radius is stationary.
Proof, (i) From (1) we have
i"i = (g\(u) cos v, g{(u) sin v,/i(w)), r2 = (-g(w) sin v, g(u) cos v, 0).
So E =r 1 r 1 ^^ 1 2 +/ 1 2 ( w ),F = r 1 .r 2 = 0,G = r 2 .r 2 = g2(W) ...(2)
Let us consider u(t) ± 0, v(t) * 0. Hence by Theorem 2(i) of 3.3, the canonical
geodesic equations are given either by U = 0 or V= 0.
Without loss of generality, let us find V= 0.

Now r = - [ E M ' 2 + 2FwV + Gv/2]

2

Since g and/are functions of u only, we get

— = 0 and —- = gzv
dv ov

Hence , .
ds [ dv dv as

Thus the canonical geodesic equation V- 0 gives — (g v ) = 0 ...(3)

ds
Integrating (3), we have gV = a ...(4)
where a is an arbitrary constant. If the sense of the curve is in the direction of v
increasing, V is positive and g2 > 0 so that a can be taken to be a positive constant.
Hence (3) gives the differential equation of the geodesic on the surface of
revolution.
Let us take g\u) * a2. Squaring both sides of (4),
gW = otds2
= a2[Edu2 + IFdudv + G dv2]
= o^[{g2 +/i2) du2 + g2dv2] which gives
g2(g2- a2) dv2 = a2(g2 +/ 2 ) du2 ....(5)
so that we have
,2 , rl

where we have taken both the signs, since the curve can change direction as w, v
move on the curve. Integrating (4),
176 Differential Geometry—A First Course

>= P±a\- I—5 V du which can be rewritten as v = a<t> (w, a) + B where a

8\g' -a
and P are constants.
(ii) Let a = 0. Since g2 * 0, v' = 0 from (4)
Hence v = constant which is the equation of the meridian. This proves that every
meridian is a geodesic on the surface of revolution.
(iii) If g(u) = a, then du = 0 from (5). Thus we find u = constant. By Theorem
2(ii) of 3.3, the parametric curve u = constant is a geodesic if and only if U = 0.
Hence let us find U.

Since u' = 0, we have T= - g2v'2.

2

Hence — = 0 and —- = ggxv

du ou

\2
Since z _ Jl U .l 2
v! = 0, ds.2 - I' : Ldv1 I = - y
= g dv so that ...(7)

Using (7) in equation (6)U= — - .

8
Hence 17 = 0 if and only if gl = 0. Butg is the radius of the parallel u = constant
on the surface of revolution. Therefore a parallel is a geodesic on the surface of
revolution if its radius is stationary.
The following theorem known asClairaut's theorem gives the relation between
a geodesic and a meridian on a surface of revolution.
Theorem 2. If a geodesic on a surface of revolution cuts the meridian
through any point P on it at an angle i//; then u sin y/ is constant where u is the
distance of the point P from the axis.
Proof. If a geodesic is a parallel, then it is easy to prove the theorem. For as
the parametric curves are orthogonal on a surface of revolution, a parallel cuts each
71
of the meridian at an angle — and the distance of each of a parallel from the axis is
constant. Thus both u and y^are constants and hence u sin i/ns constant. Hence let
us prove the theorem other than a parallel.
Since u(t) * constant, the canonical geodesic equation is given by V= 0. Taking
the surface of revolution as
r- (u cos v, u sin v,f[u)).

d ,
as in the previous theorem we get V = — ( w2v ) = 0 ...(1)
ds
Geodesies on a Surface 177

Integrating (1) we obtain uV = a ...(2)

where a is a constant. (2) gives the differential equation of a geodesic on the
surface of revolution different from parallel. Let C be this geodesic.
Let P be the point of intersection of the meridian v = constant and C. Let
I du dv
be the direction coefficients of the tangent at P to the geodesic. Since
yds' ds'JJ
the meridian is the parametric curve v = constant, then its direction coefficient at P

isi
w'°
Applying the formula sin 0 = H(lrri - I'm) by taking /' = — , rri = — , / = - = ,
ds ds JE
m = 0,and//= V £ G , F = 0,
, • /TJ77 I dv dv _ 2
we obtain sin w- yjEG —F= — = u — as G = u .
JE ds ds

Hence we have u sin \\r = u2 — ...(3)

ds
Using (2) in (3), we find u sin y/= a which proves Clairaut's theorem.
Corollary 1. The geodesies on a right circular cylinder are helices.
Proof. To show that the geodesic on a right circular cylinder is a helix, we
prove that the geodesies cut the generators at a constant angle.
If the surface of revolution is a right circular cylinder, the meridians are
generators and the distance between the meridian and the axis of the cylinder is a
constant a (say). Hence if i//is the angle between the geodesic and the generator,

then by Clairaut's theorems sin y/= h whereh is a constant. Thus sin y/= — so that
a
yns a constant. Hence a geodesic on a right circular cylinder cuts the generators at
a constant angle and therefore it is a helix.
Corollary 2. If a geodesic on a surface of revolution cuts the meridian at a
constant angle, then the surface is a right cylinder.
Proof. Let the equation of the surface of revolution be
x = u cos v, y = u sin v, z =f(u) ...(1)
To show that (1) is a right cylinder under the hypothesis, we prove that the
surface equation is x2 + y2 = a2.
If y/ is the angle between the meridian and the geodesic on the surface of
revolution (1) at a point P on the surface, by Clairaut's theorem, we have
178 Differential Geometry—A First Course

x +y is the distance of P from the

axis of rotation. From hypothesis yns a constant so that u = is a constant a

sin y/
(say)
Substituting for w, we have*2 +y2 = a2 which is the equation of a right cylinder.

3.5 NORMAL PROPERTY OF GEODESICS

In our study of geodesic equation in the previous sections, the equation of the
surface r = r(w, v) played little role. When we take the equation of the surface into
our study, we are led to an very important characteristic property of geodesies
known as the normal property which states that at every point on the geodesic, its
principal normal coincides with the surface normal and conversely every curve
having this property is a geodesic. Sometimes this characterstic property is itself
taken as the definition of a geodesic so as to avoid distance concept on the surface.
Theorem 1. Any curve u = u(t), v = v(f) on a surface r = r (w, V) is a geodesic
if and only if the principal normal at every point on the curve is normal to the
surface.
Proof. To prove the theorem, we will establish that for a curve on a surface
r = r(w, v) to be a geodesic at a point P on the surface, r" • rx = 0 and r" • r 2 = 0
showing that the principal normal r" = kn of the curve is orthogonal to the
tangential direction rx and r 2 at P so that the principal normal of the curve
coincides with the surface normal.
Since we use the canonical geodesic equations in establising the above result,
we derive the canonical geodesic equations with the help of the following
identities.

^- = r.r l f | ? = r r 2 , U(t) = r ^ V(t) = f r2 ...(1)

ou ov
To prove the above indentities, let us consider

dr
r = — = rjK +r 2 v ...(2)
at

Hence r-r = (rt u + r2 v)2 = Eu2 + 2F uv +Gv2

so that we can take T= — r 2 ...(3)

Differentiating (3) partially, we obtain

iL - • l i ^ 1 - • OL
du du dv dv
Geodesies on a Surface 179

dT . dir dT . dr
y r = r-—, — = r.— ...(4)
ou ou ov ov
Using (2) and differentiating partially, we have
dr , 9r
— = rx and — = r2
dw ov

9r . 3r
— = ruw + r21v, — = r12w + r22v ...(5)
OM dv

32r 32r 32r 32r

where r u = —-j-, r12 = — — , r21 = — — , r22 = — y .
dw OMOV ovou dv

Using (5) in (4), we get

d T 9 r
• r • -i • r •
— = r • [rHK + r21v], — = r • [r12w + r22v]
ou ov
dT dT
-TT = r. r i , — = r-r2 .(6)
ou ov
Now let us find (7(0 and V(0 as follows

d (dT^ dT
We have £/(*) = — — - —
dt [ou ou
Using (6), we obtain
d .
U(t) = — (r-r^-r-CrnW + r^v)

= r-r1 + - ^ - r - r - ( r n « + r21v)

= r-r1 + r-(r n ii + r12v) - r-(rnw +r 21 v)

Using r12 = r21, we get U(t) = r • rj ...(7)

„ . 17/ x d (dT\ dT
Further V(,) = - ^ - j - -

= — (^r 2 )-r(r 1 2 K + r22v)

. d ., .
= r r2 + r — r2 - r(r12w + r22v)
at
= r r2 + r-(r21w + r22v) - r(r12w + r22v)
180 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Hence we have V(t) = r r 2 ...(8)

From (7) and (8), we get the required identities (1). Instead of taking the
parameter r, we can use as well the parameters. In that case we have to replace t by
s in the above working so that we have
U(s) = r''-r1md V(s) = r"-r2
Hence the canonical geodesic equation U(s) = 0, V(s) = 0 implies
r"r1 = 0andr"r2 = 0 ...(9)
(9) shows that r" is perpendicular to the vectors rx and r 2 lying in the tangent
plane at P. Hence r" is the surface normal at P.

„ d2r d (dr) dt
But r " = — r = — — = — = >cn.
ds ds\ds) ds
so that r" is along the principal normal of the geodesic at P. Hence the principal
normal at every point of the geodesic is normal to the surface at P. Since all the
above steps are reversible, the converse is also true. This completes the proof of
the theorem..
Corollary. A curve on a surface is a geodesic if and only if the rectifying
plane is tangent to the surface.
Proof. Since the principal normal to the geodesic at any point P is normal to
the surface, the binormal lies in the tangent plane atP so that the rectifying plane at
a point of the geodesic is the tangent plane to the surface and conversely if the
rectifying plane at a point of a curve on a surface is the tangent plane to the surface
at the point, then the principal normal to the curve is normal to the surface so that
the curve is a geodesic by the normal property.
Note. In the proof of the theorem, we have used canonical geodesic
equations U(s) = 0 and V(s) = 0 so that we can use the Serret-Frenet formula for r"
and arrive at the normal property. Now we can establish the above theorem without
switching over to arc length as parameter as follows.
Proof. We know that a curve on a surface is a geodesic if and only if

B£-V|?.O ...a)
ov ou
From the identities in the proof of the theorem, we have
dT dT
U= r-r x , V= r r2, — = rrh — = r r 2 ...(2)
ou ov
Using (2) in (1), we obtain
(r-rj) (r-r 2 ) - (r-r 2 ) (r-rj) = 0 which is the same as
(^xrjMr x f ) = 0 ...(3)
r x r
i 2 gi ye s the direction of the normal to the surface. But r and f gives the
directions of the tangent and normal to the geodesic so that r x r is along the
Geodesies on a Surface 181

direction of the binormal to the geodesic. Equation (3) shows that the surface
normal is perpendicular to the binormal to the curve at P. Hence the surface normal
coincides with the principal normal to the geodesic at P.
Remark. Since the above theorem is the characterisation of a geodesic on a
surface, we can use it to check whether the given curve on a surface is a geodesic or
not a geodesic.
For example, a great circle on a sphere is a geodesic, since the outward drawn
normal at a point on the sphere is the same as the normal tothe great circle passing
through that point.
Example 1. Two surfaces touch each other along a curve. Prove that if the curve
is a geodesic on one surface, it is a geodesic on the other also.
Let the surfaces S and 5* touch each other along a curve y. Let n be the
principal normal at any point P on y. Let N and N* be the normals at P to the
surfaces S and S* respectively. Since S and 5* touch each other along y, they have
the same tangent at P to y and consequently we have N = N*.
Let y be a geodesic on S so that by the normal property we have n = N. Since N
= N*, we have n = N*. Hence yis a geodesic on S* also by the same normal
property.
Example 2. Prove that every helix on a cylinder is a geodesic and conversely.
We shall prove that the surface normal to the cylinder coincides with the
principal normal to the helix on the cylinder so that the helix is a geodesic on the
cylinder by the normal property.
Let the generators of the cylinder be parallel to a constant vector a. Let y be the
helix on the cylinder and let P be a point on y. Let t, n be the tangent and principal
normal at P to y. Since the helix cuts the generators at a constant angle, we have
t a = constant. ...(1)

dt dsi
Differentiating (1), we have — a +1 =0 ...(2)
ds ds
Since a is a constant vector, equation (2) gives fen • a = 0. As t • n = 0, the
condition n • a = 0 and t • n = 0 together imply that n is perpendicular to a and t so
that n is parallel to a x t.
But both a and t are tangential to the surface of the cylinder and so a x t is
parallel to the surface normal. Thus the same vector a x t gives the direction of both
the principal normal to y and the surface normal so that y is a geodesic.
To prove the converse, let us take a geodesic yon a cylinder and show that it is
a helix. At every point P on y, we have n-a = N a . Since a is parallel to the
generator of the cylinder, N • a = 0 and hence n • a = 0

Since JC^O, n a = 0 implies £ n a so that — a = 0 ...(1)

ds

da
As a is a constant vector we have t =0 ...(2)
ds
182 Differential Geometry—A First Course

dt da d
Using (1) and (2), a+t = —(t-a) = 0 which proves that t-a is constant.
ds ds ds
Hence the geodesic y cuts the generators at a constant angle and therfore it is a
helix.
Example 3. Show that a curve on a sphere is a geodesic if and only if it is a great
circle.
Let 7 be a geodesic on a sphere with centre C having the position vector a. Let
P be any point on 7. Then the surface normal N at P passes through C. Let r be the
position vector of P. Since the principal normal n to 7 has the same direction as N,
we can write r = a + An ...(1)

Differentiating (1), — = — A + n — w h i c h gives

ds ds ds

t =(rb-x-t)A + n — ...(2)
ds
Equating the coefficient of b on both sides we get AT = 0 Since A * 0, r = 0
showing that 7 is a plane curve. Thus 7 is a plane curve lying on the sphere and the
principal normals at all points of 7 pass through the centre of the sphere. Therefore
7 is the section of the sphere by a plane passing through its centre. Hence 7 is a
great circle.
Conversely every great circle on the sphere is a geodesic. For if 7 is a great
circle on the sphere, then at each point P of 7, we have N = n so that 7 is a great
circle.

3.6 DIFFERENTIAL E Q U A T I O N S OF G E O D E S I C S
U S I N G N O R M A L PROPERTY
The normal property of geodesies is given by the identities r" • rx = 0 and r" • r 2 = 0.
Using the equation of a surface r = r(w, v), we shall express the normal property in
terms of r and its partial derivatives and establish how the new equation derived
from the normals property is equivalent to the canonical geodesic equations
derived earlier. We also use the Christoffel symbols to express the new equations
elegantly.
Theorem 1. The geodesic equations are

Eu" + Fv" + -Exu'2 + E2uV + (F2 - - G, 1 v'2 = 0 ...(I)

Fw" + Gv" + [Fx - - E2 j u'2 + G,uV + -G 2 v / 2 = 0 ...(II)

Proof. Let the equation of the surface be r = r(w, v) where u = u(s) and
v = v(s).
Geodesies on a Surface 183

, dr dr du dr dv , . „ .
Now r = —- = +- which gives
ds ou ds ov ds
r , = r1M/ + r2v/ ...(1)
Differentiating (1) with respect to st we have
r" = (rnu + r12v') u + rxu" + (r21u + r22v') v' + r2v" which gives
r" = rlW" + r2v" + rnu'2 + 2 r12wV + r22 v'2 ...(2)
From the normal property we have r" • Tj = 0 and r" • r{ = 0 ...(3)
Taking the scalar product of (2) with rx and r2 respectively and using (3), we
obtain
rx • rxu" + r2- YXV" + r n • i^w'2 + 2 r12- i^wV + r22- rtv'2 = 0 ...(4)
2 /2
r r r2n" + r2 • r2v" + r n • r2w' + 2r12 • r2u V + r22 • r2v = 0 .. .(5)
We shall rewrite (4) and (5) using the first fundamental coefficients and their
partial derivatives for the coefficients of u", v", w'2, v/2, and wV as follows
Now lyi*! = EtF = r1r2>r2r2 = G.
1 9 , 2, 1 dE 1
2 ou 2 ou 2

1 d , 2 \ dE 1^
rr1 r12 = - — u(iV) = - — = - E22 ...(7)
2 3v 2 3v 2

rP . 1 3 , *_ l 3 G J
2 Pr22 = T "J~ (rP2> = T "T- = T r G 2
™
-(8)
2 dv 2 dv 2

1 9 , 2. 1 dG 1
*V r2i = T 5 - (r 2 ) = - "T~ = - G{ ...(9)
2 ow 2 ou 2
Further — (r2 • r2) = r n • r2 + 1^ • r21 which gives

r 2 Tn = FX-±E2 -(10)

— (rx • r2) = r12 • r2 + rx • r22 which gives

dv

r,r 2 2 = F 2 - i o , ...(H)

Using (6), (7) and (11) in (4), we have

Eu" + Fv" + - Exu'2 + E2uV + (F2 - - G, 1 v'2 = 0 ...(I)

184 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Using (8), (9) and (10) in (5), we obtain

FK" + Gv" + (Fx - - E2 j u2 + GxuV + - G2v'2 = 0 ...(H)

Theorem 2. The equations (I) and (II) of Theorem 1 are the same as the
canonical geodesic equations

u = jL(BL)_ d_r=0 ...(1)

ds \du' du

dT} dT
V= i i " — = 0 ...(2)
ds
\dv'J dv
in a different form.

Proof. Let T = - [Eu'2 + 2 FuV + G v'2]

2
dT
Then we have = Eu' + Fv' ...(3)
du'
d (dT) (dE , dE ,) , „ „ (dF , dF ,\
+ t r+ v' +Fv'
* 17 " V' 87'T * V^''
= Exu'2 + E2u'v' + Eu" + F, u'v' + F2v'2 + Fv' •••(4)

and ^ = - [Exu'2 + 2FlU'v' + G,v'2] ...(5)

au 2

Further ^=Fu' + Gv' •••(6)

dv'

— [ | I . I = F ,M'2 + F 2 «V + FM" + G, u'v' + G2v'2 + Gv" ...(7)

dsydv'j

^ - =- [F 2 K' 2 + 2 F 2 «V + G2v'2] •••(8)

ov 2
Hence using equations (4) and (5), we have

— 11^-1 - ^ = Eu"+ Fv" + E2u'v' + F.uV + - E,u"

, , « * - . F,wV
-,. +
ds\du' ) du 2

F2 — G x v'2 so that equation (1) becomes

Eu" + Fv" + - Exu'2 + E2u'v' + (F 2 - - G , j v'2 = 0

Geodesies on a Surface 185

In a similar manner using equation (7) and (8), we get

— ( 4 ^ 1 - ^ = Fu" + Gv" + ffjx - -E2)2 u'2 + G,*V

x + I G22v'2 = 0
ds{dv'J dv K 2 ) 2
Hence equation (2) becomes

Fu" + Gv" + \FX - - £ 2 1 w'2 + G lW V + - G2 v' 2 = 0

This proves that equations (I) and (II) are equivalent to (1) and (2)
Note. Equations (I) and (II) can also be written as

— (Eu' + Fv') = - [Exu'2 + 2FxuV + Gy2]

ds 2

— {Fu' + Gv') = - [E2u'2 + 2F2uV + G2v/2]

ds 2
We obtain the above equation by straight way substituting equations (3), (5),
(6) and (8) in the canonical geodesic equations (1) and (2) respectively.
In the following theorem, we shall obtain the formula for u" and v"

Theorem 3. (a) u" = Kr [ lu2 + 2 muV + nv'2]

2HZ
where / = (GEX - 2FFX + FE2), m = GE2 - FGX
and n = (2GF 2 - GGX - FG2)

l
(b) v" = — (Xu'2 + 2fi M V + vv/2)
2Hl
where X = (2EFX - EE2 - FEx)t ji = (EGX -EE 2 )
and v = (EG2 - 2FF2 + FGX)
Proof. We solve for u" and v" from the geodesic equations (I) and (II) of
Theorem 1.

Eu" + Fvf/ + - Exu'2 + E2u'v' + (F2 - ~G, 1 V2 = 0 ...(1)

Fu" + Gv" + [ Fx - - E2 J u/2 + Gxuv + - G2v'2 = 0 ...(2)

Now(l)G-(2)Fgives

(EG - F2) u" + - (GEX - 2FFX + FE2) u/2 + (GE2 - FGX) u'V

+ - (2GF2 - GGX - FG2) v'2 = 0 ...(3)

186 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Replacing the coefficients of amd v'2 by /, m and n respectively,

we obtain u" = (lu'2 + 2m uV + nv' 2 )

2
2H
In a similar manner let us solve for v"
Now (2)E-(1)F gives

H\" + -(2EFX - E E 2 - FEX) u'2 + (EGX - PE2) uV

+ -{EG2-2FF2 + GlF)v'2 = 0 ...(4)

Using A, /z and v for coefficients of w'2, wV and v'2,

We obtain v" = ^Aw' 2 + 2[iuV + vv / 2 ) which completes the proof of

2H
the theorem.
In the subsequent part of this section, we use tensor notation involving
Christoffel symbols of the first kind Tijk and second kind Tjk and modify the
geodesic equations (I) and (II) of Theorem 1 and other two equations obtained
from (I) and (II).
Definition 1. Let ij, k = 1,2. Then rijk is defined as

T/,* = - {(r r rj)k + (iy r*); - (r, • r*),.}

where ( ),- and other two similar symbols stand for partial differentiation with
respect to u or v according as / = 1,2.
Using the above definition, the expression on the right hand side reduces to
r,« • rjk as shown below.
_ 1
r
ijk - T \rik'rj + ri'rjk + rij'rk + ri' rkj" r
ji' rk ~ rj' rkU

Hence Tijk = iy rjk for /,;,fc= 1,2 ...(1)

In particular, let us verify Tl22 = — i y r22.

Now T122 = - {(iyr 2 ) 2 + (iy r 2 ) 2 - (iy r ^ }

= (ri r2)+ (ri r2)_ (r2 r2)

H^ ' ^ ' ^ '
a i a
-•5-(rrr2)--r-(r2-r2)
OV 2 0W
Geodesies on a Surface 187

= iy r22 + r2- r12 - r 2 -r 21 = ly r 22

Hence r 122 = i y r22. Thus we have verified the case when i = 1, and 7, k = 2.
Theorem 4. If T^, /, j , £ = 1, 2 are the Christoffel symbols of the first kind,
then the geodesic equations are
Eu" + FV + rmu'2 + 2r 112 iiV + r 122 v /2 = o ...(i)
Fw" + Gv" + r 21 {u'2 + 2r 212 wV + r 222 v' 2 = o ...(2)
Proof. Using repeatedly Tijk = iy r jk proved after its definition, we identify
the coefficients of the different derivatives in the following geodesic equations

Eu" + Fv" + -Exu'2 + E2u'v' + (F2 - - Gx J V2 = 0 ...(3)

Fu" + Gv" + \Fl--E2) u'2 + GxuV + -G 2 v' 2 = 0 ...(4)

\ 2 ) 2
with the Christoffel symbols of the first kind Tljk and T2jk for j , k = 1, 2 as shown
below.

r 1 i 1 =r 1 .r n =iA ( r 2 ) = I £ l ...(5)
2 d« 2

r 112 = r 1 - r 1 2 = j ^ - ( r 1 2 ) = i £ 2 ...(6)
2 dv 2

Since r 12 = r21, T112 = T121 = l y r 21 = - E2 ...(7)

Now r 1 2 2 = i y r 2 2 = i y —*-
dv

To find r,1 • — - , let us consider

dv

— (iy r2) = r 12 r 2 + i y r22, and also —(r 2 2 ) = 2r 2 - - ^ - = 2r 2 r 21

dv ou ou
From the above two eqations, we obtain
r) 1 r) 1
iYr22 = ^ " ( r i - r 2 ) - - — (r22) = F2- - Gi
dv 2 ou 2

This proves that T122 = r x • r 22 = F 2 Gx ...(8)

Next let us find T2jk for j , fc = 1, 2 in terms of the derivatives of E, F and G.

 Differential Geometry—A First Course
188

r222 = r 2 r 2 2 = ^ ( r 2 2 ) = i G 2 ...(9)
2 ov 2

F
221 = r 2' r 21 = " T"( r 2 2 ) = T G
l
2 ou 2

Since r 12 = r21, T221 = T212 = i y r12 = y Gj ...(10)

3r,
Now r 2 1 1 = r 2 - r n = r2.-—
ou
d
r - (r 2 • r2) = r 2 • r u + rx • r21 so that
ou
r) 1
r 2 - r u = — ( i y r 2 ) - i y r 2 1 = F i - - E2 from (7)
ou 2

Thus we obtain T 211 = Fj - - E2 ...(11)

Using (5), (6) and (8) in (3) we obtain equation (1) and in a similar manner
using (9), (10) and (11) in (4) we obtain (2). This completes the proof of the
theorem.
Note. We can obtain the equations (1) and (2) by straight away subsitituting
the Christoffel symbols of the first kind in equations (4) and (5) of Theorem 1.
As a next step in the use of tensor notation, let us define Christoffel symbols of
second kind denoted by Tljk for ij, k = 1, 2 in terms of the symbols of first kind.
Definition 2. The Christoffel symbols of the second kind denoted by Tljk for
ij, k= 1, 2 are defined as
r
jk = H~ (Gr\jk-Fr2jk)>rjk = H~ (Er2jk~Fr\jk)
Since the Christoffel symbols of the first kind are function of E{, Flt Gx and
E2y F 2 , G 2 , we can also express the Christoffel symbols of the second kind also in
terms of these quantities.
Theorem 5. If Txjk and r2jk are Christoffel symbols of the second kind, the
geodesic equations are
u" + r ^ u'2 + 2rl 2 I I V + T\2 v1 = o ...(i)
2 1 2
v" + r n u' + 2 r 12 wV + r222 v'2 =o ...(2)
Proof. As in the previous theorem, we identify the coefficients of the
different derivatives of the following geodesic equations

H2u" + -(GE{ -2FFX +FE2) u'2 + (GE2-FGl) uV

+ -(2GF2-GG,-FG2)v/2 = 0 ...(3)
Geodesies on a Surface 189

H2v" + ^-(2EF1-EE2-FEl) u'2 + (EG, -FE 2 ) u'v'

+ -(EG2- 2FF2 + FGX) V2 = 0 •(4)

of Theorem 3 with the Christoffel symbols of the second kind as follows.

rl\ = H-2(Grm-Fr2U) = fr2 \GE,-F\FX -w

= /r 2 -GEX -FFX
1 1
+-FE2
2
•••(5)
2 2

r12 = / r [Gr112-Fr212] = / r --G^2-—FGJ •••(6)

r22 = / r [G r122 - F r222] = H~ {«-\c)-\ FG,

= Wl G F0 GGi — F Go •••(7)
2 l 2
2 2

r21=H-2[Erm-Frm] = H-2 E^-'-EX'-FE,

= H~< EF--EE.--FE, • ••(8)

r22=H-2(Er2l2-Frm) = H-2(jEGl-±FE2^ ...(9)

T22=H~ (EY222-F Tl22) = H~ \-EG2-F\F2--Gl

= H~< -EG2-FF2+-FG, •(10)

2 2
2 2 '
Since H2 * 0 using (5), (6) and (7) in (3), we get equations (1) and (8), (9) and
(10) in (4), we get equation (2). This completes the proof of the Theorem.
Note. Equations involving Christoffel symbols of the first kind and second
kind in the above two theorems are equivalent forms of geodesic equations
(I) and (II) of Theorem 1. Hence all of them are equivalent to the canonical
geodesic equations.
Example 1. Obtain the geodesies of the plane in polar coordinates using tensor
equations of Theorems 4 and 5.
 Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com
190 Differential Geometry—A First Course

If (r, 0) are the polar coordinates of the plane, then its metric is given by
ds2 = dr2 + r2d02
For this metric, we have the following
(i) E=l,Ex=09E2 = 0,
(ii) F = 0 , F 1 = F 2 = 0
(iii) G = r 2 ,G!= 2r 1 ,G 2 = 0 ...(1)
Using these values, the Christoffel symbols of the first kind are
r i n = o, r112 = o, r121 = r 112 = o, r 122 = - r ...(2)
r 222 = o, r221 = r,r 2 1 2 =r 2 2 1 = r, r211 = o ...(3)
Taking u = r, and v = 0, the geodesic equation of Theorem 4 are

r"-r0'2 = Oand0"+-r'0' = O ...(4)

r
We shall show that the above equation are the same as the equation of
Theorem 5.
Substituting the values in (1) or using (2) and (3), the Christoffel symbols of
the second kind are

i n = o, r/ 2 = o, nj 2 = -r, r 2 = o, r 2 2 = ±, r222 = o ...(5)

Hence the geodesic equation of Theorem 5 are

r"-r0'2 = Oand0"+-r'0' = O ....(6)

r
Equations (4) and (6) are one and the same. Hence the geodesic equations of
Theorem 5 are the same as those of Theorem 4 in different form.
To find the geodesic of the plane, it is enough if we solve the equation
2 0" 2
0" + V 0 ' = Oor — + - r , = 0 ...(7)
r 0 r
d ( d6^\ d 2
Rewriting equation (7) as — log — + — log r = 0
ds \ ds) ds

and integrating, we obtain — r 2 = c ...(8)

ds
where c is the constant of integration, From equation (8) we have
r4 dd2 = c2 ds2 = c2 [dr1 + r2 d92] giving

r V - c2) d& = c2 dr2 or dO = .c dr ...(9)

2
rft^c
To integrate (9), let r = c sec t so that dr = c sec t tan t dt.

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Geodesies on a Surface 191

TT (jn Cc sec ttentdt ..fr^ . . -1 ( O

Hence \dd = c\ = t = sec - giving sec - = 6 + a,
^ J c sec re tan/ \cj ycj
a being constant of integration.
Thus the plane geodesies are given by r = c sec (0 + a).
Example 2. Using Christoffel symbols equations of geodesies, obtain the
geodesic equation of surface of revolution and show that they can be solved by
quadratures.
Let the surface of revolution be r = [u cos v, u sin v,/(w)]
Then its metric is ds2 = (1 +f2) du2 + u2 dv2
For this metric, we have the following
(i) E=l+f2,El = 2flfn,E2 = 0
(ii) F = 0 , F 1 = F 2 = 0
(iii) G = w2, Gx = 2«, G2 = 0 and
(iv) H2 = (l+f2)u2
Using these values the Christoffel symbols of the first kind are
Tin =/i/n> r 112 = r 121 = o, r 122 = -«, r 211 = o, r 212 = r 221 = «, r 222 = o...(i)
Hence the geodesic equation of Theorem 4,
(1 +fl2) u" +fjnu'2-uV2 = 0, uv" + 2IIV = 0 ...(2)
We also obtain the above equation using Theorem 5.
Using (i) to (iv) or the Christoffel symbols of the first kind, we have

l _ /l/ll pi _n r1 -u
r
1
11 - . rl ' l
12 - U
> l
22 -
, Tj i = o, r 12 = —, r 22 = o
1 +
/l 1+/, 2
u

Hence using the geodesic equation of the Theorem 5, we get

(1 +f2) u" +ffn u'2 -uv'2 = 0, v" + - uV = 0 ...(3)
u
Hence equations (2) and (3) are one and the same. To find the geodesic on the
surface of revolution, it is enough if we solve one of the equations (3).
.2 v" 2
Consider the equation v" + — uV = 0or — + — w' = 0 ...(4)
u v' u
Rewriting the equation (4) as — log — + —(log W 2 ) = 0
ds ds

t . dv 2
and integrating we obtain — u =c ...(5)
ds
where c is the constant of integration. From equation (5), we have
u4dv2 = c2ds2 = c 2 [(l +fx2) du2 + u2dv2] which gives
192 Differential Geometry—A First Course

dv = ±C • du so that v = ±c \ • du
UyjU ~( UyJU2 - (

Hence the geodesies on the surface of revolution can be found by quadratures.

3.7 EXISTENCE THEOREMS

From Theorem 1 of 3.6, we know that the geodesic equation on a surface are
characterised by simultaneous second order differential equations (I) and (II) of
two functions u and v. Thus the existence of geodesies on a surface is guaranteed
by the solution of these differential equations.
Since EG - F 2 * 0 , the geodesic equations (I) and (II) of Theorem 1 of 3.6 can
be solved for u" and v" as
«/,=Mv,«/,v)y,=«(«.v,«,,v;)
where/and g are quadratic functions of u and v with single valued functions u
and v as coefficients. Instead of using these two simultaneous second order
differential equations for obtaining the existence of solutions, we can obtain a
single differential equation from (I) and (II) and ascertain the existence of
geodesies on a surface with the help of the solution of the single differential
equation. We adopt this method in the following existence theorem.
Theorem 1. A geodesic can be found to pass through any given point and
have any given direction on a surface. The geodesic is uniquely determined by the
initial conditions.
Proof. The method of proof is to derive a single second order differential
equation from (I) and (II) of Theorem 1 of 3.6 and deduce the existence «of a
geodesic at a point from the uniqueness of solution of the initial value problem of
such a differential equation.
dv _ dv ds
Now we have — " ds ~du
du
d2v _ d dv ds ds^ dv d f ds
and —7T 2
du ds du ds ' du) ds du\du
du2

_ d2vfds^ dv_A.iL
ds2 \du) ds du\u

'ds^ ds dv
.'2
ds2 du) du ds

d\_ ds ds d_v_
Hence ...(1)
du2 ds2
du du 'du
 Geodesies on a Surface 193

From Theorem 3 of 3.6, we have

K" = -(lu'2 + 2mu'v' + nv'2) ...(2)
...(3)
2 \2
^
Now (3) gives
du du {du

2 \2
^ dv ( dsA . dv [dv
X + 2ji— + v —
du du I du du I du
J

\3
i dv <dv* dv
I—+ 2m +n ••(4)
du du) \du ^

Using (1) in the left hand side of (4) and simplifying, we obtain
1
d2v
2 !
dv
+ (2m - v)
u^ + (/-2jU) ...(5)
du du ydu
From the existence and uniqueness of solution of the initial value problem of
an ordinary differential equation of second order, there exists a unique solution for
dv
v of (5) with the initial conditions v = v0 and — = v] at u = u0. Thus any solution
du
w, v of (5) gives the direction coefficient of the tangent at P. Hence a geodesic is
uniquely determined by the initial point P and the tangent at P under the given
conditions.
Note. Identifying /, m, n, A, \i and v with the Christoffel symbols of the
second kind given in Theorem 5 of 3.6, the differential equation (5) can also be
written as

^--r^^-^^-2^^
Since the uniqueness of the initial value problem asserts the existence of a geodesic
at a given point in a given direction, it is possible to join the given point to a
sufficiently near point Q by a geodesic arc. This has motivated us to look for a
result giving the local existence of geodesies. In this connection, we have the
following theorem for surfaces of class 3.
Theorem 2. Every point P on a surface has a neighbourhood N with the
property that every point of N can be joined by a unique geodesic arc which lies
wholly in N.
This theorem is known as second existence theorem whose proof depends
upon the study of the differential equations of geodesies given in Theorems 4 and
5 of the previous section. We omit the proof and note the following fact alone.
194 Differential Geometry—A First Course

If Q is a point in the neighbourhood N of P, then it is possible to find a

direction at P such that the geodesic through P in the direction passes through Q.
This theorem does not assert that the geodesic afc PQ lying in N is unique. There
may be many arcs like PQ which may not lie in N.
After giving a few necessary definitions, we state two theorems of Whitehead
on local existence of geodesies without proofs, since the proofs of these theorems
are beyond the scope of the book.
Definition 1. A region R on a surface is said to be convex if any two points of
the surface can be joined by a geodesic arc lying wholly in R.
Definition 2. The region R is said to be simple if there is only one geodesic
arc joining any two points and lying entirely in it.
For instance, noting that straight lines are geodesies in the Euclidean plane, a
convex region is necessarily simple because there is only one straight line segment
joining two points in the Euclidean plane. Further a sphere is an example of a
convex region but it is not simple. Since the smaller arc as well as the greater arc of
a great circle through two points are both geodesic arcs, there are two geodesic arcs
joining two points and lying wholly on the sphere.
Theorem 3 (Whitehead). Every point P of a surface has a neighbourhood
which is convex and simple.
In the previous theorem, we dealt with a particular point where the solution is
guaranteed locally so that this point can be joined to a point in the neighbourhood
by a geodesic arc. But the stress in the Whitehead's theorem is different in the
sense that every point on the surface should have the same property. That is, it is
not a particular point having the neighbourhood which is joined to others of the
neighbourhood by geodesic arcs. The Whitehead theorem states that every point
on the surface is joined uniquely to every other point of the neighbourhood by a
geodesic.
Definition 3. A geodesic disc with centre P and radius r is the set of points Q
on the surface such that there is a geodesic arc PQ of length not greater than i\
Using the above definition of a geodesic disc, Whitehead proved the following.
Theorem 4. For every point P on the surface, there is an e > 0 such that every
geodesic disc of centre P and radius r < £ is convex and simple.
Theorem 4 is a particular case of Theorem 3, since it is concerned with a
particular point on the surface and associated neighbourhood defined by a
geodesic disc.
Example 1. On a circular cylinder of radius a, find the least upper bound for the
radius of a simple convex geodesic disc and prove that the geodesic disc of greater
radius is convex but not simple.
At a point P on a circular cylinder, meridians, parallels and helices through P
are geodesies. To find the geodesic disc at P, let us consider a helix through P. Let
the equation of the helix be r = a (cos w, sin w, u cot a) where 0 < u < In and a is
the angle made by the helix with a fixed direction. To find the geodesic disc at P,
we need the arcual distance along the geodesic. Let Q be any point on the geodesic.
Then the arcual distance PQ = s= yja2(\ + cot2 a) u so that s = au cosec a.
Geodesies on a Surface 195

As u varies from 0 to 2/r, s varies from 0 to — — .

sin a
2na
Hence the maximum length of a geodesic arc is , when it is measured
sin a
from P. As it is seen in the particular case of meridians and parallels as geodesies,
a takes the values from zero to 2n. Hence the least upper bound of the set of

{ 2na}
sin a J
> is 2na. Thus the least upper bound for the radius of a simple

convex geodesic disc is 2na. If we consider a geodesic disc of greater radius with
centre P, it is convex because there is a geodesic arc joining P to Q but there will be
another geodesic arc joining P to Q after one rotation. Therefore a geodesic disc of
greater radius is not simple.
The next question is whether between any two points P, Q on a surface there
exists infinitely many geodesies or finitely many geodesies or there is only one
geodesic joining the two points. We shall answer these questions one by one by
suitable examples. In all these examples we use the intrinsic property of surfaces
which states that if the surfaces S and S' are isometric and if C is a geodesic on 5,
then its image C" is a geodesic on S'.
Example 2. On a cylinder, there are infinitely many geodesic arcs passing
through a given point.
Let us consider the isometric mapping between a cylinder and the plane. This
can be obtained by wrapping the plane round the cylinder once or several times,
After wrapping, the straight line in the plane will become on the cylinder either a
circle (parallel) or a generator (meridian) or a helix depending upon the position of
the straight line in the plane. The image of the straight line on the cylinder other
than the circle and the generator is a helix because the image of the straight line
cuts the generators of the cylinder at a constant angle. Since a straight line on a
plane is a geodesic, its isometric image viz. the helix is a geodesic on the cylinder.
Conversely every helix on the cylinder will correspond to a straight line in the
plane. Thus on the cylinder, every helix is a geodesic. If two points P and Q do not
lie on a circular section, they can be joined by infinitely may helices and therefore
there are infinitely many geodesic arcs passing through a given point.
When we consider the point P as fixed and join P to Q by several geodesic arcs
on the cylinder and unroll the cylinder on the plane, we get different images Q{ of
Q on the plane because of the difference in the arcual length PQ so that each PQt
on the plane is a straight line.
Note. When we consider the plane wrapped round the cylinder several times,
there will be infinitely many images of Q on the plane after the unrolling of the
cylinder. So fixing one image of P, we obtain various straight lines joining the
image of P to various images of Q. This shows that how different helices join the
same pair of points P and Q on the cylinder.
196 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Example 3. Show that the geodesies on a torus given by x = (b + a cos u) cos v,

y = (b + a cos u) sin v, z = tf sin u where 0<u<2n and 0 < v < 2 ^ are given by
cadr
dv - i 0 — I 0 = where r = b + acosu
rja2-(r-b)2 yjr2 -c2
For the given torus, we know that ds2 = a du2 + (b + a cos w)2 dv2
Taking the arc length as parameter, we have

T=- [a2u'2 + (b + acosu)2v'2]

So ^ = 0, - ^ = (b + a cos w)2 v' ...(1)

ov dv

Since —-• = 0, the canonical equation of the geodesic

ov
dT
becomes— = 0 which gives - — = constant = c (say) ...(2)
ds dv'
Using (1) in (2) and squaring, we get
(b + a cos u)4 v'2 - c2
Substituting for ds2, we obtain
(b + a cos u)4 dv2 = c2[a2 du2 + (b + a cos uf dv2]
O ' 0 0 0 0 0 0

or (b + a cos u) [(b + a cos u) - c ] dv =c a du which gives

± ca du
dv =
{b + a cos u) Tj(b + a cos u)2 - c2
Let us rewrite the above equation using the substitution r = b + a cos u.

Ja2 -(r-b)2
Now dr - -a sin u du and sin u =

± ca dr
Thus we have dv =
2
r^a -(r-b)2 -yjr2 -c2
Note. The form of the integral suggests the nature of the geodesic on the
anchor ring. However we note that there are infinitely many geodesic arcs on the
anchor ring which is obtained by joining any two points P, Q not on the same
meridian. These arcs make any number of turns in the same sense on either side of
the meridians and parallel circles. We cannot prove these by simple methods as in
the case of a cylinder because the anchor ring is not locally isometric to the plane.
Since the method of proof is difficult, we omit the proof.
Example 4. The cone is a surface of revolution on which one can find a limited
number of geodesies on the surface.
Geodesies on a Surface 197

In this example also, the different geodesic arcs PQ are obtained by taking
different number of turns round the cone in either sense.
By establishing an isometric mapping between the surface of the cone and a
sector of the plane by rolling the cone over the plane, we verify that there is a
limited number of geodesies on the surface.
We can set up a local isometry between the cone and a sector of the plane by
rolling the cone over the plane. The rolling may be repeated according to the
number of revolutions on the plane to complete the circle. The images of the point
Q are Qx, Q2... in one sense preferably on the right side and Q_i, 2_ 2 in the other
sense on the left. P will have different images on the plane. If P' is the first image
of P in the sector between Qx and Q_ j, then the geodesic arc PQ which pass round
the cone in one sense will correspond to straight lines P'QXi P'Q2 ... and in the
other direction, the geodesies correspond to the straight lines P'Q_X, P'Q_\, ...
Hence in either case, the number of geodesies is limited.
We illustrate the above local isometry in the particular case of a cone with
semi-vertical angle a= 30°.
Let / be the slant height of the cone with semi-vertical angle a. Then the
circumference of the base circle of the cone is 2 nl sin a. If we unroll the cone on
the plane, the slant height is the radius of the sector and the circumference is the
arc-length. Let 0be the angle subtended by the arc at the centre.
Then.s = /0=2;r/sin a so that 0 = 2/rsin a.
If n is the number of revolutions of the cone on the plane to obtain a full circle.

In sin a sin a

Fig. 11

71
Hence when a - —, then 6 = n and n = 2 so that the circular sector is a
6
semi-circle and we need two turns of the cone in the plane to complete the circle as
in the Fig. 11. If PQ is the geodesic arc on the cone, then the image of Q will be Qx
on the right half circle and Q_x on the left semi-circle. If P* is the first image of P,
then the geodesies arc PQ which pass round the cone in one sense corresponds to
the straight line FQX and the arc which pass round the cone in the opposite sense
corresponds to P'Q_V
198 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Example 5. Geodesic equation on a right circular cone

x = u cos v, y = u sin v, z = u cot a
are given by u = h sec(v sin a + p) where /i and /J are constants.
9 9 9 9 9

For this cone, we have ds =cosec adu +u dv .

Using arc length as parameter, we have
T=-[Eu'2 + 2FuV + Gv'2]
2

= - [cosec2 a u'2 + u2 v'2]

dT dT
n A 2 ,
Now — = 0 and — = u v
dv dv'
Thus the canonical equation of a geodesic on the cone —
ds dv' ov

becomes — (wV) = 0 which gives wV = constant = h (say).

ds
Squaring the above equation on both sides and using the value of ds2, we obtain
u4 dv2 = h2 ds2 = h2 [cosec2 a du2 + u2 dv2]
or u2(u2 - h2) dv2 = h2 cosec2 a du2 which gives

sin adv = —, du.

uyju2 -h2
Since u2* h2, integrating the above equation,

we have v sin a + /J = sec | — |ororuw= = /z sec (v sin a+ p) where /z and /? are

constants.
Example 6. Prove that on a right circular cone of semi vertical angle a, every
n
point can be joined to itself by a geodesic arc if a < —. If this condition is satisfied
6
prove that the number of geodesic arcs joining a point to itself is the greatest
integer less than (2 sin a)"1. Prove also that this is the number of times a geodesic
other than a generator intersect itself.
As in Example 4, the number of revolutions of the cone to obtain a full circle is

•. So the number of revolutions needed on one side is

sin a 2 sin a
Let P be the point of contact of the cone with the plane. After one complete
revolution, let P' be the position on the plane. Then the straight line PP' will
correspond isometrically to the arc of a geodesic joining P to itself. For this to
happen, we must have more than one complete revolution on one side. Since
Geodesies on a Surface 199

• gives the number of revolutions on one side, we must have > 1 for
2 sin a 2 sin a
more than one complete revolution. Hence sin a< — or a< —.
2 6
Further the number of geodesic arcs joining the point P to itself can be obtained
one after another after each revolution on one side. As the maximum number of

revolution on one side is given by , the maximum number of geodesic arcs

2 sin a
joining this point P to itself is the greatest integer less than (2 sin a)~l.
To find the number of times a geodesic other than a generator intersect itself,
we use the formula of a geodesic given in the previous example. Let the geodesic
intersect itself n times. If u starts with the positive sense in the direction of s
increasing, it returns to the initial position in the negative sense after each rotation.
Hence equating the initial value of u and the value of u of the n-th rotation when it
returns to its original position,
cos [(2nn+ v) sin a+ p\ = (-1) 2 "' 1 cosfv sin a + p]
Thus cos [(2 n n + v) sin a + p\ = - cos [v sin a + p] from which
wehave cos[(2rc;r+ v) sin a + p\ = cos[v sin a + /5+ n]
Hence (2nn+ v)sin a+ fi = vsin a + /J+ tfsothat
2 n sin a = 1 giving n = where we take n to be the greatest integer less
2 sin a
than (2 sin a)"1.
Example 7. Show that on a right circular cone, the number of goedesics joining
two given points may be one or more but strictly limited.
Let us consider a right circular cone of semivertical angle a. As in Example 4,
the number of turns needed to obtain a full circle instead of a sector in the plane is

. Hence if we unroll it continuously more than times, the resulting

sin a sin a
sector will exceed a circle and therefore any two points cannot always be joined by
a straight line lying on this multiple circle. So the number of geodesies joining two
given points may be one or more but strictly limited.

3.8 GEODESIC PARALLELS

Since geodesies on surfaces behave like straight lines in planes, we formulate a
coordinate system on a surface with the help of geodesies. As a prelude to this, we
introduce geodesic parallels in the following.
Theorem 1. For any given family of geodesies on a surface, a parametric
system can be chosen so that the metric takes the form ds2 = du2 + G(w, v) dv2
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200 Differential Geometry—A First Course

The given geodesies are the parametric curves v = constant and their
orthogonal trajectories are given by u = constant, u being the distance measured
along a geodesic from a fixed parallel.
Proof. Given a family of geodesic curves, let us choose a system of
parameters such that the geodesies of the family are given by v = constant and their
orthogonal trajetories are given by u - constant. Since v = constant and
u - constant form an orthogonal parametric system, F = 0.
We know that v = constant is a geodesic if and only if
EE2 + FEI-2EFl=0
Since E * 0 and F = 0, the above condition reduces to E2 = 0 implying E is
independent of v and it is a function of u only. Therefore the metric becomes
ds2 = E{u)du2 + G(K, v) dv2 ...(1)

v=v, v=v2

Fig. 12

Now let us consider the orthogonal trajectories u = u{ and u = u2 and find the
distance between them along the geodesic v = constant v{. Since v = c, dv = 0 so
that(l) becomes
ds = y/Eiu) du ...(2)
Integrating (2), we get

s = \"2ylE(u) du ...(3)

Since s in (3) is independent of v = c, the distance between orthogonal

trajectories is the same along any geodesic curve v = constant. Thus the orthogonal
trajectories are parallel.
Let us find E(u) in (1). Measuring the distance along a geodesic v = c, let the
distance from some fixed parallel to the neighbouring parallel be du. Then ds = du
and dv = 0 so that we obtain from (1) E (u) = 1.
Thus (1) becomes ds2 = du2 + G(w, v) dv2 which completes the proof of the
theorem.

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Geodesies on a Surface 201

Note. If the parallel distance measured along the geodesic is du\ then du =
4E du from (1). Hence the mapping u —» u given by du = 4E du gives the simple
form of the metric.
Definition 1. The orthogonal trajectories of the given family of geodesies
v = constant on a surface are called geodesic parallels, u and v are called geodesic
parameters.
Definition 2. du1 + G(uy v) dv2 is called the geodesic form of ds2.
Example 1. In the plane, we know that the straight lines are geodesies. Now
consider a family of straight lines enveloping the given curve C. This family of
straight lines envelops C so that C becomes the evolute and these family of straight
lines are normal to the involute. Hence the geodesic parallels are the involutes
ofC.
Example 2. Let the family of geodesies be the straight lines concurrent at a point
O. Then the geodesic parallels are the concentric circles with centre O. Since the
concentric circles cut the family of straight line through O orthogonally, the
concentric circles form a family of orthogonal trajectories which are the geodesic
parallels.
Theorem 2. If a surface admits two orthogonal families of geodesies, then it
is isometric with the plane.
Proof, v = constant be a family of geodesies. Then the family of orthogonal
trajectories is u = constant.
If we take u = constant also as a family of geodesies, then v = constant is a
family of orthogonal trajectories so that the surface admits the two orthogonal
family of geodesies. Measuring the distance along a geodesic v = constant, let the
distance from some fixed parallel to the neighbouring parallel be du. Hence ds = du
and dv = 0 so that ds=E du gives du-Edu giving E(u) - 1.
In a similar manner measuring the distance along the geodesic u - constant, let
the distance from some fixed parallel to the neighbouring parallel be dv. Hence ds
= dv and du = 0 so that ds = G(w,v) dv gives dv = G(w, v) dv giving G(w, v) = 1.
Thus the metric becomes ds2 = du2 + dv2 which is the metric of the plane. This
proves that the surface admitting two families of orthogonal geodesies is isometric
with the plane.

3.9 GEODESIC POLAR COORDINATES

We shall introduce a coordinate system at a point on the surface with the help of
geodesic, and the geodesic parallels at that point analagous to the polar coordinates
of the plane.
As indicated in Example 2 of the previous section, all the straight lines
6 = constant constitute geodesies through the origin and the concentric circles
r = constant are the geodesic parallels in the plane.
Definition 1. Let O be a fixed point on the surface. Let us consider a family
of geodesies at O. By the second existence theorem, there is a neighbourhood of O
in which geodesies exist and we can take this to be the required family of geodesies
202 Differential Geometry—A First Course

at O. Let us take the orthogonal trajectories of this family as geodesic parallels u =

constant where u is the distance of the orthogonal trajectory from O along any
geodesies. The distances are measured from O along the geodesies in the
neighbourhood of O. Let P be any point on the surface. Then u can be taken to be
the distance measured from O along the geodesic joining P. Let v be the angle
measured at O between a fixed geodesic and the geodesic along which u is
measured. This is the same as the angle between the tangents to the geodesic
through O joining P and the tangent to the fixed geodesic v = 0 at 0. This angle v is
the analogue of 9 in the polar plane. The parameters (w, v) defined in this way are
called the geodesic polar coordinates of P. Since we measure u along a geodesic,
the metric on the surfac is
ds2 = du2 + G(u,v)dv2 ...(1)
by Theorem 1 of the previous section
Using (1), we note the following properties of metric approximation.

(i)lim^Ll.
Proof. A small neighbourhood of O is nearly a plane and the metric (1)
should reduce to the polar form dr2 + r 2 d&. Since u and v corresponds to polar
coordinates, the metric on the surface becomes du2 + u2dv2. Identifying this metric
with (1), G is approximately u2 for points near O.
JQ
Hence we have lim =1 ...(2)

(ii) For the validity of the above metric approximation, VG should have the
power series expansion

VG = u + a02 — + a-*
3
— ....
2! 3!
Definition 2. The parametric system (w, v) given above is called geodesic
polar coordinate system. The curves u = constant are called geodesic circles.

3.10 GEODESIC CURVATURE

If r = r(s) is the position vector of any point P on a curve on a surface, then the
curvature vector r " = t' = fen where K is the curvature and n is the principal
normal at P to the curve. As we have already noted that at a point P on the surface,
there exist three linearly independent non-coplanar vectors N, rx and r 2 where rx
and r 2 are tangential to the surface and N is the surface normal. Hence r " at P can
be expressed as the linear combination of the vectors N, rx and r 2 so that we can
write r" = Kn N + A rt + \i r 2 where Kn is the normal component of r".
Definition 1. The normal component Kn of r " is called the normal curvature
at P.
Geodesies on a Surface 203

Definition 2. The vector A rx + ji r 2 with components (A, jX) is tangential to

the surface. The vector with components (A, ji) of the tangential vector A i^ + ji r 2
to the surface is called the geodesic curvature vector at P. It is denoted by Kg.
Theorem 1. A curve on a surface is a geodesic if and only if the geodesic
curvature vector is zero.
Proof. Let r = r(.s) be any curve on the surface with the principal normal n
and surface normal N at P. If (A, ji) is the geodesic curvature vector at P, then
r " = KnN + Ar x + /zr 2 or Kn= KnN + Arj + /xr2 ...(1)
Let the curve be a geodesic. Then by the normal property of a geodesic n = N
...(2)
Using (2) in (1), we get KN = KnN + Arx + ^r 2 .
Equating the coefficients of r t and r 2 on both sides we get A = jU = 0 so that
Kg = 0.
Conversely, let K = 0. This implies A = 0, ji = 0. Hence from (1), we get
/en = Kn N. Thus the principal normal to the curve is parallel to the surface normal.
Therefore, the curve is a geodesic by the normal property.
Note. From the above theorem, we conclude that for any curve other than a
geodesic on a surface, the geodesic curvature vector is not zero. This suggests that
the magnitude measures in some sense its deviation from a geodesic at a point on
the surface.
Theorem 2. The geodesic curvature vector of any curve is orthogonal to the
curve.
Proof. If (A, ji) is the curvature vector of the curve r = r(s) at P, then as in
Theorem 1.
Kn= KnN + Arj + JXY2 ...(1)
Since t is the tangent vector to the curve as well as to the surface, n-1 = 0 and
N-t = 0. ...(2)
Taking dot product with t on both sides of (1) and using (2), we obtain
(A rx + jx r2) • t = 0 which proves that (A, jx) is orthogonal to the curve.
Theorem 3. For any curve on a surface, the geodesic curvature vector is
intrinsic.
Proof. To prove that the vector (A, ji) is intrinsic, we have to show that (A, ji)
can be found out from the metric of the surface. To prove this fact, first note that

„ d (dT) dT
r - r1 = U = — - — - ——
ds \ou') ou

If (A, n) is the geodesic curvature vector at a point, on the surface, then

r"=K„N + Ar1 + /xr2. ...(2)
204 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Taking scalar product with rx and r 2 on both sies of (2) respectively, we obtain
r" rx = fc/JN-r1 + A i y r j + jUrj-rj
r" r 2 = x,,lN-r2 + Ar 1 -r 2 + jUr2-r2 ...(3)
Using N • rx = 0 and N • r2 = 0 and the first fundamental coefficients, we have
from(l).
r ^ r 1 = tf = EA + / z F , r " - r 2 = V = AF + //G ...(4)
Solving for A, \x in terms of U and V from (4), we obtain

X=-L(UG-VF)^=^^-,H2 = EG-F2
H H
which shows that the vector (A, ji) is intrinsic.
Theorem 4. The condition of orthogonality of the geodesic curvature vector
(A, ji) with any vector (w, v) on a surface is
u'(EX + Fji) + v'{FX + Gjj) = 0
Proof. The tangential direction at a point (w, v) on a surface is (w', v'). Since
(A, u) and (u\ v') are orthogonal, using / = A, m = /i, /' = u and m' = v' in the
condition of orthogonality EIV + Film' + I'm) + G mm' = 0,
We obtain £ AM' + F(Xv' + U'/J) + Gjiv' = 0 which can be written as
u'(EX + Fji) + v'(FX + Gil) = 0.
Since U = EX+ Fji and V = FX + Gfi, we rewrite the above condition as
Uu'+ W = 0.
Theorem 5. In the notation of the Christoffel symbols, the components of the
geodesic curvature vector are

A = u" + r/i u'2 + 2 r/ 2 uV + Tl21 v'2

ti = v" + r 2 w'2 + 2 r 2 2 MV + r222 v'2

Proof. Taking r = r ( » , r' = xxu' + r 2 v' and hence
r" = ryu" + r2v" + r n w' 2 + 2r12wV + r22v'2 ...(1)
Taking dot product with r{ on both sides, we get
r"- rx = r2u" + rx• r 2 v" + r n • rx u'2 + 2r 12 - rx wV + 2r 22 - r 2 v'2 ...(2)
Since r"-^ = U = EX+ Fji, using the fundamental coefficients in (2), we
obtain
EX + F/i = Eu" + Fv" + r n • rx u'2 + 2 r12- rx uV + 2 r22- rxv'2 ...(3)
In a similar manner, taking scalar product with r 2 on both sides of (1) and
Using r "• r 2 = V = FX + G^, we have
FX+G/i = Fu" + Gv" + r n - r 2 u'2 + 2 r 12 -r 2 wV + r 22 r 2 v'2 ...(4)
Solving for A from (3) and (4), we get
X(EG-F2) = (EG-F2)u" + [Grn r r F r n - r 2 ] u'2
+ 2[Gr12- rx - F r 1 2 r2] i*V + 2[Gr 22 - rx - F r 2 2 r 2 ] v'2
Geodesies on a Surface 205

Using Definition 2 of 3.6 on Christoffel symbols of second kind, we get

x = u" + rln u'2 + r/ 2 wV + v\2 v'2

In a similar manner solving for ji from (3) and (4),
li(EG - F2) = v" [EG - F2] + [E r n r 2 - F r n rx] u'2
+ 2[Er n - r 2 - r12- rtF] u'v' + [Er 22 - r 2 - r22- r x ] v'2
Using the definition of the Christoffel symbols of the second kind, we get
ji = v" + Tj2 w'2 + 2 r 2 2 wV + r 2 2 v /2 which completes the proof of the theorem.
Theorem 6. With s as parameter, the components of the geodesic curvature
vector are given by
J _ £/ dT__ 1_ V_ dT_
" H2 v' dv' " H2 u' dv'
1 V_ ^ T 1_ U_ dT_
11
~ H2 u' du'~~ H2 v' du'
Proof. From Theorem 3, we have

X=-^r(UG-VF)iLi=-^(EV-FU) ...(1)
H H
From Theorem 4, we have Uu' + W = 0 which gives

V=——and — =-— ...(2)

V V U

Using this value of V in X in (1), we get

ff2 I v' J H2v'

To complete the proof, it is enough if we show that

(M'F + v'G) = f ^
dv

Now T=-[Eu'2 + 2Fu'v' + Gv'2]

2

Hence — = Fu' + Gv\ - — = £ « ' + Fv' ...(4)

av' du'
U r i n g < 4 ) i n ( 3 J_
U = t/
^ - i—
£ == - - i_5 - V
-.—
H by(2)
tf2 v' 3v' " tf2 «' dv'
Substituting (2) in (1) for ju, we get

At = -Ki^j-E + Ft/1 = ~ L -t{u'E + v'F) ...(5)

H2 I v' J H2 v'
206 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Using (4) in (5), we get

1 U dT V dT
/*=- - by (2) which proves the theorem.
H2 v' du' H2u' du
Example 1. Obtain the geodesic curvature vector of a curve on a right
helicoid r = (u cos v, u sin v, av) using different formulae for it.
We have derived three different formulae for the geodesic curvature vector.
We obtain the geodesic curvature vector using these three different formulae.

Now rx = (cos v, sin v, 0), r 2 = (- u sin v, u cos v, a)

Hence E = i y rx = 1, F = 0, G = a2 + w2, H = <yja2 + u2

(i) x= -^{UG-Vnii=-^WV-FU)
H H

Let us find U and Vin the above formula

Now T=-[u'2 + (u2 + a2)v'2]

dT , dT , 2 2 w
-— = u , = (ir + a )v
du' dv'

...(1)
d« dv

Hence J7= —
fdr] dT = M -UV •(2)
ds
{du')
v.i - — = (M2 + a 2 )v" + 2 MM V .-(3)
ds fill 3v

1
Hence A= («" - u v'2) • (a2 + u2) = u"-u v'2.
(a +M 2 )
2

/ [(M2 + a 2 )v" + 2MM'v']

'"(a2+«2)

(ii) x = u" + r,1! «'2 + 2 r/ 2 u'v' + r2'2 v'2

M = v" + r,2, «'2 + 2 r,2 u'v' + r222 v'2.
First let us calculate theChristoffel symbols in the above formula for a curve on
the right helicoid.
Geodesies on a Surface 207

r
m - -jE\ = 0, r 112 = -E2 = 0, T122 = F2 - - G , = -u

F
211 = F\ - ~E2 = °» r 212 = ~G\ = u> r 222 = ~G2 = °

Hence r j , = - ^ ( G r 1 H - F r 2 1 1 ) = o, r/2 =-^(Gr 1 1 2 -Fr 2 1 2 ) = 0

-J r (Gr
^22 = 777( Gr
122 --Fr
i22 T222)) == —^
F 222 - ^ Tr{ar 22 +- -w22) (ru) = -u.

Therefore X = u"-uv'2
To find )U, let us find other Christoffel symbols of the second kind.

r
il =77T^ r 211- /rr ill] = 0
' ri2 = 7^-[^r212-rH2/r] =^ - 2
ti ti CL + U

9 1
and finally r 22 = —y [E T222 - F T122] = 0.
H

Therefore a = v" + " V " = —. ~- [v"(a2 + u2) + 2uu'v'}.

1 z
a +u (a +uz)
z

(in) X = - T2 - — - = - —2 - —
H v' dv' " H u' dv'

M
" H2 u' du' ~~ H2 v' du'
Using (1), (2) and (3), we obtain

, 1 i"-u~'2' z )
(w"-wv' ,,2 2. „ /2
1,
a +U* v'
The other expression gives the formula for X in terms of v" as follows.

X = - 1, * l , [(w2 + a2) v" + 2 u wV] ^-(a 2 + w2)

a +u u

= -—[(u2 + a2)v" + 2uuV]

u

Further using (1), (2) and (3) in the formula for jU, we have

1
\i = 9 9 [(w2 + a2) v" + 2 w wV]
208 Differential Geometry—A First Course

and the alternate expression for ji is

1 -(w"-wv'2) ,
u
» = -*+* v
Now we are in a position to define the geodesic curvature and derive the
formula for it in terms of the parameters s and t.
Definition 3. The geodesic curvature at any point of a curve denoted by Kg
is defined as the magnitude of its geodesic curvature vector with proper sign. Kg is
considered to be positive or negative according as the angle between the tangent to
the curve and the geodesic curvature vector is nil or - nil.

So we have K = ± jX2 + ji2 .

Note. It is to be noted that from Theorem 2, the geodesic curvature vector at
a point of a curve on a surface is orthogonal to the curve. Hence Kg is positive or
negative according as the angle is nil or - nil. In other words, Kg is positive or
negative according as (w', v'), the geodesic curvature vector (A, ji) and the surface
normal N form a right handed or left handed system.
From the very definition of Kgi we note the following properties.
(i) If (A, fi) is the geodesic curvature vector at a point (w, v) on a surface, then
Kg = H(u^i-Xv).
Proof. Since (w, v) is a point P on the curve, (u\ v) gives the unit vector
along the tangential direction at P.
/
M ^ ( X ^
Now is the unit vector in the direction
ylX2+ti2' ^X2+U2 \K8 K
8J

of (A,//).
If 6 is the angle between the two directions, using the formula
sin 0 = H(lrri - I'm), we obtain

sin0=—H(u'n-v'X)

From Theorem 2, 9 = nil so that we get from the above step Kg = H(u\i - VX)
(ii) Geodesic curvature of a geodesic on a surface is zero and conversely.
Proof. At every point P of a geodesic of a surface we show that Kg = 0. At a
point r = r(s) on a geodesic we have r" = Kn = K;,N + Xrx + /nr2 ...(1)
Taking scalar product with rx and r 2 on both sides of (1), we obtain
XE + JJF = 0, and XF + jiG = 0 ...(2)
as rj-N = r 2 N = 0 a n d r 1 n = r 2 n = 0.
Geodesies on a Surface 209

From (2) we obtain (EG - F2)X = 0 and (EG - F2)ji = 0 ...(3)

Since EG-F2* 0, (3) shows that X = 0, ji = 0 proving that

Kg= yJA2 +v2 = 0.

Conversely if the geodesic curvature at every point of a curve is zero, then the
curve is a geodesic. Kg = 0 implies X = 0, ji = 0 at every point of the curve. Thus the
curvature vector Xrx + /zr2 vanishes identically. Using this, (1) becomes m = KnN.
Therefore the curve is a geodesic by the normal property.
In the following, we obtain the formula for finding Kg in different forms.
Theorem 7. If r = r(s) is the position vector of a point P of a curve on a
surface, then
(i) Kg = [N, r', r"] and
(ii) Kg=s-3[N, r , r ]
Proof (i). From Theorem 2, the geodesic curvature vector is orthogonal to
dv
the unit tangent vector rr = — at P. Since the geodesic curvature vector Xv* + /zr2
ds
lies in the tangent plane atP, it is orthogonal to this surface normal N at P. Thus the
geodesic curvature vector is orthogonal to both N and r' and therefore it is parallel
to the unit vector N x r'. Since Kg is the magnitude of the geodesic curvature
vector, we can take the geodesic curvature vector Xrx + jjx2 as Kg(N x r') ...(1)
We know that r" = KnN + Xrx + ^r 2 ...(2)
Using (1) in (2) we obtain r" = KnN + Kg(N x r') ...(3)
Taking scalar product with unit vector N x r ' o n both sides of (3), we obtain
(N x r7) • r" = [^N + Kg(N x r7)] • (N x r')
Since N ( N x r ' ) = 0 and (N x rO-(N x r') = 1
we get from (4), Kg = [N, r', r"] which proves (i)
(ii) We shall rewrite the formula (i) by using any parameter t.
KT . dr dr ds ,.
Now r =— = = r s and also
dt ds dt
r = — ( r s) = — ( r s) — = r s + r s
dt ds dt
Since r'r x r'i* = 0, we have
r x f = r's x (r"i 2 + r's) = r' x r " i 3 so that we have

r'xr" = -Urxr)
s
Hence from the formula (i), we have

Ke = N(r'xr") = \[N,r, r]
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210 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Corollary. Kg = s3H~]:[(iyr)(r2- r) - (r2- r) (r r r)]

Proof. Since HN = rx x r2, we have N = H~l(r1x r2)
Using this value of N in the above formula.

Kg = s3H-\r1xrJ.(rxr) ...(1)
Now (rx x r2) • (r x f) = (iy r) (r2- r) - (r2- r) ( r r r) ...(2)
Using (2) in (1), we obtain

Kg = s-3H-l[(rr r) (r2- r) - (r 2 -r)(r r r)]

As an application of the above corollary, we derive the formula for Kg in the
most simplest form in terms of the intrinsic quantities U and V of the surface.
Theorem 8. If U and V are the intrinsic quantities of a surface at a point
(M, V), then
1 V(s) A
0) Kg = - — and
u

(ii) 1 U(s)
*S-H

Proof. T = - r 2 = -[Eu2 + 2Fuv +Gv 2 ]

2 2
dT . dr dT . dr
Hence —• = r-—-, —— = r ~ 7 ...(1)
ou ou dv ov
„ . dr dr . dr .
But r = — = —u + — v = rxu + r2v
dt ou ov
dr , 9r
so that —- = rx and -— = r2 ...(2)
ou ov
Thus from (1) and (2), we get
dT dT .
7 7 = r r i > 7 T = r r2 ...(3)
ou ov
We know that U(t) = f-r lf V(t) = rr 2 from Theorem 1 of 3.5 ...(4)
Using (3) and (4) in the corollary, we get
1
Kn =
Hs> ou ov
If we take s as parameter in place of t in the above equation, we obtain

1
V(s)^-U(s)^ as s = 1 ...(5)
du ov

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Geodesies on a Surface 211

Since u' U(s) + V V(s) = 0, we have U(s) = — V(s) .(6)

u'
,dT ,dT
Using (6) in (5), we get K = V(s)
Hu'
From Euler's Theorem on Homogeneous functions

u'--— + v'-— = 2T so that the above equation becomes

du' ov

g • ••(7)
Hu'
2 1 1 1
Since s is the parameter r = 1 so that T= — r = —
V(s)
Using this value of Tin (7), Kg =
Hu'
Similarly eliminating V(s) in (5), we obtain
1 U(s)
Kg '— which completes the proof of the theorem.
~ H v
Corollary. If (A, /x) is the geodesic curvature vector of a curve, then
-HX H\i
Kg
" Fu' + Ov' " Eu' + Fv'
Proof. From Theorem 3, we have

X = - L (GU - FV), n = - L (£ V- FU) ..(1)

Since we take ^ as the parameter, Uu' + Vv' = 0
„ VY AV Uu'
so that ..(2)
U= — and V = —
u
Using (2) in (1), we obtain v

X = - V2 —, (Gv' + Fu'), u = 2-Xr —, (Eu' + Fv') •(3)

H v' ^ H u'
Using the Theorem in (3), we obtain

X = - ^-(Gv' + Fu'), p = ^-(Eu' + Fv')

H H
-HX Hli
so that we have K.
g =
Gv' + Fu' Eu' + Fv'
Example 2. Prove that all straight lines on a surface are geodesies.
212 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Let r = r(s) be a point on a straight line on a surface.

Then r' = t, r" = — = KH. Since r = r(s) is a straight line K= 0 so that r" = 0
ds
The geodesic curvature of a curve on a surface is Kg = [N, r', r"]. Since r" = 0,
Kg = 0. Thus the geodesic curvature of a straight line on a surface is zero which
implies by Property (ii) after the definition of geodesic curvature, all straight lines
on a surface are geodesies.
Example 3. Show that a curve on a plane is a geodesic if and only if it is a
striaght line.
Let r = r(s) be a curve on the plane. Then r' = t, r" = KH.
From the formula of a geodesic curvature
Kg = [N, r', r"] = [N, t, JOI] = icN-(t x n) = (jcN-b) = JdNf-b ...(1)
Since the curve lies in the plane, t and n are coplanar so that N = b. Using this
in (1), we get Kg = KN- N. = K.
From property (ii) a curve is a geodesic if and only if Kg = 0 and the curve is a
straight line if and only if K= 0. Since Kg= KKg = 0 implies K= 0 and conversely
so that a curve on the plane is a geodesic if and only if it is a straight line.
Theorem 9. If Ka and Kb denote the geodesic curvatures of the parametric
curves v = constant and u = constant respectively, then

(i) Ka = -±-'E-3,2[2EFl-EE2-FEl]
2H

and (ii) Kb = — • G~3'2 [FG2 + GGX - 2GF2)

2H
Proof, (i) Using (5) of Theorem 8, we derive the above. For the parametric
curve v = constant, let us take u itself as the parameter so that u = 1 and v = 0 which
we use without mention in the following.

Now T=-[Eu2 + 2Fuv +Gv 2 ]

2

Hence — =Eu + Fv, —— = Fit + Gv

oil ov

—^ =-[Elu2 + 2F{uv+Glv2]
ou 2
r) T 1
— = ~[E2u2 + 2F2u v + G2v2]
ov 2
From our choice of parameters, we have from the above equations,
3r p 3r j r i r ar 1
^r~ =E, — =Fi — = -E{9 — = -E2 ...(1)
die ov ou 2 ov 2
Geodesies on a Surface 213

Further ••(2)
dtydii) du dt\dv)
Using (1) in (2), we obtain

U = —(E)--E.=Elu+E2v--El = -El .-(3)

2
dt 2 ' ' 2 ' 2 '

V=—(F)--E1 = F,u+F2v--E2 2 = F,--E2 ••(4)

dt 2 2 ' 2 2

ds2 = Edu2 + IFdudv + Gdv2 becomes i 2 = E so that s = yfE ...(5)

From (5) of Theorem 8, we have
1
...(6)
aw av
Using (1), (3), (4) and (5) in (6), we obtain

K^jjjE-^VEF^EEi-FEJ

(ii) To prove (ii) let us treat v itself as the parameter so that v = 1 and u = 0.
Using these, we have
dT dT dT 1 dT 1
•••(7)
dw dv dw 2 dv 2
dF dF 1 1
•••(8)
and 1/ = ^ - M + ^ - V - - G , = F , - - G 1
2
du dv 2 ' 2 '
.. 3G . 9G . 1 _ _ 1 - 1,,
V=—« +— v - - G 2 = G2--G2=-G2. •••(9)
dw dv 2 2 2
Since v = 1 and u = 0, s = VG" ••(10)
Using (7), (8), (9) and (10) in (6), we obtain
1
Kh = G~iU[FG2 + GG{ - 2GF2] which completes the proof of
2H
the theorem.
Corollary 1. When the parametric curves are orthogonal, then

(0 K„ = --iL:^-yfE
JE~G dv
1 8
00 Kb = -;L=S- VG
JEG du
214 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Since the parametric curves are orthogonal, F = 0

Hence from the theorem, Ka = —, 3/2 = ^=

,..,.,. -i E2 i a
which can be rewritten as K„ = , — ^ = — ? = • —— •JE
" -JEG 2-jE JEG dv
. . GG, V2 G,
and we have Kh = 2yfEGG
—,— 2G4E
which can be rewritten as

b
yfEG 2 VG yfEG du
Corollary 2. Let the parametric curves be orthogonal. If G is a function of v
alone.and E is a function of u alone, the parametric curves are geodesies.
From Corollary 1, we have
1 3
since E is a function of u onlv.
4EG 3V
1 9
and Kh = — T = •— VG = 0, since G is a function of v only.
b y
JEG du
Since Ka = 0 and KJ, = 0, v = constant and u = constant are geodesies by the
property (ii) following the Definition 3.
Example 4. Find the geodesic curvature of the curve u = constant on the surface
given by
r = (w cos v, u sin v, \au2)
Now TX - (cos v, sin v, au), r 2 = (- u sin v, u cos v, 0)
Hence E = i y rt = 1 + tfV, F = 0, G = r2- r 2 = w2.
and if = wV1 + a V , £ i = 2 a V £ 2 = 0, Gi = 2M.
Using the above values in the formula for Kb we have
1 dy/G 1
Kh = 2 2
V^G du Uyli + a u

Let us find Ka. Using the above values, we find Ka = 0. Hence the curves
v = constant on the surface are geodesic from the property (ii) of the Definition 3.
Example 5. Obtain the formula for the geodesic curvature in terms of the
Christoffel symbols and using the formula find also Ka and Kb.
From property (i) after the Definition 3, the formula for the geodesic curvature
is Kg = H(pu'-fo>')
where (A, j£) is the geodesic curvature vector. Using Theorem 5 of the geodesic
curvature vector, let us substitute for A, ji in terms of the Christoffel symbols of the
second kind.
Geodesies on a Surface 215

K8 = H[U'{V" + r,2! u'2 + 2 r22 wV + r 2 2 2 / 2 }

- /{K" + r/j w'2 + 2 r / 2 u v + n!2 v,2n
Simplifying the above, we find

K8 = H[r?l w,3 + (2r 2 2 - r / ^ w ' V + cr 2 , -2r; 2 ) W v 2

-rj 2 v , 3 + ( W v'-vV')] ...(i)
which gives formula for x^ in Christoffel symbols.
By taking v = constant and u = constant respectively in the above formula (1),
we have
Ka = Hffy U'3. and Kb = -HT2\v'3 ...(2)

Under the conditions, we have u' = -7= and V = -7= ...(3)

y[E y[G
Using (3) in (2) we obtain

K
a - ^n —T= anc* Kb~" ^22 — 7 = which prove the results
Zwi? Gy/G
At each point of the curve C, there is a parametric curve v = constant cutting C
at an angle 6 which varies from point to point so that 0 is a function of s. Liouville's
formula aims at expressing Kg in terms of 0 and 0'.
Theorem 10. (Liouville's Formula). If 0 is the angle which the curve C
makes with the parametric curve v = constant,
then Kg = 0' + / V + Qy'

where P = —!— (2fiF, - F £ , - EE2\ Q = —!— (JBG, - FE2).

l l 2 l 2
2HE 2HE
U(s)
Proof. We make use of the formula KQ = in the proof.
5 Hv'
L7,.' r

The direction coefficients of the curve at (u, v) and the curve v = constant are

respectively (M', V') and - T = , 0 . So if 6 is the angle between the two directions

t 1
-7=, 0 and (w', V) we have, from the formulae,
JE )
cos 0 = Ell' + F(/m' + ml') + Gwm', sin 0 = //(/m' - fin)
1 Hv'
cos 0 = -j=(Eu' + Fv'), sin 0 = - = - ...(1)
216 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Now T = - [Eu'2 + IFu'v' + Gv'2]

2
t^T r) T 1
—- = Eu' + Fv' and — = -[Exu'2 + 2F,MV + GXV2] •••(2)
du' du 2
1 /) T
Using (2) in (1), we obtain cos 6 = —,=• -— ...(3)
y/E au
Differentiating (3) with respect to s, we have

. „„, Id (dT) 1 dT dE
-sin 00 = - T = — ...(4)
4M ds{du'J 2E3'2 au' ds

dE dE du dE dv _ , _ ,
But =- +- =£,«'+£ 2 v ...(5)
ds au ds dv ds
Using (5) in (4) and rewriting it as

-—(E.u'
dr] + Eov')^,
-4E sin 09'= — •••(6)
ds Kdu'j IE { 2
du'

u . c d (dT)
Let us substitute for — -—
dsydu J dsyou') du

Then-VZ? sin Od'=U+ ^ - — {Exu' + E2v') | ^ f

du IE du''
Using the value of sin 0 in (1), we have

au LE du
Using (2) in the above equation, we have

-tf v'0' = U + ^ w ' 2 + 2 f > V + Gy 2 ] - ^- (Exu' + E2v') (EM7 + Fv')

2 2Z?

= U+ [MV(2£F £ F ££
TF I " I " 2 > + v'\EGx -FE2)] ...(7)

2EF -E.F-EE-, 1
Taking P= ! S 2., S = —— (EG, -FE 2 )
2#E 2H£ '

We have from (7), -d' = — + «'? + v'g •(8)

v'ff
Geodesies on a Surface 217

since K= — —U_, (8) becomes -6' = -K + U'P + V'Q

P
v'H'
so that we have Kg= 6' + Pu + Qv' which completes the proof of Liouville's
theorem.
Corollary. If the curve C makes an angle y/ with the parametric curve
u = constant then

K=0+ sm y/+ — sin 0

g Y
H H
As we have noted in the proof of Liouville's formula, we have

sind=H-j= ...(1)

If y/is the angle made by the curve C with the parametric curve u = constant, we
have in the same manner

sm V= -j=- ...(2)

From (1) and (2), we get u = sin if/, V = sin 0

H H
Using these values of u' and V in the theorem, Liouville's formula becomes Kg - Q'
P4G\ . (QJE) . a
sin y/+ — sin 9.
v H J V H J
Example 6. If the orthogonal trajectories of the curve v = constant are geodesies,

prove that is independent of u.

If C is the orthogonal trajectory of the parametric curve v = constant, we can

n
take 0 = — in the theorem. Since C is given to be a geodesic, Kg = 0. Using these the

Liuoville's formula becomes Pu' + Qy' = 0 ...(1)

Now we shall findP and Q in the new situation. If (u\ v') and ( - =
1 , 0^ are the

n
direction coefficients of the curve C and v = constant, and 6 = —, we have from the
2
formula cos 0 = Ell' + F(lm' + I'm) + Gmm\
Eu'+FV = 0 ...(2)
Eliminating u' and v' between (1) and (2), we get
EQ-FP = 0 ...(3)
218 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Substituting for P and Q in (3), we obtain

E(EGX - FE2) - F(2EFX - FEX - EE2) = 0
Therefore solving for Gx from the above equation,

_ 2EFFX -F2EX d (F2

G,
' I
=
-
172
so that
du E

( v2\
we have G, =0 o ra
^ | G„ - —
F | =0
1
du du[ E
J

F2 H2 d (H2 ^ H2
Noting G - — = , we find — = 0 which implies that is
5
E E du E
independent of u.
Example 7. When a geodesic makes an angle 6 with the curve v = constant of a
geodesic coordinate system for which

ds2 = du2 + G dv2, then prove that — + — - ( V G V = 0

ds duv '
Let us find P and 2 of the Liouville's formula for the given system. From the
given metric of the surface,
E = 1, F = 0, G = G(w, v) and H = <JG .

Hence /> = —!— [ 2 ^ - FEX - EE2] = 0

1H E

Hence the Liouville's formula becomes

s-'+7iff£'-»'-4(<®)'
2>/G dw 3w
Since the curve is a geodesic, ^ = 0 so that

We obtain 0'+—VGv'sO

We conclude this section by showing how the geodesic curvature may be

regarded as the intrinsic generlisation of the curvature of plane curves. In this
connection, we first prove the following theorem using Taylor approximation of
the parameters of the neighbouring points which can be connected by a goedesics
guaranteed by the existence theorem and then state a more general result whose
proof is beyond the scope of the book.
Theorem 11. Let P and Q be two neighbouring points of a curve C on a
surface with the arcual length 8s. Let C be the geodesic arc PQ of length 8s . If 80
Geodesies on a Surface 219

is the angle between C and C at P and 50 is the between C and C at Q, then the
geodesic curvature at P is

,. 50 + 50
= lim KP -
8
Ss^o 8s
Proof. By the existence theorem, we can always find a geodesic arc C
through P joining the neighbouring point Q. Let the unit tangent vectors to the
curve C at Q and P be (w', v') and (WQ, V'0). For the geodesic arc C let the unit
tangent vectors at Q and P be (£"', v ' ) and (wj, v^). Using the formula
sin 0 = //(/m' - I'm) for the angle betwen the two curves, we have
sin50 = tf(Ko,vo)(KoVo -V'QUQ) ...(1)
sin 50 = H(u9 v) (y'W -u'v') ...(2)
Let us find Taylor approximation of various terms in (1) and (2) above.
Neglecting the terms of 8s2 and higher order, we have
u =u'0 + U'Q 8S, V' = VQ + v o 8s ...(3)

u' = iTJ + w0" 5 ? , v' = VQ7 + v ^ 8 1 ...(4)

Since (w~, v) belong to the geodesic C, they satisfy the geodesic differential
equation of second order.
Hence w0" =/(w 0 , v0, w0\ v0' ). v0" = #(wo> vo> "o» ^o) -(5)
Using (5) in (4)
u' = UQ +/(W 0 » VO> ^o» ^0)55" an<*
v' = VQ + s(w0VoWo' V Q ) 5 J
If //(a 0 , v0) = // 0 , then //(K, v) = H0 + 5//
where 5H = <9(5s) as 5s -> 0
Further 5s = 8s + 0(8s2) as 8s -> 0 and w0' = WQ and v^ = VQ
Let us find the approximate value of sin 50 in terms of (u', v ' , w~0', VQ ) as
follows
(H0+8H) [{S-J +/(II0, v0, MQ', v^)5f} (vj + v£5s)

- {vo + g("0» vo> "o> ^0)5?} (wo + wo &*)]

= / / 0 [ ( w 0 , V o - W o V o ) + (w"o/Vo -UQVQ)8S+ { V Q / ( W 0 , V0, W Q , V Q )

- u'0g(u0, v0, wj, VQ)}8S, since 5 / / —>0. ...(6)

Hence using (1) and (6), we obtain
sin 50+sin 8<J) = H08S[UQ{VQ -g(w0> v0, w0', v0')}

- VQ {«o -/(«o» vo> "o» VQ }] as 5 / / -> 0. ...(7)

 Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com
220 Differential Geometry—A First Course

and 8s = Ss as it is of order 0(8s2).

Also we have approximately, sin 6= 80, sin 8(p = 50, ...(8)
From Theorem 5 of the curvature vector,
We have A = MO'-/(M 0 . v0, u'0, vj). M = VQ- S("O> VO> WO> VO) -(9)
Using (8) and (9) in (7), we have

80 + 8<t)
= H0(u'Qn-v'0X) + O(8s) ...(10)
8s
(10) is true at any point on the surface. Hence taking the limit as 5s —> 0, we get

lim — = H(u'u - v'A) = Kg by the property (i) after the Definition 3.

<5.9->0 8s
This completes the proof of the theorem.
d\jf
Note. If 6 + 0 = y/, then —-j— = Kg which is the plane analogue of the theorem.
ds
In this connection, we have the following intrinsic generalisation giving the
exact analogue of the curvature of plane curves. We state the theorem without
proof.
Theorem 12. Let P be a point on a given curve C on the surface and Q be the
neighbouring point of C at an arcual distance 8s from P along C. Let the geodesies
which are tangents to C at P and Q meet at R. If 8\j/ is the angle between the
8w
tangents to the geodesies at R, then the geodesic curvature of C at P is lim ——.
8s->0 8s

3.11 GAUSS-BONNET THEOREM

So far we were dealing with the curvature K of space curves and geodesic
curvature Kg of curves on surfaces and explained in the two theorems at the end of
the previous section how Kg is the analogue of curvature of plane curves. The next
natural step is to create or find out intrinsic quantities so as to extend the notion of
curvature to surfaces. This is what we do in the Gauss Bonnet theorem. This
theorem deals with the surface integral of an intrinsic quantity leading to the
definition of curvature of a surface. It is obtained as an application of Green's
theorem on line and surface integrals in the plane. We shall introduce the
following necessary preliminaries on the curvilinear polygons before taking up
the theorem.
Definition 1. A region R of surface is said to be simply connected if every
closed curve lying in the region R can be contracted or shrunk continuously into a
point without leaving R.

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Geodesies on a Surface 221

In the plane, the interior of a circle is simply connected but the region between
two concentric circles is not simply connected for a concentric circle between the
two circles cannot be contracted into a point without leaving the region.
Definition 2. A closed curve on a surface is said to be described in the
positive sense, if the sense of description of the curve is always on the left. This is
71
nothing but the positive rotation of — from the tangent to get the normal which
points towards the interior of the region.
Definition 3. Let R(u> v) be the given surface of class 3 and R be a simply
connected region whose boundary is a closed curve of class 2. Let C consists of
n arcs

where n is finite.
Since C is a closed curve A0 = An and let each arc is of class 2. Let the vertices
A0, Ah .... An are taken along the curve C described in the positive sense. At the
vertex An let ar be the angle between the tangents to the arcs Ar_{ Ar andArA r+ j so
that — ^r < ar< n. At A„, let an be the angle between the tangents An_{An and AnAv
Thus for the curvilinear polygon, alt c^, ...., an are the exterior angles at the
vertices A h A2,..., An.
Now the geodesic curvature Kg exists at every point of C except possibly at the

vertices. Hence Kgds can be calculated as an integral along C by adding the

c
integrals along separate arcs.
The excess of curve C denoted by ex C is defined as

exC=2K-^ ar- \ Kgds

r=\

We first note the following simple properties of ex C.

Fig. 13
222 Differential Geometry—A First Course

(i) ex C is parametric invariant. That is, it is independent of the parametric

system used for the representation of the surface. Since Kg is the intrinsic
property of the curve, it remains invariant for a parametric transformation.

Hence Kg ds in invariant. Since the parametric transformation at every

c
point of the curve changes the sense in which angles are measured, it does
n

not affect ^ ar and also Kg. Hence ex C is invariant for parametric

r=\
transformations,
(ii) In the plane, if we consider a curvilinear polygon or rectilinear polygon
enclosing a region of the plane, their ex C = 0 as shown below.

In the case of a curvilinear polygon C, K is the ordinary curvature at

ds

every point of the curve. Therefore Kg ds + V ar gives the total angle through

which the tangent turns in describing a closed curve C where the first term gives y/
and the second term gives the sum of the angles through which the tangents turned
at the vertices of C. Since the total angle turned while describing a closed curve in
the plane is 2 n, we have

a = 2n
J V^+X
r=\
r '
\
Hence the exC- 2K- \j Kgds + ^ar = 0.
r=l J
In the case of a rectilinear polygon, the sides are straight lines which are the
n

geodesies of the plane so that Kg = 0 at every point of the sides. Since V ar is the

sum of the exterior angles, it is 2 n. Hence ex C = 2 n - V ar = 0. Hence whether

r=\
we take a curvilinear polygon or a rectilinear polygon in the plane, ex C = 0.
The above property (ii) leads to the following important conclusion
(iii) On any surface isometric with the plane, excess of a simple closed curve C
is zero.
This follows from the fact thate* C is defined intrinsically in the sense that it is
given in terms of the metric of the surface. Hence for the surfaces other than the
plane, a closed curve enclosing a region R of a surface ex C is different from zero.
So the question naturally arises whether for a surface which is not isometric with
Geodesies on a Surface 223

the plane the excess of a simple closed curve C on surface provides a satisfactory
measure of intrinsic difference between R and a region of the plane. The answer to
this question is in the affirmative and the ex C provides an intrinsic definition of
curvature of a surface based on the convention that the plane and any surface
isometric with the plane has zero curvature. The following theorem known as
Gauss-Bonnet Theorem gives a complete answer to this question leading to the
definition of Gaussian curvature of the surface.
Theorem (Gauss-Bonnet). For any curve C which encloses a simply
connected region R on surface, ex C is equal to the total curvature of R.

Proof. We shall use Liouville's formula for Kg and find I Kg ds with the help
of Green's theorem in the plane for a simply connected region R bounded by C. So
we shall quote this Green's theorem as a lemma as applicable for a region R of a
surface.
Lemma. If R is a simply connected region bounded by a closed curve C, then

dudv
C Ry J

where P and Q are differentiate functions of u and v in R.

Proof of the Theorem. From the Liouville's formula,
Kg = 9' + Pu' + Qv'
Integrating along the curve C, we have

J Kgds=j (0' + Pu' + Qv')ds=\ (dO+Pdu + Qdv) ...(1)

c c c
where 9 is the angle between the curve C and the parametric curve v = constant
and P and Q are differentiate functions of w, v.
Let us suppose the simple closed curve C contains a finite number of arcs
starting from A. Then at each point of the arc there passes a curve v = constant
making an angle 9 with C. Hence when we describe the curve C, the tangents at
various members of the family v = constant described in the positive sense returns
to the starting point after increasing the angles of rotation by In.
This increase 2 ;r after complete rotation in the positive sense also includes the
angle between the tangents at the finite number of vertices. Hence we have

\ d9+2^ ar = 27t ...(2)

C r=l

n
From the definition exC = 2K- V ar- \ KdS ...(3)
Jc
TTi
224 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Using (1) and (2) in (3), we obtain

ex C = 2K- \2n - \ dO 1 - \\ dO + Pdu + Qdv 1

Thus. ex C = - f Pdu + Qdv ...(4)

c
Since R is a simply connected region and P and Q are differentiable functions
of w, v, we have by Green's theorem,

J(P*t0*).Jj(^.|C]** ...(5)
Since the surface element ds = Hdudv, we rewrite (5) as

dS ...(6)
^ J? V /
c
Using (6) in (4), we get

c 1 crfdQ dP s
ex
--H\\m-^Y
HJ
R

1 ( c)0 r) P\
If wetakeiC = ^ " T — , we can rewrite (7) as
H\au av)

exC= f f Kds ...(8)

where K is a function of u and v and it is independent of the C and defined over the
region R of the surface.
Next we shall show that the exC is uniquely determined by K. If K is not
unique, let K be such that

f f Kds = exC ...(9)

R

Using (8) and (9), we have J f (R - K)ds = 0 ...(10)

R

for every region R.

Now let K * /Cat some pointA of/?. Then we must have K > Kov K < Kd\A.
Let us first consider K > K.
Geodesies on a Surface 225

Since the given surface is of class 3, — - and — are continuous in R so that

au ov

there exists a small region R! of R contaninig the point A such that K - K > 0 at

every point of Rj. For this region R containing R{, (K - K)ds > 0 which

contradicts (10). We get a similar contradiction (K - K)ds < 0 at A when

K <K These contradictions prove that K = K at every point of R.

That is, Kis uniquelly determined as a function of u and v.

Defining | KdS as the total curvature of R we have proved that the total
R
curvature is exactly the ex C in any region R enclosed by C. This completes the
proof of Gauss-Bonnet Theorem.

Note 1. exc-\ KdS shows that there is a certain function Kof u and v
R
which is determined by E, F and G and that the excess of any curve C which
encloses a simply connected region R is the integral of K over R. Also from the
uniqueness of K and the form of the integral, K is invariant in the sense that it is
independent of the parametric system. Since ICcan be found from the metric, Kis
an intrinsic geometrical invariant.
Definition 4. The invariant K as defined above is called the Gaussian

curvature of the surface and KdS is called the total curvature or integral
R
curvature of R where R is any region whether simply connected or not.
Note 2. We rewrite the excess of a curve C using the integral as follows.

Since ex C = Kds, we have

f KdS = 27t-^ ar-\ Kgds

R /•=!

We give a few examples to illustrate Gauss-Bonnet theorem.

Example 1. Find the curvature of a geodesic triangle ABC enclosing a region R
on the surface.
Since ex C gives total curvature of a region bounded by C, it is enough if we
find ex C in the examples where C is known.
ABC is a geodesic triangle enclosing a region R on the surface with the interior
angles A, B, C. So in this case the curve C is the geodesic triangle ABC.
226 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Since AB, BC, and CA are geodesies on a surface Kg = 0 at every point of A#,

BC and CA so that [ Kgds = 0. Since A, B, and C are interior angles, the exterior
ABC
angles at the vertices are n-A, n- B and n-C

Hence exC-2n-^j ar - j ^ &

= 2/r-[(/r-A)+(7r-£) + (7T-C)]as J Kgds = 0.

ABC

= A + B + C-n.
Thus the e;c A AfiC is the excess of A + B + C over the Euclidean value of 7T. In
other words the total curvature of a geodesic triangle ABC on a surface is
A + £+C-7T.
Note. Let us consider the geodesic polygon A{, A2, .... An of n-sides with
interior angles Al5 A2,... A/r Since Kgds is zero on every side of the polygon,

ex C =2K- [(K-A{) + (n-A2) + ... +(n-An)]

= (A j + A2 + ... + A„) - (n - 2)^ which gives the total curvature of the region
bounded by a geodesic polygon of n-sides on a surface. It is nothing but the excess
of the sum of the interior angles over (n-2)n where n is the number of sides of the
polygon.
Example 2. The total curvature of the whole surface of an anchor ring is zero.
To prove this, let us consider the region R bounded by two meridians and two
parallels on the anchor ring. We know that the meridians and parallels are
geodesies on the anchor ring and they are the parametric curves also. Since the
parametric curves are orthogonal, the region bounded by two meridians and two
n
parallels is a geodesic rectangle with interior angles — each. Since the sides of the

K
rectangle are geodesies, Kg = 0 and consequently gds = 0. Hence we have

n n
n n) n) )
exC = 2K-
~2 T - i J T - i J T - i c
+\ K ds
i -

which is zero. Since exC=0 for the geodesic rectangle on the anchor ring, the total
curvature of the surface bounded by the geodesic rectangle is zero on the anchor
ring. Since every point of the anchor ring can be enclosed by a geodesic rectangle
of the above type, the total curvature of the whole surface is zero.
Geodesies on a Surface 227

3.12 GAUSSAIN CURVATURE

Having defined Gaussian curvature as K in the previous section, we shall find
Gaussian curvature of some known surfaces and express Gaussian curvature in
terms of the fundamental coefficients. We shall also specialise these in the case of
surfaces with geodesic polar coordinates.
Theorem 1. If P is a given point on a surface and A is the area of the geodesic
triangle ABC containing P, then the Gaussian curvature K at P is
A+B+C-n
K= where the limit is taken as the vertices A, B, and C—>P.
A
Proof. From Example 1 of the previous section, for a geodesic triangle ABC
with interior angles A, B, C on a surface the total curvature is A + B + C - n.

Hence we have KdS = A + B + C- n. When Kis constant,

j KdS = KA= A+ B + C - n which gives K = . Hence the

A+B+C-n
Gaussian curvature at the point P is K = lim where the limit is

taken as all vertices tend to P.

Example 1. Find the Gaussian curvature at every point of a sphere of radius a.
On a sphere of radius a, the geodesies are great circles and the geodesic
triangle is a spherical triangle formed by great circles. The area A of a spherical
triangle is A = a2(A +B + C-K). Hence using Theorem 1, the Gaussian curvature
at a point P on the sphere is

(A + B + C-n) 1
X=lim 2
a (A + B + C-n) a2'
Thus the Gaussian curvature at every point of the sphere is constant and it is

equal to —~-.
a
The total curvature of the sphere is

\ KdS=— f <fc = — 4 / r a 2 = 4/r.

Js a ^ a
s

Theorem 2. If E, F and G are the fundamental coefficients of a surface, then

+
" H du { 2HE ) H dv{ 2HE J
228 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Proof. From the definition of K, we have

K=_i (dQ a p N
H ^ du dv
where P and Q are given by the Liouville's formula Kg = 0' + Pu' + Qv'
Substituting for P and Q in K, we get

EG FE2} + _L_ A \2EFX-FEX-EE2

+
H du 2HE H dv\ 2HE

,
or we have
„ 1 3
A=>
FE2-EGl 1A 2^F 2 -FEX -EE2
2HE
H du I 2HE
When the parametric curves are orthogonal, F = 0.
Hence the formula for K assumes the form

d (E.
K--
H[du{H dv\H
Example 2. Find the Gaussian curvature at any point of a sphere with
representation
r = fl(sin u cos v, sin u sin v, cos u)
where 0 < u < n and 0 < v < 2n>
We know that for the sphere,
E = a2,F = 0,G = a2 sin2«, H = a2 sin w,
and E2 = 0,Gl = 2a2 sinucos u.
Using the formula in the above theorem, when 0<U<2K.

1 2a2 sin u cos w

K=- 2
2<2 sinw 9M a sm u J

1
- • —(2cosw) = — .
2(3 sin w dw a
Example 3. Find the Gaussian curvature at a point (w, v) of the anchor ring.
r = {{b + a cos w) cos v, (b + a cos w) sin v, a sin w), 0 < w, v < 2n.
By finding the ex C of a geodesic rectangle on an anchor ring, we have already
noted in Example 2 of 3.11 that the total curvature at any point of an anchor ring is
zero. Now we shall make use of the Theorem 2 to find the toal curvature of an
anchor ring.
Geodesies on a Surface 229

For the anchor ring, we have

E = a2, F = OyH = a(b + cos u),G = (b + a cos u)2
Since the parametric curves are orthogonal, we make use of the second formula
for K

i fa r^v a (E2
2H \du{HJ* dv{H
Now E2 = 0, Gx = -2(& + a cos u)a sin w.

9 \-2a(b + a cos w) sin w

Hence K=-
2a(b + acos u) 9w [ a(b + a cos u)

cos w
which gives the Gaussian curvature at any point
a(b + acos u)
P on the surface.
Hence the total curvature is

n n
\\KdS =j j KHdudv
s

r2n c2n cosua(b + acosu)

dudv
Jo Jo a(b-\-a cos u)
tin pin
= dv\ cos u du = 2^(sin u)ln = 0
Jo Jo
Hence the total curvature of the whole surface is zero.
Next we shall specialise the notion of Gaussian curvature for surface with
geodesic polar coordinates. Using the geodesic polar coordinates, the metric of a
surface reduces to the form ds2 = du2 + g2 dv2 where g2 = G(w, v). We shall find out
the Gaussian curvature with respect to this metric in the simplest form.

Theorem 3. In the geodesic polar form, the Gaussian curvature K = - $±L

8
where g = VG of the surface.
Proof. Using geodesic polar coordinates, the metric is
ds2 = du2 + g2 dv2.
Hence E = 1, F = 0, G = g2y H = JG = g, and G{ = 2ggx.
Since F = 0, the formula for the Gaussian curvature is

i fa
(GA a (E2 '
2H \du{H J* dv{ H
230 Differential Geometry—A First Course

i a '2gg
" - {- ^
= _!n
2g du 8 J

Hence the Gaussian curvature K = —. In other words K satisfies the

8
differential equation gn + Kg = 0 which proves the theorem.
The origin of a geodesic polar coordinate system is an artificial singularity.
Since the singularity is artificial, the Gaussian curvature exists there. So we shall
find out the Gaussian curvature K0 at the origin.
Theorem 4. If K0 is the Gaussian curvature at the origin of a geodesic polar
coordinate system, then

K u*
Q
g(u, 0) ~ u — as u -> 0.
6
Proof. Since the metric in the geodesic polar coordinates approximates to
the polar form in the plane, using the metric approximation of 3.9, we can take

G~u ,g~ u and hm = 1. ...(.1)

M->0 U
Using Theorem 3, we have gn = -K0g - -K0u ...(2)
u2
Integrating (2) we obtain g{ ~ cx - K0 — .

Since g - «, g{ = 1 so that cx ~ 1 as u -> 0.

Thus we have g{ - 1 - —^— ...(3)

Integrating (3) once again, we get

K0u3
g~u- —"— +c2

Since g ~ w which in zero at the origin c2 = 0

K u3
Hence we have g - u —.
6
As an application of Theorem 4, we shall derive the formula for Gaussian
curvature using geodesic circle with centre P and radius r.
Theorem 5. If r is the radius of the geodesic circle with centre at P, then

(i) (K)p = lim —* where C is the circumference of the geodesic circle.

— Ttr
3
Geodesies on a Surface 231

Kr2 - A
(ii) (K)P = lim —= where A is the area of the geodesic disc.

Proof. If P is the centre and r is the radius, then u = r is the geodesic circle in
geodesic polar coordinates, dv is the infinitesimal directed angle at P.
When we use the geodesic polar coordinates, the metric of the surface becomes
ds2 = du2 + Gdv2.
Since u = rtdu = 0 and. let G = g2.
Then ds2 = g2 dv2 so that ds = gdv.
If C is the circumference of the geodesic circle, then

ds = g(r, v)dv ~ r 2— dv by Theorem 4.

o Jo Jo ^ 6 J

K0r>
Hence C~2n\r- .(1)

1 -
From the above formula C - 2 ^ r 7iK0r ...(2)
where K0 is the Gaussian curvature at the origin at P.

From (2), we have (X)P = lim —«

" ° ±*r 3
3
(ii) The elementary area Hdudv= <J(±dudv where u varies from 0 to r and v
varies from 0 to 2n.
rr fin
Hence the area of the geodesic disc A =

From Theorem 4, VG = u KQU3 approximately.

6
A =
Therefore j f [u'-Kou3)dudv

= j \lnu- — K0u3)du

So solving for /Cn, we have (JC)P = lim —: .

232 Differential Geometry—A First Course

3.13 SURFACES OF CONSTANT CURVATURE

After introducing the Gaussian curvature of surfaces, the natural question is to
classify the surfaces having the same curvature. This leads to the notion of surfaces
of constant curvature where surfaces mean sufficiently small regions on the given
surface. The simplest example of a surface of non-zero Gaussian curvature is the

sphere of radius a where the curvature K is positive and it is - y . If two surfaces

a
have the same curvature, then we find a local isometry between the surfaces in the
sense that at the corresponding points ds2 are equal.
Definition. If K has the same value K0 at every point of a surface, then the
surface is said to have constant curvature K0.
The following theorem known as Minding's Theorem classifies the surfaces of
constant curvature as K > 0 or K < 0.
Theorem. (Minding). Two surfaces of the same constant curvature are
locally isometric.
Proof. Before proceeding to the proof of the theorem, we shall briefly
explain what is meant by locally isometric surfaces.
If P is any point on one of the surfaces of constant curvature and P is any point
of the other surface, then P has a neighbourhood which is isometric with a
neighborhood of P in the sense that the metrics of the two surfaces are identical.
The points P and P are called the corresponding points on the surfaces.
The proof consists of three cases according as K0 = 0, K0 > 0 and K0 < 0. More
precisely, we establish that if 5 is a surface of constant curvature XQ, then
(i) If K0 = 0, S is isometric with a plane

(ii) If KQ = —Y , S is isometric with a sphere of radius a and

a

(iii) If KQ = —2", 5 is isometric with a certain surface of revolution called a

a
pseudo-sphere determined by a.
In all the above three cases, to prove the local isometry between the surfaces S
and S, we shall find the metrics ds2 on both the surfaces and establish the
correspondence between them. The whole proof of the theorem centres around the
solution of the partial differential equation gn + K^g = 0 of Theorem 3 of 3.12.
under suitable initial conditions to be found out for (i), (ii) and (iii). For this let us
proceed as follows.
We shall choose an orthogonal parametric system at point P on S consisting of
the geodesic parallels so that the metric on the surface reduces to the simplest form.
For this let C be a geodesic through P. Let us choose as parametric curves the
geodesies orthogonal to C together with their orthogonal trajectories as follows.
Let v = c be the geodesic orthogonal to C at a geodesic distance c from P measured
Geodesies on a Surface 233

i/ = c

v-c

Fig. 14

along C and u = c be the geodesic parallel orthogonal to the curve v = c at a

geodesic distance c from the prallel C. Thus the parametric system u = c includes
C which we take as u = 0. Thus (w, V) constitute the parametric system in the
neighbourhood of P. The metric of the surface with respect to this coordinates
system of geodesic polars is
ds2=du2 + g2dv2, ...(1)
2
where g = G for some g(w, v). Thus we have from the metric
E=hG = g\andF = 0
With respect to the coordinate system, the equation of the geodesic curve C is
u = 0. Since the parametric curves are orthogonal, the curve u = 0 is a geodesic if
and only if.
GGX + FG2 - 2GF2 = 0 which reduces to Gx = 0,
since F = F2 = 0 and G * 6.

But Gt = - ^ - = 2ggx and # * 0 so that

du
Gl = 0 at u = 0 implies gj = 0.
Since u is the geodesic arcual distance measured along C, in the coordinate
system, the infinitesimal length measured along C is dv. Thus we have when u = 0,
ds = dv.
Using ds =rfv,and du = 0, the metric (1) reduces to g2 = 1.
Hence we have at u = 0, g = 1
Thus when w = 0, we have the following initial conditions.
( 1 ) ^ = 0 and ( 2 ) £ = 1 . ...(2)
We know from Theorem 3 of 3.12, g satisfies the partial differential equation
234 Differential Geometry—A First Course

for a fixed K0. Once we know the value of g, the metric (i) is determined in all the
three cases. Hence we solve the partial differential equation (3) for g under the
boundary condition (2).
Case (i) When K0 = 0, we prove g(u, v) = 1 always. Since K0 = 0, equation
(3) reduces tog u = 0. This implies thatgj is a function of v only so that we can take
gx = A(v) and determine A(v). When u = 0, g{ = 0 so that A(v) = 0. Thus we get
gi = 0 which shows that g is a function of v only. So let us take g = B(v). When
u = 0, g = 1 so that B{v) = 1. Thus, we haveg(w, v) = 1 always. Using this value of
gy the metric (i) becomes ds2 = du2 + dv2 which is the metric of the plane with w, v
as cartessian coordinates. Hence the surfaces in the neighbourhood of P is
isometric with the region of the plane.

Case (ii) Let K0 = —~-. In this case we prove that g(u, v) = cos —
a \a
d2g + —5-
The partial differential equation (3) becomes —r g =0
au a
The general solution of the above equation is

g(ut v) = A(v) cos — J + B(v) sin —

where A(v) and B(y) are function of v only.

A v B
, x < ) • (A ^ (u
Further gx(u, v) = sin — + cos —
a \aj a \a,
When u = 0, gx(u) = 0 so that£(v) = 0 and alsog(w) = 1, gives A(v) = 1. Hence the

solution of the differential equation in this case is g(u, v) = cos —

Using this value of2 g, the2 metric (1)2 becomes

ds = du + cos \-\dv2.
•o-
Making the transformation u = a\ u and v = av, the above metric becomes

ds^ = a2du2 + a2 sin2w dv2 which is the metric of the sphere with radius a.
Hence when K0 > 0, a neighbourhood of P on the given region S is isometric to a
spherical region S containing P.

Case (iii) Let K0 = —5-. Under this condition, we prove that

a

g(u, v) = cosh
©
Geodesies on a Surface 235

Using this value of K0, the differential equation becomes -^-y

9^
- -^-
X
=0
du2 a2
The general solution of the above differential equation is

g(u, v) = A(v) cosh — + B(v) sin/z -

Differentiating the above equation

/ ^ 1 At ^ • AU\ B
<y) u(U
gx(u, v) = — A(v) sin/z •— + cosh —
a \aj a \a.

Using the boundary condition (2), we find A = 1 and B = 0. Hence the solution of

the equation (3) in this case becomesg(u, v) = cosh — . Using this function, the

metric becoms
ds2 = du2 + cosh2 — dv2.

Using the transformation u = au, v = av, the above metric becomes

ds2 = a\du2 + cos h2 u dv2) ...(4)
Let us find the surface associated with the metric. The general form of the
surface of revolution about the z-axis is given by
x = g(u\y = Oyz=f(u)
The position vector of any point on the surface is
r = (g(u ) cos v, g(U) sin v ,/(w ))
The metric on the surface of revolution is
ds2 = (g\+f2)du2 + g2dv2 ...(5)
Identifying (4) and (5), we obtain
(#i2 + /i 2 ) = fl2
' S(w ) = a cos hu so that
2 2 2
weget/i = a -g = a\\ -sin/z2u )

From the above equation/= <z ^/l - sin/z2 wdw

Jo
Thus we conclude that a small portipn in the neighbourhood of P on the surface
S is isometric with the corresponding portion of the surface S in the
neighbourhood of P where S is the surface of revolution given by

x = g(u) = a cosh u y y = 0 and z = a Jl-sin/z 2 udu.

Jo
236 Differential Geometry—A First Course

This surface of revolution is called a pseudo sphere. This completes the proof
of Minding's theorem on isometries of surfaces of constant curvature.
Note. Since the surfaces constructed in the Minding's Theorem are simple in
nature, the question arises whether there are other surfaces of constant curvature.
In this connection, it should be noted that the solution of the problem depends upon
the solution of a partial differential equation (3) depending on the boundary
conditions. Hence let us assume that the differential equation does not satisfy the
same boundary conditions of the theorem, then we can find some other surfaces of
constant curvature. The following examples illustrate the existence of other
surfaces of constant curvature.

Example 1. Let K0 = - -~-. Then the differential equation (3) of the theorem is
a

sn-4=°-
a
Now the function g = aeu,a satisfies the above partial differential equation so
that the metric in this case becomes
2w

ds = du + a e a dv2
2 2 2

Let us consider the transformation u = au , v = v.

Then we have ds2 = a2(du2 + e2u dv2) which is a metric of another surface of

constant curvature - —~- and it is different from the pseudosphere.

a
Example 2. The surface generated by the tangents to any space curve is a surface
of constant zero curvature.
Let P be any point on the tangent surface and let r(.s) be the position vector of
any point on the curve C where the tangent to C passes through P. Then the position
vector of P can be taken as R(s> v) = r(^) + v t(s) where s and v are the parameters
of the tangent surface.
The formula for the Gaussian curvature is

H du H dv
We shall find K for the tangent surface and show it to be zero. For this let us
find the fundamental coefficients of the surface.

_ 9R 9R (dv vdi]2 ,. x2 1 2 i
E =- — = — + = (t + vKny = 1 + K V
os os yds ds J
G ™.|K=t.t=1
ov ov

OS OV

H2=EG-F2=Klv2 so that H = JCV.

Geodesies on a Surface 237

Let us find P and Q for the above values of E, F and G.

Now P = —!— (2EFl-FEl-EE2) = -t— (-FEX - EE2)

l 1 2 l 2
2HE 2HE

Ex =2KK'V2,E2 = 2K2V

So P= l + ~*K2'vV 2

1 _ _ -2K2V
2 = - T T — (EL2 F-EG 1v ) =
2HE" ~ ' 2KV(1 + K V ) 1 + K2V2

V
K ) d ( - VK'
Now K= — =0
// ds\ 1 + K T V J dv[l + ?c2v2
Thus the Gaussian curvature of the tangent surface is zero at every point on the
surface.
Note. Using the above example, we raise the question can every surface of
constant zero curvature be a tangent surface? We shall prove in the next chapter
such a surface is a part of a tangent surface to some curve or it is a part of a cone or
cylinder.

3.14 CONFORMAL MAPPING

Before defining conformal mapping between two surfaces S and 5*, let us define
the mapping between two surfaces and obtain their representation in terms of the
same parameters (w, v).
Definition 1. Two surfaces S and S* are said to be mapped upon one another,
if there exists a one-to-one correspondence between the points of two surfaces.
Let S and S* be two surfaces with parametric representation r = r(w, v) and
r* = r*(«*, v*). The most general mapping of the region of a surface S on the
corresponding region of S* is defined by the relations.
u = 0(M, V) and v* = \\f(u, v)
where 0 and i/f establish the one-to-one correspondence between the surface S and
S*. We shall assume that <p and yf are analytic functions of u and v. Substituting the
values of u , v in terms of M, v in r = r (u , v ), we get the representation of S in
terms of the parameters u> v so that we can represent both the surfaces S and S* in
terms of the same parameters w, v. Thus the parametric equations of the surfaces S
and 5* becomes
r = r(w, v) and r* = r*(«, v).
With the help of the above parametric representations, we shall study the different
mappings between the surfaces.
Definition 2. A differentiable homeomorphism is an analytic one-to-one
onto map between two surfaces.
238 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Definition 3. A surface S is said to be conformally mapped onto another

surface S , if there exists a differentiable homeomorphism of S onto S* such that
the angle between two curves through an arbitrary point P on S is equal to the
angle between the two corresponding curves through the corresponding point P*
on S*.
Note. In our previous study, we came across isometric mappings which
preserve both distances and angles but a conformal mapping preserves only
angles but not distances. Let us first characterise conformal mappings in the
following theorem.
Theorem 1. Let S and S* be two surfaces and let r = r(w, v) —> r* = r*(w, v) be
a differentiable homeomorphism. Then a necessary and sufficient condition for
the above mapping to be conformal is that

E* " F*~G* ~P

ds
where p = —;-, F, F, G and F*, F*, G* are the fundamental coefficients of the
ds
surfaces S and S*
Proof. In the proof, we first note that the same parameters u and v are used
for both the surfaces S and S*.
The metric dS on S and dS* and S* are given by
ds = Edu2 + IFdudv + Gdv2 ...(1)
2
ds* =E*du + 2F*dudv + C V ...(2)
Let (/j, mx) and (/2, m^) be the direction coefficients of any two directions
through P including an angle 6and (/*, ml) and (/2*, m2*) be the corresponding
direction coefficients at P* including the angle 0*.
Hence we have the relations,
cos 6 = E lxl2 + F(l{m2 + l2m\) + G m{m2 ...(3)
cos 0* = F*/*/2* + F*(llm2 + l2mx) + G*m*ml ...(4)
Let us rewrite cos 0* using (ll9 mx) and (/2, m2) as follows.

,* du du ds , ds
as as ds ds
In a similar manner, we have
ml = mxp, l2 = / 2 p, m2 = m2p ...(5)
Using (5) in (4), we obtain
cos 0* = p2[E*lxl2 + F*(lxm2 + m ^ ) + G ' m ^ ] ...(6)
To prove the necessity of the condition, let us assume that the mapping to be
conformal. Then 6= 6* and consequently cos 9 = cos 6*. Hence (3) and (6) must
be identical for arbitrary direction coefficients. Hence we have
Geodesies on a Surface 239

E = p2E\ F = p2F* and G = p2G* which gives

E F G
2 u- u u , - . .
—ir = —*• = —*• = p which proves the condition is necessary.
E F G
The condition is sufficient also. For if the above condition is satisfied, then
cos 0- cos 0 are equal so that 6=9* which proves that the mapping is conformal.
Thus the condition is both necessary and sufficient.
Note. In general p is a function of w, v. When p is a constant, the conformal
mapping becomes a similarity mapping. When p = 1, the conformal mapping
becomes an isometry.
Definition 4. Let S be the given surface with the metric
ds2 = Edu2 + IF dudv + Gdv2
If at any point P on the surface ds2 = 0, the above metric gives two imaginary
directions at P and since EG - F2 * 0, it follows that these directions are always
distinct. These are called isotropic directions at P.
Theorem 2. A necessary and sufficient condition that a mapping be
conformal is that the isotrophic curves correspond.
Proof. Let us choose the curves along the isotropic direction as parametric
curves. Since the parametric curves correspond to du = 0 and dv = 0, E = 0 and
G = 0. Hence the metric becomes ds2 = IF dudv and ds*2 = 2F*dudv.

___ O CIS M? O • *
Thus p =—+2 = —^ so that F = p F . Hence ds and ds are proportional so
that the isotropic curves correspond and conversely if the isotropic curves
correspond, the above condition is satisfied so that the mapping is conformal by
Theorem 1.
Theorem 3. Every point on a surface has a neighbourhood which can be
mapped conformally on a region of a plane.
Proof. Let P be any point on the surface. Let us choose the parametric
curves along the isotropic direcions. Since du = 0, dv = 0 along these parametric
curves, we have E = 0, and G = 0. Hence the metric of the surfaces assumes the
form
ds2 = Xdudv.
Now let us consider the change of parameters
u = U+iV and v = U - iV so that we have
du=dU + i dVand dv = dU- i dVgiving dudv = dU2 + dV2.
Hence the metric ds2 = X(dU2 + dV2)
Comparing the above metric with the metric of the plane ds = dx + dy , we
obtain x = U and y = V giving the conformal mapping of the surface onto the plane.
This proves the theorem. As an immediate consequence. We get the following
Corollary.
Corollary. Every point of a surface has a neighbourhood which can be
mapped conformally on some neighbourhood of any other surface.
 Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com
240 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Proof. This follows from the fact that a neighbourhood of a point P on S and
a neighbourhood of a point P* on S* can both be mapped on the same region of the
plane.
Definition 5. If the metric of a surface is of the form ds2 = A2(du2 + dv2), then
the parameters u and v are said to form an isothermic system.
We obtain isothermic system by using isotropic curves obtained by conformal
mapping. We know that an analytic function always gives rise to a conformal
mapping so that the question naturally arises whether analytic functions will give
rise to isothermic systems. The following theorem answers this question.
Theorem 4. There are infinite number of isothermic parameters, each
system corresponding to an analytic function of a single complex variable.
Proof. Let (w, v) and (£/, V) be two different isothermic systems of the same
surface where Ut Vare functions of w, v. Since they represent the same isothermic
system, their metrics should be identical and hence
ds2 = X\du2 + dv2) = A2(dU2 + dV2) ...(1)
Since U and V are functions of w, v, we get

dU = — - du + — - dv = Uxdu + U2dv ...(2)

du dv
dV dV
dV = —- du + — dv = Vxdu + V2dv ...(3)
du dv
Substituting (2) and (3) in (1), we get
A W + dv2) = A2[(Uxdu + U2dv)2 + (Vxdu + V2dv)2]
= A2[(UX2 + Vx2)du2 + 2{UXU2 + VxV2)dudv + (C/22 + V?)dv2]
Hence comparing both sides of the above equation,
A2
Ux2 + Vx2 = U? +V?= — and UXU2 + VXV2 = 0 ...(4)

A solution of the above equation (4) is

ul = v2, u2=-v{
u2 = vlt u{=-v2.
Comparing the above equations with Cauchy-Riemann equations,

du _ dv du dv
dx dy' dy dx
we conclude that U + iV or U - iV is an analytic function of u + iv. Thus for
each isothermic system of curves u = c and v = c, there is a natural conformal
mapping of the surface on the plane given by an analytic function of u + iv. Hence
from one isothermic system, we can construct all other isothermic system by
Re/(w + iv) = constant and im/(w + iv) = constant where/is an analytic function

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Geodesies on a Surface 241

of a complex variable u + iv. Since/is arbitrary, there exists an infinite number of

systems of isothermic parameters, each system corresponding to an analytic
function of a single complex variable. This completes the proof of the theorem.
Example 1. Find the system isothermic to the surface of revolution
r = (g(u) cos v, g(u) sin v,/(w)).
For this surface, we have already noted
E = g2+f2,F = 0,G = g2.
and hence ds2 = (g2 +fi)du2 + g2 dv2.
Since we construct an isothermic system, let us choose U and V properly so that
ds2 = A(dU2 + dV2) for a suitable A.
f 4- o
Let dU2 = ^-^-du2 and dV=dv. ...(1)

2
l +gl
Hence U = [^ du and V= v ...(2)
J
8
Using (1), the given metric becomes ds2 = g2(dU2 + dV2) where U is a function
of u only. Thus u = constant implies U = constant so that U = constant are
meridians. Thus the meridians and parallel form an isothermic parametric system.
The required conformal mapping* = V, v = U maps the meridians into lines parallel
to they-axis and the parallels into lines parallel to the^-axis.
Example 2. If a unit sphere is represented in term of longitude v and colatitude u
by the equation
r = (cos v sin w, sin u sin v, cos w),
determine a conformal mapping of the sphere on the plane.
For the above representation of the unit sphere,
we have E = 1, F = 0, G = sin u and the metric
ds2 = sin2w (cosec2w du2 + dv2)
Let dU2 = cosec2« du2, dV = dv
c u
Hence U= cosec udu = log tan —.

Thus U = log tan —, V=v gives the conformal mapping of the sphere on the

plane. The mappingx = v and}; = log tan — u maps the meridians into lines parallel

to the y-axis and the parallels into lines parallel to the .x-axis. This conformal
mapping is. a modification of Mercator's projection used in the preparation of
atlases.
242 Differential Geometry—A First Course

3.15 GEODESIC MAPPING

Before defining geodesic mapping, let us recollect a few points about isometric
mapping between two surfaces. As we have already defined, a mapping of a
surface S onto a surface S* is isometric if it preserves distances. Equivalently a
mapping is said to be isometric if there exists a correspondence between points P
on the surface S and P* on S* such that if P traces out an arc 5, then P* traces out an
arc of equal length on S*. Hence the metrics of the surfaces S and S* are equal.
That is Edu2 + 2Fdudv + Gdv2 = E*du2 + 2F*dudv + G*dv2 which gives
E = E*,F = F* and G = G*. These relations give
E_ _F_ _G_
* - *- *
L F G
which is the condition for a mapping to be conformal. This proves that an isometric
mapping is conformal so that it preserves both the distances and angles. But a
conformal mapping need not necessarily be isometric, since the condition of
conformability need not imply E-E ,F = F ,G-G unless p = 1.
Hence the question naturally arises under what conditions a conformal
mapping becomes an isometric mapping. To answer this question, we shall
introduce the notion of geodesic mappings between two surfaces.
Definition 1. A surface S is mapped geodesically onto a surface S* if there is
a differentiate homeomorphism of S onto S* such that geodesies on S are mapped
onto geodesies on S*.
Example. Let us consider projections P of points of a sphere from the centre
onto a tangent plane. Then this projection maps the great circles on the sphere onto
straight lines on the tangent plane. Since the great circles are geodesies on the
sphere and straight lines are geodesies on the tangent plane, the projection map P
maps geodesies on a sphere onto geodesies on a tangent plane. Hence the mapping
P is a geodesic mapping.
Theorem 1. If a mapping of a surface S onto a surface S* is both geodesic and
conformal, then it is an isometry or a similarity mapping.
Proof. If we consider a geodesic on a surface, it may be either a parametric
curve v = constant or a curve cutting the parametric curve v = constant at an angle
ft We shall consider these two facts in the proof.
Let us consider a system of geodesic coordinates on S so that the metric of S
becomes
ds2 = du2 + G(u,v)dv2 ...(1)
Since the mapping S -> S* is conformal, using Theorem 1 of 3.14, the metric
ds2 on S* is proportional to (1). Taking the constant of proportionality to be
A(w, v), we have
ds*2 = A(w, v) (du2 + Gdv2) ...(2)
The parametric curves v = constant are geodesic with respect to the metric (1)
on S. Since the mapping is geodesic, the image of the geodesic v = constant must be
a geodesic on S* where the same parameter v is used for both the surfaces.
Geodesies on a Surface 243

The conditions for the image curve v = constant to be a geodesic is

E*E*2 + F*E\ - 2E*FX* = 0 ...(3)
Since F* = 0 and E* = A(w, v), we get from (3),

X^u, v) —— = 0. Since X * 0, —— = 0 so that A is a function of u only. Hence X

ov av
is independent of v.
Now consider any geodesic on S making an angle 0 with the curve v = constant.
Then by Liouvilles' formula
d^
Kg = — + Pu' + QV where we have
ds

P = —^—{2EFXl -FEXl-EE2),2 Q = —^—(EG

l X-FE
2 2).
2HE 2HE
Using the metric (1) and noting Kg = 0 for a geodesic, the Liouville's formula
becomes

d0+-^-dv = 0 ...(4)
2H
Since the mapping is conformal and geodesic, the equation corresponding to
(4) on S* is

G*
dO+—tTdv =0 ...(5)
2H

c c*
From (4) and (5), we get —l- = —{- ...(6)
H H
For the metrics (1) and (2), we have H = VG an H* = X(uy v) VG ...(7)
Using (7) in (6), we obtain

Gx = (XG){ _ XGX+GXX _ G{ jQ.h.

V^ " XyfG " X4G ' y[h + ' X

which gives y/G — = 0.

A
Since G ^ 0 , we have X x = 0 which shows that X is independent of u. Thus X is
independent of u and v so that it is a constant. Let it be c. Thus ds2 = c ds*2 which
shows that the mapping is a similarily mapping. If c = 1, the mapping becomes an
isometry. This completes the proof of the theorem.
Note. The arguments in the above theorem are equally true if we consider the
parametric curve u = constant as a geodesic. Since a geodesic conformal mapping
244 Differential Geometry—A First Course

leads to a similarity mapping. We shall consider only non-conformal geodesic

mappings in the rest of this section.
The important property of a conformal mapping is that any surface can be
conformally mapped onto any other surface. But this cannot be said about non-
conformal geodesic mappings. However we can obtain the metrics in the case of
geodesic mappings as shown in the Dini's theorem. As a preliminary to Dini's
theorem, we shall prove the following theorem due to Tissot.
Theorem 2. Let S and S* be any two surfaces. In any non-conformal mapping
of S and S* given by a differential homemorphism regular at each point, there exists
at every point P of S a uniquely determined pair of real orthogonal directions such
that the corresponding directions on S* are orthogonal.
Proof. To prove the theorem, let us choose the parameters on S and S* such
that the corresponding points have the same parameters w, v. Let (l{, m{) and
(/2, m2) be the two orthogonal directions at P on S. Let (l{, m*) and (/2*, m2) be the
corresponding directions at P* on S*.
Since (l{, mx) and (/2, m2) are orthogonal, we have from the condition of
orthogonality,
Elxl2 + F(llm2 + l2mx) + Gmxm2 = 0 which is the same as
(El2 + Fm2)lx + (Fl2 + Gm2)ml = 0 ...(1)
We have to show that the corresponding direction (l{, ml) and (/2, m2) are
orthogonal on S*. Jf the corresponding directions are orthogonal, then we have
E lxl2 +F (l{m2+l2m{) + G m{m2=0 ...(2)
Since P and P* have the same parameters.
* _ du _ du ds _ ds
ds* ds ds* ds*

T ., . * ds .* . ds * ds
Likewise m{ = m{-—r, l2 = l2—j-, m2 = m2 — j - ...(3)
ds ds ds
Using (3) in (2), we obtain,
E*l{l2 + F*(llm2 + l2mx) + G*mxm2 = 0
which can be rewritten as
(E*l2 + F*m2)l{ + (F*l2 + G*m2)m{ = 0 ...(4)
Eliminating / h ml between (1) and (4), we obtain
\El2+Fm2 Fl2+Gm2
=0
E l2+F m2 F l2+G m2

,. . El2+Fm2 Fl2 +Gm2 ...

which gives —^—-H- = —?f——^ ...(5)
E l2+F m2 F l2+G m2
Geodesies on a Surface 245

Arranging (5) as a quadratic in /2, we get

(EF* - FE*)l22 + (EG*- E*G) l2m2 + (FG* - F*G) m22 = 0 ...(6)
This quadratic gives two directions at each point of S. We shall show that these
two directions are orthogonal.
Applying the condition of orthogonality ER-2FQ + GP = 0
by taking? =EF* -FE\ Q = EG* -E*G, R =FG* -F*G in Theorem 1 of 2.13, we
find
E(FG* - F*G) - F(EG* - E*G) + G(EF* - FE*) = 0
so that the equation (6) determines two orthogonal directions at each point.
To complete the proof, we shall show that the two directions given by the
quadratic (6) are distinct. For this we prove that the discriminant of the quadratic
(6) is positive. Hence the discriminant is
(EG* - GE*)2 - A(EF* - FE*) (FG* - F*G) which we can rewrite as follows

Now FG* -F*G=- [F(EG* - E*G) - G(EF* - E*F)]

E
Using the above in the discriminant, we get

(EG* -E*G)2 - — (EF* -E*F) (EG* -E*G) + — (EF* -E*F) 2 ...(7)

E E

Now completing the squares, we get

[(EG* - E*G) - —(EF* - FE*)]2 - 1 ^ - (EF* - FE*)2 + — (EF* - E*F)2

= [(EG* -E*G) -—(EF* -E*F)]2 + -^(EG-F2) (EF*-FE*)2 ...(8)

By hypothesis EG -F2>0 and since the mapping is not conformal E = pE*y

F = pf*, G = pG* is not true.
Hence the discriminant given by (8) is strictly positive so that the roots of the
quadratic (6) are real and distinct. Thus at each point P of 5, there exists a pair of
real orthogonal directions uniquely determined such that the corresponding
directions on S* are also orthogonal. This completes the proof of Tissot's theorem.
Theorem 3 (Dini). The metrics of two surfaces S and S* which are mapped
geodesically on each other by a non-conformal mapping can be written in the
following form. If U = U(u) and V = V(v), then
ds2 = (U-V)(du2 + dv2)
ds*2 = (V~l - U~l) (U~l du2 + V~x dv2)
Proof. The method of proof is to obtain the equations of the geodesies on S
and S* by the geodesic transformation and obtain the relation between the
fundamental coefficients leading to the metrics of S and S .
246 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Let / b e a differential homeomorphism of S and S* which is non-conformal.

Then by Tissot's theorem, through each point P of S, there exists a uniquely
determined pair of real orthogonal directions so that the corresponding directions
on S* are also orthogonal. Choosing the parametric curves along these directions,
the metrics on S and S* take the forms
ds2=Edu2 + Gdv2 ...(1)
2 2 2
ds* = E*du + G*dv ...(2)
where we use the same paramters u and v for both the surfaces.
r) T r)T
Let us find the geodesic equation U — V —— = 0 •••(3)
ov ou
on the surface S taking u(t) = t so that u = 1, u = 0 •••(4)

From (1) we have T= -[Eu2 + Gv2].

2
Using (4), we obtain from the above equation,

fI
oil
=£li=£ ,fI =
ov
Gv
|^=i[£1«2 + G 1 v 2 ] = ^[£ 1 + G1v2]
du 2 2

| ^ = \[E2u2 + G 2 v 2 ] = \[E2 + G2v2] .(5)

ov 2 2
Let us find f/and Vof (3) separately using (5)

±(dT] d_
= -^-(Eu) = Exii2 + E2vu +Eu =EX + E2v
dt\dii) dt

d_(dT_ d_
= -^-(Gv) = G,v + G2v2 + Gv
dt\dv dt

U= —
dt ydu)
ill
/)T
aw
1
- — = (#i + E2v) - -{Ex + G{ v2) so that
2

1
(/ = - L £ 1 + E 2 v - ^— iG 1 v 2 .(6)
2

r) T 1
_ — = G, v + G 2 v 2 + Gv - - ( E , + G 2 v 2 )
dv 2

1 1 7
Hence V = — E 7 + G,v + -G7v2 + Gv •••(7)
2 2 ' 2 2
Geodesies on a Surface 247

Substituting (6) and (7) in (3) we obtain

Changing the sign throughout and simplifying, we get

EGv + ^GGlv3 + \-rEG, -GE EE2 = 0

2

1 G, . 3
or v + L
v + U G ...(8)
E) \G 2 E) 2 G
2 E
Similarly the equation of the geodesic on S is

•• i G; . 3 J_G£ .2 | Gi 1 Zsi |. 1 E2
V+ i-V + ...(9)
2C* G 2 £* 2G
2 E
Since the mapping is geodesic (8) and (9) must be identical. Hence comparing
the coefficients of different terms, we obtain the following relations.
G, _ G , 1 G2 E2 1 G2 %
E E*' 2 G E 2 G* E*
G, 1 El G* 1 E^ E*2 E2
••(10)
G 2 E ~ G* ~ 2 E*' G ~ G*
2
d (E^| _ 2EE2G-G2E _ 2E2 EL
Now
dv{G/ \~ G2 ~ ~G~ E

d (E2~) l 2 E
so that
G
2
E dv{G J
- 2 ( ° A •(11)
U G E)
In a similar manner, we have
2
G* a (V 1 G2 E2
= -2 •••(12)
E*2 dv{ G* ) _2G*~~E*
Using the second relation in (10), the right hand side of (11) and (12) are equal so
that we obtain

G_d_ ^172\
d E- , • 2 ^
••(13)
E2 dv E2
dv[ G
V J J
Integrating (13) with respect to v, we obtain
7*2
log
'£)HS + log W
248 Differential Geometry—A First Course

where we take U to be a constant with respect to v so that it is a function of u only.

Thus we have from the above equation,

— = ^-U3 ...(14)
G G
In a similar manner, we can derive

^-=^V' ...(15)
E E
where V is a constant with respect to u so that it is a function of v only.
Now multiplying the square of (14) with (15), we get

* . <L = £ _ tf*. ^ V3 w h . c h . s £ 3 = £ *3 V6 y3
G2 E G2 E
Thus we have E = E* U2V ...(16)
In a similar manner squaring (15) and multiplying by (14), We get
G = G*UV2 ...(17)
With the help of (10), (16) and (17), we shallfindE, G and E*, G\ giving the
metrics on S and S*
Substituting for £ from (16) in thefirstequation of (10),

G G 9
\ _ ^\r
= 1 * orG,
„r: -=r U'VG
i 2 i / / 2 « -=» U'V^-(G
2i> )
t
E*U2V E ' " ' "' ~ ' du
Substituting forG* in (17), we obtain

2 d ( G )_UGl-UlG
G, = U2V-

Thus we have VG, = C/G, - f/,G or G,(f/- VO = U{G.

So we find ^ - = —^—, f/ > V

G £/-V
Integrating both sides of the above equation, we have
Thus we get log G = log (£/- V) + log V 2 where V is a function of y only.
G = (U-V)V2,
In a similar manner using (16) and (17) in the fourth relation of (10), we
get E = (U-V)U2 where U is an arbitrary function of U only.
Now substituting for E and G in the metric (1) of 5,
ds2 = (U-V) [U2du2 + V2dv2]
Geodesies on a Surface 249

Using the value of E and G* from (16) and (17), the metric (2) of S* becomes

i*2 E i 2 G ,?
ds = -^—dul + Tdv
l
2 2
UV UV
Substituting for E and G, we obtain

J *2 U-V U2 J 2 V2 A 2
as = du + dv
UV U V
Now let us consider the change of parameters from w, v to u, / given by

u= \Udu,v = \Vdv

Then du* = U dutdv = V dv so that

du dv
du = - = - , and dv = - ^ ^
U V
Hence the metric (2) becomes
d/2 = (V1 - U~l) [U~ldu*2 + V~ldv*2]
and ds2 = (U-V)[du2 + dv*2]
Thus Dini's Theorem is completely proved.

3.16 EXAMPLES HI
1. If a geodesic makes an angle a with a generator at a point distance c from the

axis 0 < a < — , c > 0 on a right helicoid of pitch 2K a, prove that the geodesic

meets the axis if c tan a < a and if c tan a > a, its least distance from the axis is
(c2 sin2 a - a2 cos2 a)m. Find the equation of the geodesic in the case c tan a = a.
Let us first find the integral of the geodesic equation. Let the equation of the
helicoid be
r = (u cos v, u sin v, av)
Now rx = (cos v, sin v, 0), r 2 = (-u sin v, u cos v, a)
so that E = rlr1 = 1,F = i y r 2 = 0, G = r 2 -r 2 = u2 + a2.
We obtain the geodesic by using the canonical equation V = 0 except when
u = constant in which case U = 0 is the geodesic.

Now let T = - [£ w'2 + 2F wV + G v/2]

2

= -[u/2 + (u2 + a2y2]

2
 Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com
Hence we have —- = 0, - — = (u + a)v
dv dv'

T/ d (dT) dT d /2 2 w
So V = — - — - -r— = —(w + a )v'

Hence the canonical equation V = 0 gives

4{(" 2 + aV)=0 ...(1)

ds
Integrating (1), we get {(w2 + a2)v'} = h .. k(2)
where h is an arbitrary constant.
If h = 0, V = 0 so that v is a constant. Therefore when /z = 0, every meridian is
a geodesic on the right helicoid.
Squaring both sides of (1) and using ds2, we have
(w2 + a2)2 dv2 =ftV + (u2 + a2)dv2]
Hence (w2 + a2) {(w2 + a2) - h2} dv2 = h2 du2 so that

±k
* , (3)
M 2
<* A/(W +a ){(W2+a2)-/i2}
2

(3) gives the differential equation of the geodesic when u * constant. Thus there are
two geodesies on therighthelicoid.
By a suitable choice of the axes, the given point at a distance c from the axis of
the helicoid can be taken as (c, 0). The generator passing through this point has the
parametric equation v = 0. If a is the angle between the geodesic and the generator
at this point, then a is the angle between the directions (1,0) and (u\ v'), Therefore

lmCC
~ EXX'+.F(X\i'+ X'\i) + G\iu' " K' " du

dv
So at the point (c, 0), we find — and H
du

1/2 and f r = (<r + a1) ....(5)

du {k (2c 2, +, a2 2w) ( cj 2. + a 2 - / * 2 ) }

2
r^dv_
t\ u2
hd
2 2
Hence tan a = H from (4) and (5)
ydUj (c2+a2-h2)
Therefore the above step gives (c2 + a2 - h2) tan2 a = h2 ...(6)
which gives on simplification h = (c2 + a2)msin a. ...(7)

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Geodesies on a Surface 251

As we have noted already, there are two geodesies satisfying the given initial
dv
conditions. But it is enough if we consider the case — < 0 initially. From the form
du

of ^ , we have the following three case,

du
Case (i) Let h2 > a2. This condition implies c tan a >.a as seen below. From
(6), we have (c2 + a2) tan2 a = h2 sec2 a.
Since h2 > a2, we have (c2 + a2) tan2 a> a2 sec2 a which simplifies to
c tan a>a.
dv
Since — < 0 initially, u decreases as v increases till u attains the minimum
du
valuew = (/z 2 -a 2 ) 1/2
Using (7), we obtain
u = (h2 - a2)m = (c2 sin2 a - a2 cos2 a)m.
dv
After this as v increases further, the sign of — changs and u increases
du
indefinitely. Hence the least distance from the axis is (c2 sin2 a- a2 cos2 a) 1/2 ,
when c tan a > a.
Case (ii) Let h2 < a2. Using this at the initial point (c, 0), we have
(c + a2) tan2 a < a2 sec2 a which simplifies to c tan a < a.
2

dv dv
Since — < 0 , we see from the integral — < 0 for all u and u decreases
du du
indefinitely as v increases. Hence there is a point on the geodesic at which u = 0.
That is the curve meets the axis.
Case (iii) Let h2 = a2. Then as in the above cases, this condition becomes
ctena = a from (6).
In this special case the integral becomes

— = ^ T~VTT where we take the negative sign because we consider — < 0

du u(u2+a2f2 du
only.
Rewriting the above integral, we have
252 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Integrating, we have v = sin h — -/J where /} is the constant of integration.

When w = c, v = 0 so that /3 = sin/rM —

Hence the equation of the geodesic is

usinh(v + p) = a where/?= sin/f1 — .

2. Show that if E, F and G are functions of only one parameter, the geodesies
can all be found by quadratures.
The geodesies can be found by quadratures means that we can completely
integrate the equations of geodesies.
Since Ey F and G are functions of only one parameter, we can take it to be u.
We know that all the geodesies on a surface are given by the canonical
equation V = 0 except those for which u = constant. If s is the parameter.

T=-[Eu'2 + 2Fu'v' + Gv'2]

2
where E, F, and G are functions of u only.

Therefore =0, = Fu' + Gv' so that

dv dv'

ds\dv ) dv ds
gives the canonical geodesic equation.
From (1), we obtain Fu +Gv'=a ...(2)
where a is an arbitrary constant.
From (2), we have (Fdu + Gdvf = c?ds2.
Substituting for ds2, we obtain
{Fdu + Gdvf = a2[Edu2 + IFdudv + Gdv2]
dv
Arranging the above equation as a quadratic in — ,
du
2
G(G-«2)|^ + 2(G- o?)F — + (F2-a2E) =0
du du

dv
Solving for — from the above quadratic, we obtain
du
Geodesies on a Surface 253

dv_ _ - 2 ( G - a2)F ± yJ4(G - a2)2F2 - 4G(G - a2) ( F 2 - o^E)

rfw " 2G(G-a2)

F 1
= ± • 2
2U/2
^a2(EG-F2)
G G{G-a )
F aH
= G ± G(G-a2)1/2
Integrating the above equation,

'-J{-5*5«£VH
Knowing F, F, and G in terms of a single parameter w, we can obtain the
equation of the geodesic from the above equation.
F2
Note 1. Under the above conditions, v = constant is a geodesic if — is a
5
E
constant.
We know that the parametric curve v = constant is a geodesic if and only if EE2
+ F F j - 2EF{ = 0 for all values of u. SinceF is a function of u only, E2 = 0 so that
the above condition reduces t o F F 1 - 2 F F 1 = 0 ...(1)
F2 F2
We shall show that the above condition is satisfied if — is a constant. If —
E E
is constant, then
f 2
d_ F \ 2EFFl-F2El _
2 = 0 which gives
du E E

FE{ - 2EF{ = 0 so that (1) is true. Hence v = constant is a geodesic.

Note 2. u = constant gives the equation of the geodesic under the same
condition, if u is a root of the equation Gx = 0. We know that u = constant is a
geodesic if and only if GGX + FG2 - 2GF 2 = 0 for all values of v.
Under the given condition F 2 = 0 and G2 = 0 so that u = constant is a geodesic
if GGj = 0. Since G ^ 0, we getG! = 0. Thus u = constant is a geodesic if it is a root
ofG^O.
Note 3. If F, F and G are the functions of the parameter v, then we use the
canonical equation U = 0 to obtain the results similar to the above.
3. For the helicoid of non-zero pitch, prove that the sections by planes
containing the axis are geodesies if and only if the sections are straight lines.
Let the equation of the general helicoid be
r = (g(u) cos v, g(u) sin v,/(w) + av) ...(1)
254 Differential Geometry—A First Course

The curve v = a gives the plane containing the axis of the helicoid. Hence let us
find the geodesic corresponding to v = a for any value of a and show that the
geodesic corresponding to v = a satisfies the conditions for a straight line.
Let us take the parameter on the helicoid corresponding to the curve v = a
as w = t and v = a so that w = 1, v = 0.
Now rx = (g{ cos v, gx sin vjx) and
r2 = {-g sin v, g cos v, a) so that
E=f2 + g2,F = aflyG = g2 + a2.

Now T=-[Eu2 + 2Fuv + Gv2]

2

= ^[(8^fi)u2 + 2afluv+(g2 + a2)v2]

We shall find the equation U — V —— = 0 for the curve v = a to be a geodesic.

av aw

dw av

3 - =[tei<?n+/i/n)w 2 + ^/iiWV+^ 1 v 2 ], — = 0
ou dv

dT o ? dT
Taking w = 1, v = 0, the above equations become —— = / f + g,, = af{,
ou dv
dT dT
Y ~ =£i£ii+/i/n> 3 - = °
aw av
Since w = f, we use the subscript 1 for diferentiation with respect to t. Hence we
have

dtydu) ou at

= 5i^u +/1/11 and

_. d (dT) dT d... .
dt\av 1 av dt
Geodesies on a Surface 255

Substituting for U, V, —— and ——, the geodesic equation becomes

oil ov
tfifciSn +/1/11) - ^/utei 2 +/?) = 0 for all 11.
Simplifying, the above equation becomes
8\i8\\f\ -f\\8\) = 0 for all values of u. ...(1)
The position vector of any point on the curve v = a on the helicoid is
r = (g(u)cos a> 8(u)sin #,/(w) + ace) where w is the paremeter on the curve. Let
us find the curvature at any point on the curve.

dx dx ds ds . . .
— = — — = t — = (g{ cos a, g, sm ajx)
du ds du du

ds
Thus t — = (s, cos a, £, sin a,/,) ...(2)
aw
Differentiating the above once again and using Serret-Frenet formula, we
obtain

d2s
— \Kn = (gn cos a, gn sin a , / n ) ...(3)

Taking the cross product of (2) and (3),

ds
Kb = [fei/n - S n / i ) sin a, ten/i - £ i / n ) cos a, 0] ...(4)
du
Hence taking the scalar product of (4) with itself,

..(5)
du ds '
du ^
Thus v = a is a straight line if and only if
K = 0 which implies gjn-gxxf\ =0 (6)
From (1), the curve v = a which is the section of the plane through the axis of
revolution is a geodesic if and only if gx = 0 or (fngi -g\\f\) = 0. Hence if g{ = 0,
then we have gn = 0 so that the condition (g\fu - g\\f\) = 0 is automatically
satisfied. Hence either gx = 0 or (g\fn - g\\f\) = 0 implies the condition for v = a
to be a straight line as given by (5). Hence the section by planes containing the axis
are geodesies if and only if the sections are straight lines.
4. Find the differential equations for geodesies on the catenoid of revolution

obtained by rotating the curve x - c cosM — about the z-axis.

256 Differential Geometry—A First Course

In problems of this type, we shall first obtain the representation of the surface.
Then with the help of T, we obtain the canonical geodesic equation leading to the
solution by quadratures. In passing from the canonical equation to integrals, we
have to make use of ds2 in the process. Then the integration of the resulting
differential equation gives the equations of the geodesies.
The given catenary lies in the XOZ plane and x is the distance of any point on
the catenary from the z-axis. Every point on the catenary describes a circle with
centre on the z-axis. LetP(*, y, z) be any point on the surface of revolution. Let v be
the angle which the plane containing z-axis and passing through P makes with the
XOZ plane. If u is the distance of P from the z-axis, then u = yjx2 + y2 and

u = c cos
<;)
so that we take z = c cos
•if)
Since x = u cos v, y = u sin v, the position vector of any point on the surface of
revolution is

r = \u cos v, u sin v, c cosh

®)
( . ^
, r 2 - (-u sin v, u cos v, 0).
Now
V
cos v, sin v,
r« 2
c2
J

Hence E= 2 2
, F = 0andG = w2
U -C
We find the geodesic equation on the catenoid using the canonical equation

d (dT
V= =0 ...(1)
dsidv' dv
except when u is a constant. When u is a constant, the geodesic equation is given by
J7=0.
Substituting for E, F and G, we have

2 2
u'2+u2v'2
U -C

Now —— = 0 and - — = u v ...(2)

dv dv'
Using (2) in (1), the differential equation of the geodesic is
Geodesies on a Surface 257

V= — (iiV) = 0 ...(3)
ds
Integrating (3), we get u2v' = h ...(4)
where h is a constant. Squaring both sides of (4) and using ds2, we get
.,2 A
w W = h2ds2 = h2 2 2
du1 + uzdvz
U -C

9 9 9 9 9
which gives w (u -h)dv =h 2 2 \du2.
u -c
du
Then we have dv = ± h j
V(w -h )(u2
2 2
-c2)
Since u * h , integrating the above equation, we obtain the equation of the
geodesic as
du
v = a±h
i J(u -h ){u2-c2)
2 2

where a is the constant of integration.

If u2 = h2, then w is a constant. The parametric curve u = a is a geodesic if and
only if /7 = 0 or equivalently GG{ + FG2 - 2GF 2 = 0. Since F = 0, we have
G Gj = 0. Since G * 0, Gx = 2u = 0. Hence w = a is a geodesic if and only if a = 0.
But« = 0 is not possible on the catenoid. This proves that no parallel is a geodesic
on the catenoid.
5. Prove that the projection on the XOY plane of the geodesic on the catenoid

u = c cos h
(f) are given by
adu
dv =
V(w -c2)(w2-a2)
2

where a is any arbitrary constant.

If P(JC, y, z) is any point on the catenoid after rotation through an angle v, let PM
be the distace of P from the z-axis. Then PM = u and ON = w where PN is
perpendicular to the XOY plane. Any relation in w, v gives the projection of points
on the catenoid on the XOY plane. This is true in particular for a geodesic.
As in the previous problem, the parametric representation of a point on the
catenoid is
258 Differential Geometry—A First Course

r = | u cos v, u sin v, c cosh \—

From Theorem 1 of 3.4, the geodesic on a surface of revolution is

J- . f2
dv = ±« i±±\dU ...(1)
g\g -a

We apply the above formula taking g(u) = u and/(w) = c cosft"1—

\c
c
Hence gY = 1 and/! = , ...(2)
V# -c
Using g(w) = u and (2) in (1), we obtain

dv = adu
<yl(u2-c2)(u2-a2)
6. Show that the geodesies on the Liouville's surface
ds2 = [£/(«) + V(v)] [du2 + dv2]
can be obtained by quadratures.
To obtain the solution, it is enough if we show that the equation of the geodesic
can be completely integrated.
To avoid confusion, let us take U(u) =f(u) and V(v) = g(v)
Then ds2 = [/(«) + g(y)] [du2 + dv\

Now T = i [ ( f + g)u'2 + (f+ g) A F = 0.

We use canonical equation to obtain the solution.

aw aw 2
Since g is a function of v only.

|^=(f^)v,^4^ M , 2 + v ' 2 ) -^
dv dv 2
Now the canonical equation U = — - — - —— = 0
ds\ou') du

becomes -f [<f + *)«'] = i / ^ ^ + v'2)

as 2
Geodesies on a Surface 259

_ 1 / l ( / + g)(«/2+V/2)
...(2)
2 (f + g)
tiow since (f+g) (u2 + v'z) = 1, (2) becomes
j 1 /•

— [(/*+ *)«'] = ~ / r * x which gives

ds 2 (f + g)

2(f+ g) d [(f + *)ifl =/, ds = ^-ds. ...(3)

aw
(3) can be rewritten as

2(f+g)^-d[(f+g)u'] = df ...(4)
ds
Since the left hand side of (4) is of the form* dxt it is integrable so that we have
.\2
= (f+a) where a is a constant
« * <

du
Thus we get (f+ g)— = ± JJTa ...(5)
ds
In a similar manner, the canonical equation
r dT) dT „ . /r dv f
=
ds ^~7 ~ T ~ ° 8 l v e s V+ S)— =±yjg-a ...(6)
dv J dv ds
dv Jg -a
From (5) and (6), we get — = ± , so that
du jf + a

dv du
<Jg-a Jf + a = 0 ...(7)

Since/= U(u) and g = V(v), (7) can be completely integrated and we get
C dv fc du
J / ± - 7 = = = <
= constant.
Jv(v)-a J yfim^
7. Find the geodesic on the surface with the metric
^2=e2^«2+£/W]
where U is a function of u only.
Let £/2 = 0(w). Then E = e2v. F = 0, G = e2v0(w).
We shall use canonical geodesies equation to obtain the geodesies.

Now T = - [e2v ufl + e2v0(w) v'2]

260 Differential Geometry—A First Course

V T = c z v w , — =e v Qx(u)v
ou ou

| I = e2V(t>(uWi | I = e^mv>2 + ,2vw,2 (1)

dv dv
Hence the canonical geodesic equations are

4- [« 2 >(«yi = [^2v«/2+*2V<K«V2] ...(2)

as

and — (« 2 V) = ^ > , ( i i y 2 ...(3)

We shall obtain the geodesic by solving (3) alone.

Rewriting (3) as

— ( c 2 V ) — = e2v^{u)V2 which gives

du ds

u'd(i/) = 0!(w)v/2 du

That is —d(u'2) = d(j) v/2, treating V as a constant.

Integrating the above eequation — u'1 = v /2 0 + c

™ ^ w'2 ^w /^r
Choosing c = 0, —7T = 20 or — = J 2 0

v dv

Thus we get v = ,— + c = . + c.
If
8. Show that (i) a curve for which — is a constant is a geodesic on a cylinder
T

S>
and (ii) a curve for which — I — | is constant is a geodesic on a cone.

(i) We prove the above two using normal property of geodesies.

K K 1
Since — is constant, let — = — (say) so that T= KC ...(1)
T r e
As t ' = Kn and b' = - i n , substituting for T, b' = -CKU

Hence c t ' + b ' = 0. That is — ( c t + b) = 0 so that ct + b is a constant vector.

ds
Geodesies on a Surface 261

Let ct + b =a(say) ...(2)

Taking cross product of (2) with t, we get n = a x t ...(3)
Let us consider a cylinder S whose generators are parallel to the constant
vector a. Let P be any point on a curve C on S with the above property (1). The
surface normal N at P is perpendicular to the tangent line at P on S so that N • t = 0.
Since a is parallel to the generator of 5, N • a = 0. These two equations together
imply that N is parallel to a x t. Hence using (3), we have N = n which proves that
C is a geodesic on S.

(ii) From hypothesis, we have

ds \K)
Then integrating this equation, we get T= K(CS + a) ...(4)
where a is a constant.
Substituting for T, b' = - rn = - K(CS + a)n
Hence b' + K(CS + a)n = 0.
Since t' = fen, the above equation becomes b' + (cs + d)\! = 0
Integrating the above equation, we obtain

b + (cs + a)t- \ ctds = constant vector.

dr
So b + (cs + a)t - cr = - c d (say), t = — ...(5)
ds
From (5), we conclude (cs + a)t + b = c(r - d). ...(6)
Taking cross product with t on both sides of (6), we get
n=c(r-d)xt ...(7)
Let C be any curve lying on the surface S of the cone having vertex A and
satisfying the given condition. If P is a point on C, then the generators will be
parallel to (r - d). The unit surface normal N will be perpendicular to the tangent
lines including the generators of the cone. Hence we have N t = 0 and
N-(r - d) = 0. Therefore N is parallel to (r - d) x t.
Using equation (7), we find N = n so that C is a geodesic on S.
9. Show that on a helicoid JC = u cos v, v = u sinv, z = <t>(u) + cv, the orthogonal
trajectories of the helices u = constant are geodesies.
Let r = (u cos v, u sin v, <p(u) + cv)
Then rx = (cos v, sin v, 07(w)), r2 = (- u sin v, u cos v, c)
So E = rx2 = (1 + f (u)2), F= ly r2 = f(w) c,G = u2 + c2

1 >i r
x
The direction coefficients of u = constant is | 0, —f= o..
( -J" +< ;
2 2

du dv
Let — , — be the direction of the orthogonal trajectory.
ds ds
262 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Applying the condition of orthogonality, Ell' + F(lm' + I'm) + Gmm' = 0

, du dv , 1
by taking /= — ,m= — , / = 0, m = , we obtain
ds ds Ju2 + c2

¥{u)c ^ . * = + (u2 + c2}. 1 _ * = o

giving c0'(w) —- + (w + cz) —- = 0

ds ds
Hence the differential equation of the orthogonal trajectories of u = constant is
c(f>\u)
du + dv = 0
u2+c2
Since u * constant and v * constant, the geodesic are given either by U = 0 or
V = 0. We shall consider V = 0

Now T = - [(1 + 0'2) w'2 + 2f(w) cuV + (w2 + c2) v/2]

- ^ = <l>'(u)cu' + (u2 + c2)v\^=0

dv dv
Hence the canonical geodesic equation corresponding to V= 0 is

— [ft\u)cu + (w2 + c2)v'] - —- = 0 giving

ds ov
§Xu)cu' + (u2 + c2)v' = h (constant)
Rewriting the above equation by choosing h = 0, we get

—5 2~ du + dv = 0 which is the equation of the orthogonal trajectory of the

(u +c )
curve w = constant. Hence the orthogonal trajectories u = constant are geodesies.
10. Derive Bonnet's formula
1_ ± (F</>2-G(t>A l ± (F(j>x-E(t>2\
8
H du{ e ) H dv { e J
for the geodesic curvature of the curve 0(w, v) = constant where
e2=£;022-2F0102 + Gf2.
To obtain the above formula, let us first recast the formula Kg = [N, r', r"] for
the geodesic curvature in the form

HK• =^-[FU' + GV]--?-[EU' + FV] ...(1)

* ou ov
Geodesies on a Surface 263

Now let us find N, r', r" with respect to the parameters w, v

, dr 9r du 9r dv , ,
r=t= — = - +- = rxu + r2v ...(2)
ds du ds dv ds
„ dt dt du dt dv A , A , /ox
r = — =- +- = t,w' + t 2 v' ...(3)
ds du ds dv ds
Using t of (2), let us find N as follows.
rx x t = I-J x {rxu + r2v')
Since rx x rx = 0, r t x t = rx x r 2 v' = //Nv' ...(4)
In a similar manner, using (3) we have r 2 x t = -HNu ....(5)
Hence Kg = [N, t, t'] = [N, t, ixu' + t^'] from (3)
= [N,t,t1]W/+[N,t,t2]/
Using the value of N in (4) and (5) and the above equation, we obtain
HKg = - [ r 2 x t, t, tx] + [r{ x t, t, t j
= -(r2xt)-(txt1) + (r1xt).(txt2)
V * r2-t, + r t r t
r r 2
tt *•*!. t t t t2
Since t-1 = 1, we have t • tx = 0, t • ^ = 0 so that from the above we have
HKg = t 1 r 2 - t 2 - r 1 ...(6)
Since r 21 = r12, we can rewrite (6) as
HKg = — (tr 2 ) - — (t- rj) known as Beltrami formula for Kg

dr dr du dr du
Since — = + , we have
ds du ds du ds

ou ov

9r du 9r dv 9r du 9r dv
T i -
du du ds dv ds dy dw ds dv d^

dw dv
9 9
Hence HK=—
s
[FU' + Gv'] - — [Ei/ + Fv'] which proves (1)
du dv
Using the above formula, we derive Bonnet's formula.
The equation of the given curve on the surface is 0(w, v) = constant.
264 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Differentiating with respect to s, we have

90 du 90 dv
ou ds ov ds

If 0j = — , and 02 = —» w e have <t>xu' + 02v' = 0

ou dv
Hence we have from the above equation

yJEu'2 +2Fu'v' + Gv'2 1

...(7)
2 e
02 "01 yJE<t> 2 - 2F0!0 2 + G(j>\

where 02 = E<p22 - 2F<px 0, + G(tfy Eu'2 + 2FuV + Gv'2 = 1

Thus from (7), we find u' = ^ - , V = - ^ -

Using thes values of w' and v' in (1)

^ a^n^ which es the Bonnet,s

* du\ 6 J ov\ 0 J
formula for the geodesic curvature of the curve 0(w, v) = constant.
11. The curves u = constant and v = constant are orthogonal parametric curves.
Ka is the geodesic curvature along v = constant
Kb is the geodesic curvature along u = constant
Then prove the following.

* "-TS5&'*)-&«*))
dsb dsa
where sa, sb denote arc lengths respectively along v = constant and u = constant.
The formula for the Gaussian curvature Kis

K = 1 d (FE2-EGA 1 9 f2EFl-FEl-EE2
+
~Hdu{ 2HE J Hdv{ 2HE
when the parametric curves are orthogonal, F = 0 Hence the above formula
becomes

1 9 f G{ } 1 9 ( E2
Hdu{ 2H) Hdv\ 2HJ *"(1)
Let us express the above formula in terms of Ka and Kb.
Geodesies on a Surface 265

Along the curves v = constant and u = constant, we have

2EFX - EE2 - FEX _ GG{ + FG2 - 2F2G
Ka iKb
~ 2HE* " 2HG*
Since F = 0, the above formulae become

..(2)

Using (2) in (1), we obtain

K
= 7TT-(*«^) " 77T-(*>^) Which
P r o v e s( i ) ...(3)

To prove the next part, we shall find the derivatives of both the terms in (3).

When v = constant, ds} = Edu2 so that — = -JE ...(4)

du
In a similar manner, when u = constant, then we have

dsb2 = Gdv2 so that ^ - = VG ...(5)

dv
When v is a constant, Ka is a function of u so that it is a function of ^ , since sb
is along the curve u = constant.
Now let us consider,

1
jEGdv M*)--7!
VIG

~mE*
3 K
^VTO+ by (5)
•JEG l^ b s

Simplifying and using (2) in the above step. ...(6)

Let us simplify the 1other term of (3) 1

•(K„JG) =
dsa du 2jG '
Using (2) in the above equation, it becomes

••(7)

Using (6) and (7) in the formula (3), we obtain

K= -K„-Kh
dsh ds„
266 Differential Geometry—A First Course

12. Show that when the parametric curves are orthogonal, Liouville's theorem
can be stated in the form
Kg = 0' + (Kg)a cos 0 + (Kg)b sin 0 where (Kg)a and (Kg)b are geodesic curvature
along the curves v = constant and u = constant.
As in the previous problem, we have

Let the given curve make an angle 6 with curve v = constant. Then the direction

coefficients of the curve v = constant is [ -^=r, 0 |. Since —, — gives the

direction coefficient of the given curve at any point

co*e = EU' = E.4=— = JE—,**<>= JG- -(2)

<yJE ds ds ds
^ i , f du dv\
Further t- r, = r, — + r2 — -r,
V ds ds J
du „du
Since v = constant, t- r, = i v r , — =E— ...(3)
ds ds

Eliminating — between (2) and (3), we get t- r, = J~Ecos 0 ...(4)

ds
71
Now the parametric curve u = constant makes an angle 0 with the given

curve so that t • r2 = 4G sin 0 ...(5)

as in the the previous case. From the Beltrami formula of Example 10, we get

/ / ^6 = ^ ( t . r 2 ) - ^ ( t . r i )
du ov
Using (4) and (5) in the above formula,

HK =^-(y[G sine)-^-{yfE cos9)

HK = VC COS 0 0, + TIT sin 0 02 + — j L sin 6 jL cos 6

2 vG 2 yjE
fcosflV (sin©^ 1 G, . „ 1 E7
Hence K, = ^ - j * , + ^ - J * + - ^ = ,,„ 6- - - ^ cos 0

Using (1) in the above equation, we obtain

Geodesies on a Surface 267

^coseV
\
+ (fsinfl^ 2 +
K
s= |e,+
4M r' ~Jr~ I ° ^ s i n e+(**)a cos e
cos 6 du , sin 0 dv , .
Since —F=- = — . and _- = — , the above equation becomes
•JE ds VG ds
Kg = u'0x + v'62 + (Kg)b sin 6 + (Kg)a cos 6 ...(6)

d
But u% + v'62 =^ + ^ = e' ...(7)
ou as ov ds
Using (7) in (6), we get
Kg = 0' + (Kg)b sin 0+ (Kg)a cos ft
13. If two families of geodesies on a surface intersect at a constant angle a,
prove that the Gaussian curvature of the surface is zero.
Let P be any arbitrary point on the surface. Since two families of geodesies
intersect at a constant angle a, let C be the quadrilateral made up of geodesies
containing the point P in its interior. If/? is the region enclosed by the quadrilateral,
applying Gauss-Bonnet Theorem for this quadrilateral, we have
4
jJKdS = 2n-^ai-JKgdS ...(1)

Since C is formed by the geodesies, Kg = 0 at every point of C so that we have

\kgdS = 0
c
4
Hence (1) becomes f \KdS = In- V a, ...(2)
R '=1

Since the geodesic intersect at constant angle a and the sum of the exterior
4
angles of C is In, we have ^ a, = In. Using this sum in equation (2), we find
1=1

j$KdS = 0 ...(3)
R

Since /? can be chosen arbitrarily small, we can contract R indefinitely so that

we can arrive at the geodesic curvature K at P and from (3), it is zero. Since P is an
arbitrary point on the surface, the surface as a whole has Gaussian curvature zero.
14. Show that on a surface of negative curvature two geodesies cannot meet in
two points and enclose a simply connected region.
268 Differential Geometry—A First Course

If possible on a surface of negative curvature, let the two geodesies Cx and C2

intersect at A and B and enclose a simply connected region R of the surface. Let
any other geodesic C cut Cx and C2 at the points P and Q. Let a{, c^, 0$ and a4 be
the interior and exterior angles at P and Q made by C with Cj and C2. Then
a{ + «2 + a 3 + a 4 = 2;r. Let a, /J be the angles between C{ and C2 at A and £
respectively.
The Gaussian curvature of the surface APBQA is the sum of the curvatures of
the geodesic triangles APQ and PBQ. By Example 1 of 3:11 the curvature of the
geodesic triangle APQ is cc+ a{ + (fy-K.
In a similar manner, the curvature of the geodesic triangle PQB is
P + aA + 03 - n.
Hence the total curvature of/? is
a+ ax + 02-71+ p+ (% + CC4-K
= («! + o^ + a 3 + a 4 + a + /? - 2;r = a + /J which is a positive
quantity contradicting the hypothesis that the surface is of negative curvature. This
contradiction proves the result.
15. Determine the rotation sufaces of constant curvature.
The general surface of rotation is given by
r = (w cos v, u sin v, z =/(«)), 0 < v < 2K
The metric of the surface is given by
ds2 =(l+f?)du2 + u2dv2 ...(1)
The above metric can be put into the geodesic form by taking

dU = ^jl + f2duidV=dv.
Then we obtain ds2 = dU2 + u2 dV2.
If we take u2 = G(U)9 then ds2 = dU2 + G(u)dV2 ...(2)
Hence the Gaussian curvature K satisfies the partial differential equation of
Theorem 3 of 3.12.
Since G is a function of U only and u2 = G(«), the partial differential equation
becomes an ordinary differential equation.

4 # + *VG=0 ...(3)
dul
The solution of the equation when K > 0 is
VG =ACOS jKU + BsinjKU ...(4)
and the solution when K< 0 is
VG =Ae^u + Be-^u ...(5)

where A and B are constants. Choosing K = —=- for K > 0 and K = —=- for A" < 0
a2 b2
with proper initial conditions, we determine the function/(«).
Geodesies on a Surface 269

>
*->*i£f-ffi~ ™*-F¥«' •••(6)

Integrating (6), we o b t a i n / = L l l - 1 — dU ...(7)

Since u = v G , we shall find/using (4) and (5)

Now u = 4G = A C O S yfKU + BsinyfKU

Hence — = JK ( - A sin y/K U + B cos yfKU) ...(8)

dU
-yfKU
If w = V G = AeyfKu +B , then we have
du
= yfK(Ae^u-Be-^u) ...(9)
~dU
Using (8) and (9) in (7), we determine/(w).

Let us take K = —*-, then we have

a

z=f(u)= f J l - - T ( - A sin— + fi cos —) dC/ ...(10)

and when we take K= — r - , then we have

f u_ _u_\
«=*o-JJi-i Aeb -Be b
\ du ...(H)
\ ).
Since the above two integrals are elliptic integrals, we shall consider the
following particular cases.

(i) Let us take A = a and B = 0. Since K = —r-, we find

a

u=yfG = a cos —. Then ds2 = dU2 + a2 cos 2 (— j dV2

From (10), z=M= J Jl " \a2 sin2 — dU

f tf a t / = a sin — + constant
= cos —
J a
 Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com
270 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Thus we find z = a sin — + constant.

a
(ii) Let us take A = b, B = 0.
v_ w_
Since K =-Ar,u= yfG = beb sothatds2 = dU2 + b2e b dV2
b
From the integral z =f(u) = Ul-e2U/b dU

Since / is known, the rotation surfaces of constant curvature are fully

determined in the above two particular cases.
16. Find the isothermic system corresponding to the analytic function
ftu, v) = (u + /v)3.
By Theorem 4 of 3.14 the isothermic system corresponding to an analytic
function is given by its real and imaginary parts.
Now /(w, v) = (u + iv)3 = (u3 - 3uv2) + i(3u2v - v3)
Let U and V denote the real and imaginary parts of/(w, v)
Then U=(u3- 3wv2), V = (3w2v - v3)
We shall verify that the curves U = constant, V = constant are isothermic to the
curves u = constant and v = constant.
Now dU = (3u2 - 3v2)du, dV= (3w2 - 3v2) dv.
Hence dU2 + dV2 = 9(u2 - v2)2 [du2 + dv2] = A(w, v) [du2 + dv2]
which shows that («, v) gives the system isothermic to U, V.
17. A surface of revolution is obtained by rotating the curve

x = a sin u, y = 0, z = a cos u + log tan — u , — n < u < n

about the z-axis. Show that the geodesies are given by the equation A(v2 + cosec2 u)
+ Bv + c = 0 where A, B, C, are arbitrary constants and deduce that the surface can
be mapped on a plane in such a way that the geodesies correspond to straight lines.
For a surface of revolution given by
x = g(u), y = 0,z =/(w), the geodesies are given by the differential equation,

W/i 2+ Si 2 du
±gh2 -a1 dv
=0 -d)
Using this formula, we find the equation of the geodesies in the particular case

when g(u) = a sin «,/(«) = a cos u + log tan — u

Now gx{u) = a cos u,f{(u) = a cot u cos u. ...(2)

and ds2 = a2 cot2u du2 + a2 sin2w dv2

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Geodesies on a Surface 271

ay]a2 cot2 u cos2 u + a2 cos2 u du ± a sin u ya 2 sin2 u - a2 dv = 0

acoscc2ucotu ,
Hence dv = ± , du
2 2 2
\\a -a cosec u
Arranging suitably and integrating the above equation,
diet1 - a2coscc
, 1 f d(a cosec2u)u) _ x, 1 nz£j 5 r~
v=±— . = ±—Ja - a z cosec z w + c
/
2a J ^/<z22 2
Jn --rvcrcosecw2
m^r u a

Hence yja2 - a2cosec2u = (av - c') where c' is ac a constant.

Squaring both sides and simplifying, we get
a 2 (v 2 + cosec2 u) - lac'v + c'2-a2 = 0
Taking a = A, c'2 -a2 = c, -lac' = £, we obtain (3)
2

A(v2 + cosec2w) + Bv + c = 0 which is the equation of the geodesies on the

surface.
For this surface of revolution, let us consider the change of parameters given by

U= J
\(fi2+gt)y2-du,V=v
g

= \(a2 cot2 u cos2 u + a2 cos2 u)^2 du

J a sin u
= cot u cosec udu = - cosec u + c

Choosing c = 0, the new parameters become U = - cosec w, V = v.

The metric of the surface of revolution with respect to these parameters
becames
0 'j 0 0 0
ds = a sin u[dU + dV ] which shows that the given system is an isothermic
system.

Let us consider the transformation x = v + — , y = cosec w ...(4)

The equation of the geodesic can be rewritten as

2
' B2>!
A cosec2w + C
' ( • • # •
V -^J = ° -(5)
B2
Using (4) in (5), we obtain Ax + Ay + a=0, a = c ...(5)
4A
Thus the surface is mapped onto the plane by (4) in such a way that the
geodesies correspond to the straight lines.
272 Differential Geometry—A First Course

18. Show that the surface given by

(a2-u)(a2-v) y_ (b2-u)(b2-v)
\(a2-b2)(a2-c2y b \(b2-a2)(b2-c2y

z= (c2 -u)(c2 -v)

c \(c2 -a2)(c2 -b2)
is an ellipsoid and that the parametric curves form an isothermal system.
2 2 2
First we shall prove that —j + ^ y + — = 1

(a2-u)(a2-v) (b2-u)(b2-v)
a2 b2 c2 (a2 -bl)(a'-c') (b2-a2)(b2-c2)

(C2-.H)(C2-V)
2 2 2 2
(c -a )(c -b )

%(a2-u)(a2-v)(c2-b2)
(a2 -b2)(b2-c2)(c2 -a2) atb,c

2 2 2 2 2 2
[ J [a 4 - (II + v)a2 + «v] (c 2 - b2)
(a -b )(b -c )(c -a )

= —5 5 5^-2 5 2" P flV " ^ " («'+ V > fl2 (° 2 " **>
2 2 2 2 2 2
(a -fc )(fc -c )(c -a )
+ wv(c2-fc2)] ..(1)
2 2 2 2 2
In the above equation E a (c - b ) (u + v) = 0, Z KV(C - & ) = 0
Hence we obtain from (1)
2 2 2

,2 x
.2 T
„2 ,2 .2x 2
/t N J,,,2 , 2aV-^2) •••(2)
a* bA c* (a'-b^ib'-c^ic'-a*)
But a\c2-b2) + b\a2-c2) + c\b2-a2)
= a2c\a2 - c2) + b2a\b2 - a2) + c2b\c2 - b2)
If a, 2 _= Ub2 , the above expression vanishes and hence (a - b) is a factor.
Similarly (b2 - c2) and (c2 - a2) are also factors.
So Y.a\c2 - b2) = (a2 - b2) (b2 - c2) (c2 - a2) •••(3)
2 2 2
JC V 2
Using (3) in (2), we obtain - y + ^ y + - y = 1 which is the equation of the
a b c
ellipsoid.
Geodesies on a Surface 273

Next let usfindE, F and G for the surface.

VT^T
Now fi =
[ 2yja -u J(a -b2)(a2
2 2
-c2)'

__& yV-v
2yV -u 4(b ~a2)(b2 - c 2 ) '
2

c yc 2 - v
24c2-u yj(c2-a2)(c2 -b2)

•Ja2 -u
r,=
2yja2 -v y](a2 -b2)(a2 - c 2 ) '

fr yV - «
2yV - v yl(b -a2)(b2
2
-c2)'

c yc2 -M
2yV2 - v V(c 2 -a 2 )(c 2 -fe 2 )

Now r1-r2=-r—j—-j
4 ( ^ - r ) (az - c2) ( r - a z ) ( ^ - cz)
2

(c2-a2)(c2-fc2)

1 a2(c2 -fr2)+ fr2(a2 - c 2 ) + c2(fr2 - a2)

,=0
4 (a 2 -fc 2 )(fc 2 -c 2 )(c 2 -a 2 )
Hence F = rx- r2 = 0 so that the parameters curves are orthogonal.
Let us show that the parametric curves are isothermic by finding the metric
ds2 = Edu2 + Gdv2.
a2(a2-v)
E = r1-r1 =
4(a2 -u)(a2 -b2)(a2-c2)

b2(b2 -v)
4(b -u)(b2-a2)(b2
2
-c2)

c2(c2 -v)
...(4)
4(c2-u)(c2-a2)(c2-fc2)
274 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Let us find E by simplifying the t\vo terms as follows

a4 b4
2 2 2 2 :
4(a -u)(a -b2)(a2 -•c ) 4(b -u)(b ! 2
)(» 2 -a )

c4
2
' 4(c -u)(c2-a2)(c2 -b2)
1
2
-La\c2-b2)[b2c2- u(b2 + c2) + u2]
4n{a -b\)7i(a2-u) 4/ 4
Y.\a4b2c2(c2-bh-u <2 ( C -h4) + u2a4(c2-h2)]
4n(a2 -b2)7t{a2 - w)
Since I a4(c2 - b2\ = (b2 - c2) (c 2 - a2) (a2 - b\ we have
2
= ^
as the other terms vanish. ...(5)
4n{a -u)
Next let us consider the second term involving v.
a2v b2v
4{a2 - u) {a2 - b2) {a2 - cl) 4(b2 - u) (b2 - a2)(b2 - c2)

c2v
4(c2 -u)(c2-b2)(c2-a2)

V
I a\c2 - b2) [b2c2 - u(b2 + c2) + u2]
4n{a2 -u)n(a2 -b2)

Za2(c*-b*)= VU
4n(a2 - u) K(a2 - b2) 4n{a2 - u)'
since I a2(c4 -b4) = - (a2 - b2) (b2 - c2) (c2 - a2) ...(6)
Using (5) and (6) in (4), we obtain
_ _ (w2 - uv)
" F l ' r i " 4(a2-u)(b2 -u)(c2 -u)
In a similar manner, we can prove

G=r r (y2-"v>
2 2
" 4(a -v)(fc2-v)(c2-v)
2

Hence the metric of the surface is

ds2 = »(»-v) ^2
4(a -«)(*-«)(c2-«)

V(
+ - "-V) , civ2
2 2 2
4(a -v)(fc -v)(c -v)
Geodesies on a Surface 275

^ udiS
= ("-v)
4 (a2 -u)(b2 - v ) ( c 2 - v )

vdv1
4 (a2 -v)(b2 - v ) ( c 2 - v )
= A(w, v)[U(u)du2 + V(v)dv2]
where £/ is function of u only and Vis function of v only.
Let us make the tranformation dU = 4TJ du, dV = -JVdv, then
ds2 = A(w, v) [d£/2 + dV2] which shows that the parametric curves are isothermic.
19. Find the curves which bisect the angle between the parametric curves on
the surface

- = -(u + v), - = -(w - v), z = -wv

a 2 fc 2 2

and show that they cannot form an isothermal system.

Any point on the surface is r = — (u + v), — (u - v), — uv

Hence r, = ( f , | , £ ) , r 2 = ( j , - f ,\u)

a 2 + b2 + v2 (a 2 +fc 2 +w 2 )
and £=r1r1 = ,G = i y r , =

a' -b + uv
Further F=r,r2 =

By Example 3 of 2.16, the curves bisecting the angle between the parametric
curves is Edit2 - Gdv2 = 0.
Thus the bisectors are given by
('2 2\ f 2
a' +b' + v a +b2+u2^
dul dv2 = 0 •(1)

Let a2 + b2 = c2. Then (1) becomes after simplification,

du dv
Jc^u 2
1c 2
+ v2

(u) (A
Integrating the above, we get sinh M c J = sin h l\cJ + k. Choosing k to be

(u) (v\
zero, we obtain sinh M cJ = sinh l\c J.
276 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Let us introduce the new parameters (u\ v') as follows.

Let u =
sin ft- l

sinft
e),
-
,v =v .(2)

From (2), — = sinft w'shift" 1 f - 1 , V = V

c
Let us find E' =r 1 / r , 1 .
, _ dr 3M 9r 9v
Now

9M . ,_n v'^ 9v
and = c cosft u sinft I — sinft I - > ^ - 7 = 0 •
du' c y dw

Hence r'j =r 1 ccosft| u' sinft

3Mr)
f /M2
Thus
2 2
E' = r c cosft u' sinft
-(7) H S _2
a +o +v 2 1
E' = cosft w' sinft" — sinft"1 —

Thus E' is a function of both w' and v'. Similarly we can prove that G is a
function of w' and V'. Hence the parameters corresponding to the bisectors cannot
be isothermic.

3.17 EXERCISES III

1. Show that the curves u + v = constant are geodesies on a surface with the
metric
(1 + u2)du2 - 2uv dudv + (1 + v2)dv2
2. Show that the curves of the family u = cf2, v = ct3 are geodesies on the
surface with the metric
2v2 du2 - 2uv dudv + K W , u > 0, v > 0

F2
3. Show that if E, F, G are functions of u only and — is constant, then the
E
parametric curves v = constant are all geodesies.
Geodesies on a Surface 277

4. Show that the geodesies on the surface of revolution

x = u cos 0,y = u sin 0, z =f(u)

are given by u— = constant.

ds
5. For the anchor ring
r = ((b + a cos u) cos v, (b + a cos w)sin v, z = a)
dT
(i) verify the relation Uu + Vv = —

(ii) Obtain the two differential equations of a geodesic other than the
meridians and parallels.
dv
(iii) Express — as a function of u for geodesic other than parametric
du
curves.
6. Prove that the family of geodesies on the paraboloid of revolution
r = (w, yfu cos v, yfu sin v) has the form

u - c2 = u (1 + 4c2) sin2i v - 2c log k\ 2^u - c2 + jAu + l \\

where c and k are arbitrary constants.

7. Show that any curve is a geodesic on the surface generated by its
binormals.
8. A particle is constrained to move on a smooth surface under no force
except the normal reaction. Show that its path is a geodesic.
9. Using Christoffel symbols, obtain the geodesic equation on the helicoid
r = (u cos v, u sin v, cv).
10. Prove that on a surface with the metric
ds2 =X2du2 + ii2dv2

the geodesic curvature of the curve u = constant is (AfX) -i ——.

d"M
du
11. If the parametric curves u = constant and v = constant are orthogonal,
show that the geodesic curvature are

^^"^^•il;"06^
12. On the surface with ds = e du + g dv where e and g are functions of w,
v, show that the geodesic curvature of a curve which cuts the curve
v = constant at an angle 0 is

K = — + — (g, sin 0- e2 cosO)

ds eg
278 Differential Geometry—A First Course

13. Find the total curvature of a pentagon enclosing a simply connected region
R on a surface.
14. Find the Gaussian curvature K of a geodesic equilateral triangle on a
surface.
15. Find the Gaussian curvature at a point on a cone and on a cylinder.
16. Show that the two surfaces
r = (w cos v, u sin v, log u)
and r = (u cos v, u sinv, v)

have the same Gaussian curvature - =-=- at the corresponding

d + «2)2
points.
17. Find the isothermic system corresponding to the analytic function
/(«, v) = eu( cos v + / sin v)
 4
The Second Fundamental Form
and Local Non-intrinsic
Properties of a Surface

4.1 INTRODUCTION
In Chapter 2, we studied the properties of surfaces in terms of the associated
metrics involving E, F and G. What we did was to introduce ds2 and to study the
properties in relation to the metric which is embedded in the surface. All our
study at each stage reflected the properties of the first fundamental form which are
called the intrinsic properties of the surface. In this chapter we shall study the
second derivative r" of a point on a surface giving quantities pertaining to the
Euclidean space in which the surface is located leading to non-intrinsic
properties of a surface. The properties of surfaces involving normal component of
vectors associated with the surface are called non-intrinsic properties.
After finding a formula for normal curvature Kn in terms of a quadratic form
called the second fundamental form, we classify different points on a surface and
find maximum and minimum curvatures along a given direction leading to the
definition of Gaussian curvature, mean curvature and principal directions. With
the help of principal directions, we introduce special class of curves on a surface
called lines of curvature which are characterised by Rodrique's formula. Using
principal directions and normal at a point on a surface, we define Dupin's
indicatrix giving rise to the definitions of conjugate and asymptotic directions on
a surface. Then the envelope of the single parameter family of planes results in
many developable surfaces whose properties we study with help of lines of
curvature and Gaussian curvature. We conclude this chapter, with a study of
minimal surfaces, ruled surfaces and third fundamental form.

4.2 THE SECOND FUNDAMENTAL FORM

Just as the moving triad (t, n, b) serves as the coordinate system at any point on a
space curve, the three linearly independent vectors (N, rv r2) at any point P on a
280 Differential Geometry—A First Course

surface form a coordinate system at P so that any vector through P can be

represented as a linear combination of (N, rv r2).
Theorem 1. If Kn is the normal curvature of a curve at a point on a surface,
then

Ldu2 + 2Mdudv + Ndv2

K71 =
" Edu2 + 2Fdudv + Gdv2
where L = N • r u , M = N • r12, N= N • r 22 and is, F, G are the first fundamental
coefficients.
Proof. Let r be the position vector of any point on the curve. If Kn is the
normal curvature of the curve at P on a surface, we know that
r" = KnN + XYX + nv2 ...(1)
Since r x N = 0, r 2 -N = 0, taking dot product with N on both sides of (1), we
obtain K-„ = r " N ...(2)
Since r is a function of u and v, we have
, 9r du 9r dv , ,
r' = - + = xxu' + r2v' ...(3)
du ds ov ds
Differentiating (3) with respect to s on both sides, we have
r" = r lW " + r 2 v" + ( r ^ V + (r 2 )V ...(4)

But {vxy = *±i/ + ^ - V = rnu' + r12v' ...(5)

du ov

(r 2 )' = ^ - M ' + ^ - v ' = r 21 «' + r 22 v' ..(6)

du ov
Using (5) and (6) in (4), we get
r" = xxu" + r 2 v" + rnu'2 + 2ruuV + r 2 2 / 2 ...(7)
Taking dot product with N on both sides of (7) and using r2 • N = 0, r 2 N = 0 and
(2), we have
N-r" = K„ = (N.r n )*/ 2 + 2(N-r12)WV + (N-r22)v'2 ...(8)
r
If L = N - r n , M = N-r 12 andA/ =N-r 22 , we have
Kn=Lu'2 + 2Mu'v' + Nv'2
_Ldu2+2Mdudv + Ndv2
ds2
Since ds2 =Edu2 + 2Fdudv + G dv2, we have

Ldu2+2Mdudv + Ndv2 „
Kn = 5 ^- which gives the formula for the
" Edu2 +2Fdudv + Gdv2
normal curvature of a curve at a point P of a surface.
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 281

Note. Since the coefficients L, M, N andE, F, G are all constants at a point P

on the surface, Kn is dependent on w, v, dw and dv alone. Thus Kn is fully determined
at P by the direction ratios (du, dv) of the tangent at P. Hence all curves through P
having the same tangent have the same normal curvature vector. Thus the normal
curvature is the property of the surface and it is given by the tangential direction at
P. The direction of the normal curvature vector is always the same as the surface
normal but its length may vary for different directions.
Definition 1. The quadratic form
Ldu2 + 2Mdudv + Ndv2
is called the second fundamental form of the surface and L, M, N which are
functions of w, v are called second fundamental coefficients.
Using the above notations, the following theorem gives the alternative
expressions forL, Af, and N.
Theorem2. (i) L = -N 1 -r 1 ,M = - N 1 - r 2 = -N 2 -r 1 ,iV = - N 2 - r 2
[l
(Ji) L= »,rl,r*1 flf=[r",rl'r2l = [ l 21' r l' r 2]
H H H
pr__ [r22»ri» r 2 ]
H
Proof. At any point P on the surface rx and r 2 are tangential to the surface so
that we have Nrx = 0 ...(1)
and in a similar manner N • r2 = 0 ...(2)
Differentiating (1) with respect to w, we have
N r n + Nj-rj = 0 giving r n N = - i y N j
Since L = N- r n , we get L = - Nx- rx
Differentiating (1) with respect v, we get
N • r 12 + N2 • rx = 0 givng N • r 12 = - N2 • rx
Since M = N• r12, we haveM = -N2-r1
Differentiating (2) with respect to w,
N r 2 1 + N r r 2 = 0 giving N r 2 1 = - N r r 2
so that we have M = - Nx • r 2 also
Differentiating (2) with respect to v, we get
N• r 22 + N2- r 2 = 0 giving N• r 22 = - N 2 -r 2
Since N = N- r22, we get N = - N2- r 2
(ii) To prove these formulae we use r 1 x r 2 = //N in Theorem 1 for L, M, N.
Now [r n , r lf r 2 ] = r u • (rx x r 2 ) = r n • (HN) = //(N • r n ) = HL

Thus [r u , rlt r 2 ] = HL so that L = — [r n , rx, r 2 ]

H
282 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Further [r12, r „ r2] = r ^ ^ x r 2 ) = r 1 2 (//N) = //(Nr 1 2 ) = HM

Hence we have M = — [r12, r,, r2J = — [r21, r lf r2]

M n
Now [r22, r lf r2] = r22- (rx x r2) = r22. (HN) = H(N• r22) = HN

which gives N = — [r22, rv r2]

H
Example 1. Find L, M, N for the sphere
r = (a cos u cos v, a cos u sin v, a sin u) where w is the latitude and v is the longitude.
2
I-J = (- a sin u cos v, - a sin u sin v, a cos «), E = a
r2 = (-a cos w sin v, a cos w cos v, 0), G = a cos2 w
2

F = r1r2 = 0tH=^EG-F2 =~a2 2cos w

HN = rj x r 2 = (- a2 cos2 w cos v, - a2 cos2 u sin v, - a2 sin u cos w)

Hence N = — rx x r 2 = (- cos w cos v, - cos u sin v, - sin u) which shows that

H
the normal is directed inside the sphere.
N{ = (sin u cos v, sin u sin v, - cos u)
N2 = (cos u sin v, - cos u cos v, 0)
Thus L = - Nj• 1-j = <2, M = 0 and N = - N2- r 2 = a cos2 u
Example 2. Find the second fundamental form for the general surface of
revolution.
r = (g(u) cos v, g(u) sin v,/(w)) ...(1)
2 2
From (1) rx = (g{(u) cos v, g{(u) sin v,/i(w)), E = g{ +fx
r 2 = (-g(u) sin v, g(w) cos v, 0), G = g2
F = rl-r2 = 0,H=yl(gt+fl2)g
r1xr2 = (-gf{ cos v, -fx g sin v, ggx)
rn = (gn(u) cos v,gu(u) sin v,fn(u))
r
22 = (" 8M COS V
> " £<") s i n v> °)
r
2i = (~ £i(") s i n v> SiM c o s v* 0)
HL = r i r ( r ! x r2) = s(g,(i0/ii(w) - ^ ( M ) £ „ ( K ) )
HAf = r 2 1 -(r 1 xr 2 ) = 0
HN = r22.(rlxr2)=f[(u)g2(u)

2 2
Hence II = , o o [(gi(«)/ n («) -/,(«) g„(w)¥w + g(u)fx(u) dv ]
V/i +*?
where II denotes second fundamental form.
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 283

Note. In almost all of our subsequent examples, we find L, A#, N, using the
method of Example 2.
Example 3. Find the normal curvature of the right helicoid
r(w, v) = (u cos v, u sin v, cv) at a point on it.
Now rx = (cos v, sin v, 0), r 2 = (- u sin v, u cos v, c)
E = rlr1 = liF=r1r2 = 0yG = r2'r2 = u2 + c2
r n = (0, 0, 0), r 12 = (- sin v, cos v, 0), r 22 = (-u cos v, - u sin v, 0)

H = yJEG-F2 =yju2 + c2 ,N = - S - ^ - = — (csinv,-ccosv,«)

L = r„-N = 0,A# = r 12 -N = - — ,W = r 22 -N = 0
H
Thus we have
Ldu2+2Mdudv + Ndv2 -2 c dudv
«n =
Edu2 +2Fdudv + Gdv2 H[du + (u2 +c2)dv2]
2

where H = Ju2+c2.
Example 4. Prove that if L, M, N vanish at all points of a surface, then the
surface is the plane.
Let us suppose the surface be a plane surface. Then the surface normal N is a
constant vector so that NI = N2 = 0 ...(1)
Now L = - Nj • r lf M = - N2• rx = - Nx • r2, W = - r2• N2 ...(2)
Using (1) in (2), we have L = M = N = 0.
Conversely, let us assume that L = M = N = 0 and show that the surface is a
plane. For this it is enough if we show that the surface normal N is a constant
vector.
From hypothesis, we have rx • N2 = Nj • r 2 = 0 ...(3)
We know that i y N = r 2 -N = 0 ...(4)
Equations (3) and (4) together imply that N{ and N2 are parallel to N. So let
them be N{ = AN and N2 = ^N where A and /J, are constants. Since N N = 1, we
have from the above,
N-N 1 = AandN-N 2 = /z ...(5)
Further from N • N = 1, we get N • N{ = 0 and N • N2 = 0 ...(6)
Using (6) in (5), we find A = 0, ji = 0. This proves that Nj = N2 = 0. Thus N is
a constant vector which proves the result.
The following theorem due to Meusnier gives the relation between the
curvature and normal curvature at a point of a curve on a surface.
Thoerem 3. If 0 is the angle between the principal normal n to a curve on a
surface and the surface normal N, then
Kn = KTCOS <p
284 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Proof. We know that at any point on a curve on a surface

r" = knN + Xvx + lir2 ...(1)
Taking dot product with N on both sides of (1), we obtain Kn = r" • N ...(2)

But we know that r" = — = KH ...(3)

ds
Using (3) in (2) we get kn = Kn • N = KCOS 0
Thus the normal curvature Kn is the projection on the surface normal N of a
vector of length K along the principal normal to the curve.
Note. From the theorem, we conclude that Kn *= K if and only if 0 = 0. This
implies that the curvature of a curve C on a surface is equal to the normal
curvature at a point in the direction of the curve if and only if the principal normal
to the curve is along the surface normal at that point. This is true for a geodesic on
a surface, since n and N are parallel or coincident in the case of the geodesies.
Example 5. Show that the curvature K at a point of the curve of intersection of
two surfaces is given by
K2 sin2 a = K2 + K2 -2K{K2 COS a
where KX and K2 are the normal curvatures of the surfaces in the direction of the
curve at P and a is the angle between their normals at that point.
Let P be a point on the curve of intersection C of two surfaces S{ and S2 with
unit surface normals Nt and N2 at P respectively. By hypothesis N2 • N2 = cos a.
Since Nx, N2 and n are perpendicular to the same tangent vector at P, they are
coplanar and lie in the normal plane. If 6 is the angle between Nx and n, then
(a- 0) or (a + 0) is the angle between N2 and n. If K{ and K2 are the normal
curvatures at P on S{ and S2t we have by Meusnier's thoerem
K{ = JCCOS 0and K2= KCOS (a- 0) ...(1)
2
L.2 - K
Since KX = KCOS 0, sin 6= ...(2)
K

We shall eliminate 9 between equations (1) and (2).

K2 = K[COS a cos 6+ sin a sin 0] ...(3)
Using (2) in (3), we get
K2 = KX cos a + TJK2 -K\ sin a which gives
(^2- K"i cos a)2 = sin2 a(K2- K2) which gives on simplification,
K 2 + K
\ i ~ 2K*! K2 COS a = K2 sin2 a which proves the result.
The result is true if ( a + 0) is the angle between N2 and n.

4.3 CLASSIFICATION OF POINTS ON A SURFACE

Depending upon the sign of the normal curvature, we shall classify the points on
the surface. To this end let us consider
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 285

Ldu2+2Mdudv + Ndv2
Kf. = = : JT- ...(1)
Edu2+2Fdudv + Gdv2
2
Now LN-M = (Nj• rx) (N2-r2) - (N 2 -r t ) (Nt• r2)
= (N1xN2).(r1xr2) ...(2)
which is not necessarily positive at a point P on a surface. Thus LN - M2 is not
always of the same sign, whereas EG - F2 is always positive. Therefore we note
that the denominator of Kn is always positive, whereas the numerator of Kn is not
necessarily positive. So the sign of Kn depends upon the second fundamental form
in the numerator of (1).
The second fundamental form Ldu1 + IMdudv + Ndv2 ...(3)
is a quadratic form in du and dv. The discriminant of the quadratic form is
LN - M2. Using the discriminant, we can rewrite the second fundamental form as

Ldu2 + IMdudv + Ndv2 = — [(Ldu + Mdv)2 + (LN - M2) dv2}

Li

The above quadratic form is positive definite, a perfect square or indefinite

according as LN - M2 > 0, LN - M2 = 0 or LN - M2 < 0. So we shall consider the
following three particular cases.
Case (i) Let LN - M2 > 0. Since the discrminant is positive, the quadratic
form is positive at any point P on the surface. Hence Kn has the same sign for all
directions at P. In this case the point P is called an elliptic point.
Case (ii) Let LN - M2 = 0. Since L * 0, the quadratic form becomes
(Ldu + Mdv)2. Hence Kn has the same sign for all directions through P except

when Kn = 0 which implies — = .In this case the point P is called a

dv L
parabolic point. The critical directions are called asymptotic directions.
Case (iii) Let LN - M2 < 0. The quadratic form is indefinite and Kn does not
retain the same sign for all directions at P. It may happen that Kn is zero, positive or
negative. If Kn = 0, the two directions corresponding to Kn = 0 form an angle with
respect to the two roots (u{iv{) and (u2, v2) of the quadratic form. Kn is positive for

Fig. 15
286 Differential Geometry—A First Course

certain direction lying inside the angular region and negative for directions
outside this angular region as in the Fig. 15. The point P is called a hyperbolic
point. The two critical directions bounding the angle are called asymptotic
directions.
The next question is whether the parametric transformation affect the nature of
points on the surface. We shall show that the proper parametric transformations do
not affect the nature of points on a surface.
Theorem 1. The conditions for an elliptic, parabolic or hyperbolic point are
independent of the particular parametric representation.
Proof. We shall find LN - M2 in the new coordinate system for the
parametric transformation
u = 0(w', v'), v = y/(u\ v')
To find LN - M2 in the system, we shall make use of alternative expression for
L, M, N given in Theorem 2 of 4.2.
L = - r 1 - N 1 , M = - r 1 . N 2 = -r 2 -N 1 ,A^ = - r 2 - N 2
dr dr du 3 r dv dr . dr
Now iy = = + = — 0 j + —\ffx
du' du du' dv du' du dv
So we have r / = r ^ + r2Vi
In a similar manner, we have r 2 ' = r ^ + r 2 ¥2
and N / = N ^ + N2y^, N 2 ' = N ^ + N 2 ^ 2
As we have already noted, LN - M2 = (Nj x N2) • (rl x r2)
So let us find L'N' - M'2 after parametric transformation
N / x N 2 ' = ( N ^ + N 2 ^ ) x (Nx02 + N 2 ^ 2 )
Since N 1 x N 1 = N 2 x N 2 = 0,wehave
N/xN.^Cv^^-ifc^XNiXN,)
and r / x r 2 ' = ( r ^ + r 2 ^ ) x (r^2 + r 2 y 2 )
Since r 1 x r 1 = r 2 x r 2 = 0, we have
r / x r 2 ' = (0! y/2 - y^02) (rx x r2)
Hence L'N' - M'2 = (N/ x N2') • ( r / x r 2 ')
= (0i ¥2 ~ Vi<fe)2 ( N i x N 2)' ( r i x r
2)
2
01 02
(LN-M2) = J2(LN-M2)
Vi ¥2
where J is the Jacobian. Since J2 is always positive after parametric
transformation, L'N' - M'2 is positive, zero or negative according as LN - M2 is
positive, zero or negative at P. Thus the conditions for the point to be elliptic,
parabolic or hyperbolic are independent of a particular coordinate system chosen.
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 287

Example 1. Show that the points of the paraboloid r = (w cos v, u sin v, u2) are
elliptic but the points of the helicoid r = (w cos v, u sin v, av) are hyperbolic.
We find L, M, N using Theorem 2 of 4.2.
For the paraboloid, r = (w cos v, u sin v, u2)
Then r x = (cos v, sin v, 2w), r 2 = (- u sin v, u cos v, 0)
r n = (0, 0, 2), r22 = (- u cos v, - w sin v, 0)
r =
i2 (~ s i n v » c o s v» 0)

0 0 2
Now //L = [r n , rv r 2 ] = cos v sin v 2w = 2w
I -u sin v w cos v 0
In a similar manner ffiV = [r22, rlf r2] = 2w3
and //A/ = [r12, rlf r2] = 0
4u*_
Hence LN - M2 = which is always positive so that every point on the
H2
paraboloid is elliptic.
For the helicoid r = (w cos v, u sin v, av)
rx = (cos v, sin v, 0), r 2 = (- u sin v, u cos v, a)
r u = (0, 0, 0), r22 = (- u cos v, - u sin v, 0)
and r 12 = (- sin v, cos v, 0)
Using the same formula as in the above,
HL = [r n , r lf r 2 ] = 0, HM = [r12, r^ r 2 ] =-a,HN= [r22, r lf r 2 ] = 0
2
Hence LN - IVr=- which is negative so that every point of the helicoid is
Hl
hyperbolic.
Example 2. Show that the anchor ring contains all three types of points namely
elliptic, parabolic and hyperbolic on the surface.
Any point on the surface of the anchor ring is
r = [(b + a cos u) cos v,(b + a cos u) sin v, a sin u]
where 0 < u < In, and 0 < v < In
Using the sign of LN - M2, we shall find the nature of points on the anchor
ring.
rx = (- a sin u cos v, - a sin u sin v, a cos u)
r2 = (-(b + a cos u) sin v,(b + a cos u) cos v, 0)
r1xr2 = (b + a cos w)[- a cos « cos v, - a sin v cos u,-a sin w]
E = r x 2 = a2, F = i y r 2 = 0, G = r 2 2 = (fc + 0 cos «)2
and // = a (b + a cos w)
r =
n (" a cos u cos
v, - a cos w sin v, - a sin u)
288 Differential Geometry—A First Course

r 12 = (a sin u sin v, - a sin u cos v, 0)

l
22 = [-(£ + a cos u cos
) v, - (6 + a cos w) sin v, 0]

L= hi^. (b + acosu) 2 ^T „
H a(b + a cos u)

•N (6 + <zcosw) tfcosw
N= ^ = (b + a cos u) cos «
H (b + a cos u)a
Using the above values of L, M, N, we get
LN-M2 = a(b + a cos u) cos w
Since b> a,(b + a cos w) is positive for all values of u in its domain. So, the
sign of LN - M2 is determined only by. cos u alone. This leads to the following
three cases of u.
71 371
Case (i) Let 0 < u < — or — < u <2n. Then cos u is positve and so
2 2
LN - M2 is positive. So all those points corresponding to these values of u are
elliptic. The points on the torus corresponding to these values of u are at a distance
greater than b from the axis of rotation. Hence the points on the torus whose
distances from the axis of rotation are greater than b are elliptic points. These are
outside points which can be obtained by rotating BCA as in the Fig. 16.

Fig. 16

7t 3n 9
Case (ii) Let u = — or — . Then cos u = 0 which implies LN - M = 0.

71 371
Hence all points for which u = — or — are parabolic. As v varies, the points lie
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 289

on circles of radii b at the top and bottom of the surface obtained by rotating B
and A.
71 371
Case (iii) Let — < u < — . Since cos u is negative in this range, LN - M2 is
negative. So all points in the region are hyperbolic. The points on the torus
corresponding to these values of u are at a distance less than b from the axis of
rotation. Hence the points on the torus whose distances are less than b are
hyperbolic points and these are inside points which are obtained by rotating BDA
as in the Fig. 16.
Next we shall give a geometrical meaning of the second fundamental form and
use it to distinguish points on a surface.
Theorem 2. If Dp is the perpendicular distance of a point Q on the surface
near the given point P on the surface to the tangent plane at P, then

Dp = - [Ldu2 + IMdudv + Ndv2]

The second fundamental form at any point P(w, v) on the surface is equal to
twice the length of the perpendicular from the neighbouring point Q on the
tangent plane at P.
Proof. Let r(w, v) be the given point P on the surface and let its neighbouring
point Q be r(w + du,v + dv) on the surface. Let d be the perpendicular distance of
Q from the tangent plane at P as in the Fig. 17.

Then d = QM= Projection of PQ on QM

= PQN = [r(w + du, v + dv) - r(«, v)] • N

Fig. 17
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290 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Using Taylor's Theorem and omitting higher order infinitesimals,

1 2 9

d = [{rxdu + r2dv) + -(rndu + 2r12 dudv + r 22 dv )] • N

Since N • rx = 0, N • r 2 = 0, we have
d= — [r u • Ndw2 + 2r 12 • Ndwdv + r 22 • Ndv2]

= - [Ldu2 + IMdudv + Ndv2]

2
which proves the geometrical interpretation of the second fundamental form.
The above theorem gives us an easy criterion for distinguishing points on a
surface as shown below.
(i) If P is an elliptic point at P on a surface, then LN - M2 > 0 so that
Ldu2 + IMdudv + Ndv2 is positive definite. Hence at an elliptic point 2Dp
has alway the same sign whatever may be the position of the point P on
surface. So in this case the surface lies entirely on one side of the tangent
plane.
For instance, if we consider the tangent plane at any point on the ellipsoid,
the surface lies entirely on one side of the tangent plane. Hence any point
on the ellipsoid is an elliptic point,
(ii) At a parabolic point, LN - M2 = 0. Then the second fundamental form
vanishes along the asymptotic direction. Hence Dp = 0 along the
asymptotic direction so that the neighbouring point Q lies on the tangent
plane at P.
For instance, consider neighbouring points on a cylinder. Then the
tangent plane at P passes through Q so that Q lies on the tangent plane at
P so that Dp = 0. Hence any point on the cylinder is parabolic,
(iii) If P is a hyperbolic point, LN - M2 < 0 at P. So in this case Dp takes
positive as well as negative values. Hence the surface near P lies on both
sides of the tangent plane at P where d = 0. Thus the surface passes
through the tangent plane in the asymptotic directions.
At any point on a hyperbolic paraboloid, the tangent plane at P crosses the
surface near the neighbouring point. Hence any point on the hyperbolic
paraboloid is hyperbolic.

4.4 PRINCIPAL CURVATURES

du dv
As the normal curvature Kn at P is a function of / = — and m = — at P, the
ds ds
normal curvature at P varies as (/, m) changes at P. Hence we seek to find the
directions at P along which the normal curvature at P has maximum or minimum
values. This leads to the notion of principal curvatures and principal directions at
P. Hereafterwards, let us denote Kn by K.

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The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 291

Definition 1. The directions at P in which normal curvature has maximum

or minimum values are called principal directions at P. The principal curvatures at
P are the normal curvatures at P along the principal directions.
Theorem 1. The principal curvatues are given by the roots of the equation
K?(EG-F2)-K(EN + GL-2FM) + LN-M2 = 0
Proof. Let the direction coeffcients in a direction at P(w, v) on a surface be
' du dv
. The we have
ds ds

T\du\ -nMdudv ^J dv)

L\— + 2M + N\—
yds J ds ds \ds^
' du
^ du dv
+ 2F— — + G — A dv^
~ds ds ds I ds

du dv
Using the notation,/ = — , m = — , we have
ds ds
K=Ll2 + 2Mlm + Nm2 ...(1)
where El2 + 2Flm + Gm2 = 1 ...(2)
Since the fundamental coefficients are fixed at P, K varies as /, m vary subject
to the constraining condition (2). Hence to determine the maximum and minimum
values of normal curvature, we use the method of Lagrange's multipliers.
Let K = Ll2 + 2Mlm + Nm2 - X {El2 + 2Flm + Gm2 - 1)

When K is stationary, we should have = 0 and =0

dl dm
1 9K
So - — = LI + Mm - 7JEI - XFm = 0 ...(3)
2 ol

1 3K
- —- =Ml + Nm-XFl-?JGm = 0 . (4)
w
2 dm
To find the extreme values of /c, let us find the values of X from the above
equations.
Now (3)/ + (4)m gives
(LI2 + 2Mlm + Nm2) - X(El2 + 2Flm + Gm2) = 0
Using (1) and (2) in the above equation, we obtain K-X = 0OTX=K
Using this value of X in (3) and (4), we get
292 Differential Geometry—A First Course

(L - KE)1 + (M-KF)m =0 ...(5)

(M - KF)1 + (N- KG) m = 0 ...(6)
Eliminating /and m between the above equations, using determinants, we have
(L - KE) (N- KG) - (M- KF)2 =0
Rewriting the above equation as a quadratic in K,
K2 (EG - F2) - K(EN + GL- 2FM) + (LN - M2) = 0 ...(7)
The roots of the above equation gives the principal curvatures at P. We denote
them by Ka and Kb. One value must be a maximum and the other value must be a
minimum.

Definition 2. If Ka and Kb are the principal curvatures at a point P on the

surface, then the mean curvature denoted by ji is defined as \x = — (Ka + Kb)

From the sum of the roots of the equation (7), we have

1 x EN+GL-2FM
" = 2 ( ^ ) = 2(EG-F2)
Definition 3. If Ka and Kb are principal curvatures, the Gaussian curvature
denoted by K is defined as K = KaKb.
From the product of the roots of the equation (7), we have

LN-M2
a
EG-F2
Note 1. We shall prove later the definition of Gaussian curvature defined by
ex C and the above definition are equivalent.
Note 2. The value of the Gaussian curvature is independent of the parametric
system chosen.
Let us consider the parametric transformation
u = 0 (u\ V), and v = y/(u\ v')
Then as in Theorem 1 of 4.3, we have
UN -M'2= J2 (LN - A/2), E'G' -F/2 = J2(EG- F2) where
J is the Jacobian of the transformation
„, L'N'-M'2 J2 (LN-M2) LN-M2 T „
Hence K' = =- = —^ ^ = ^-,7^0.
EG-F2 J2(EG-F2) EG-F2
Thus we have K' - K, showing that the Gaussian curvature is independent of the
parametric system chosen.
Note 3. Using the definition of Gaussian curvature, we can characterise
different points on a surface as follows.
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 293

From the definition of Gaussian curvature, we have

_LN-M2
a b
EG-F1
we know that H2 = EG - F 2 is always positive.
If K is positve at a point P on a surface, than LN - M2 > 0 which means that P
is an elliptic point. Hence a point on a surface is an elliptic point if and only if two
principal curvatures at the point P are of the same sign.
If K is negative at a point P on a surface, then LN - M2 < 0 which means that
P is a hyperbolic point. Hence a point P on a surface is a hyperbolic point if and
only if two principal curvatures at the point are of opposite signs.
If K = 0 at a point on the surface, then LN-M2 = 0 which means that the point
P is a parabolic point. Thus a point on a surface is a parabolic point if and only if
at least one of the principal curvatures is zero.
Theorem 2. The principal directions are given by
(EM-FL)l2 + (EN-GL)lm + (FN-GM)m2 = 0
Proof. The principal directions are the directions given by equations (3) and
(4) of Theorem 1.
Ll + Mm-AEl- XFm = 0 ...(1)
Ml + Nm-XFl- hGm = 0 ...(2)
Eliminating A between the above equations,
(El + Fm) (Ml + Nm) - (Fl + Gm) (LI + mM) = 0
which gives the quadratic in /as
(EM - FL)l2 + (EN - GL)lm + (FN - GM)m2 = 0 ...(3)
The above equation gives two principal directions at any point P on a surface.
We shall show that the roots of the above equation are real and distinct except
when the coefficients E, F, G and L, M, N are proportional.
The discriminant of the quadratic (3) is
(EN - GL)2 - 4(EM - FL) (FN - GM) ...(4)
We shall rewrite the above by completing the squares. For this let us consider
F C
(FN-GM) = —(EN-GL)-—{EM-FL) ...(5)
E E
Using (5) in (4), we obtain,

{EN-GLf-A{EM-FL) —{EN-GL)- —(EM- FL)

E E

IF 9 4F2 9 4G 9
2 2
= [(EN-GL) (EM-FL)] r(EM-FL) + —(EM-FL)2
E E E
294 Differential Geometry—A First Course

= [(EN-GL) {EM-FL)f + — -2 '-{EM-FL? ...(6)

E E
Since EG - F 2 > 0, the discriminant of (3) is always positive so that the roots
of the equation (3) are real and distinct, provided F, F, G and L, M, N are not
proportional.
E F G
If — = — = —, the discriminant vanishes and the equation itself vanishes so
L M N
that the principal directions are indeterminate and the normal curvature is same in
all directions
du dv
If we take / = — , m = — , then from (3), principal directions are given by
ds ds
(EM - FL)du2 + (EN - GL)dudv + (FN - GM)dv2 = 0 ...(7)
2 2
Identifying the above equation with Pdu + Qdudv + Rdv = 0, the condition of
orthogonality
E(FN-GM)-F(EN-GL) + G(EM-FL) = 0
is satisfied except when F, F, G and L, M, N are not proportional. Hence the
principal directions at every point on the surface are orthogonal.
Definition 4. A point on a surface is called an umbilic, if at that point

L M N .
— = — = — is true
E F G
mf , L M N Ldu2 +2Mdudv + Ndv2 ,.,
Note 1. —=— = —= = =- which represents the
E F G Edu2 +2Fdudv + Gdv2
normal curvature. Hence at an umbilic* the normal curvature is the same in all
directions.
Note 2. Equation (7) giving the principal directions is also the same as
(FN - GM)dv2 + (EN - GL)dudv + (EM - FL)du2 = 0
which can also be written in the determinant form as
dv2 -dudv du2
E F G =0
L M N

Example 1. Find the principal directions and principal curvatures at a point on

the surface
x = a (u + v), y = b (u - v), z = uv
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 295

The position vector of any point P on the surface is

r = [a (u + v), b (u - v), uv]
Then rx = (<z, by v), r 2 = (a, - b, u)
rj x r 2 = [b (u + v), a (v - u)\ - lab]
r u = (0, 0, 0), r12 = (0, 0, 1) = r21, r22 = (0, 0, 0)
E = a2 + b2 + v2, F = a2 - b2 + uv, G = a2 +fc2+ w2
r i 2 N 2
F M A ^ ' " ^ KJ H
11
H H

Now LN-M = ^— which is always negative. Hence every point on the

H
surface is a hyperbolic point.
The principal directions are given by

dv2 -2dudv du2

E F G
0 M 0

which givesEdu -Gdv = 0, sinceM^0

Substituting the value of E and G in the above equation,
we get (a2 + b2 + v2)du2 - {a2 + b2 + w V v 2 = 0
du dv . . . . . , , . .
or , =± , giving the principal directions.
yla2+b2+u2 ja2+b2+v2
The principal curvatures are given by the equation
(EG-F2)K? - (GL + EN-2FM)K+ {LN-M2) = 0
Substituting the values of E, F, G and L, M, N and simplifying
H V - 4abH {a2 - b2 + UV)K- 4a2b2 = 0
The principal curvatures Ka and Kb are the roots of the above equation.
1 4ab(a2 -b2 + uv)
Hence the mean curvature fi =
2 H3
4a2b2
The Gaussian curvature K = j

Example 2. Show that all points on a sphere are umbilics.

The representation of a point on a sphere with colatitude u and longitude v as
parameters is
r = (a sin u cos V, a sin u sin v, a cos u)
296 Differential Geometry—A First Course

For this parametric representation of a point on a sphere we shall find first and
L M N
second fundamental forms at a rpoint and show that — = — = — so that everyJ
r?
E~ a
FT? ~~~G
point on a sphere is an umbilic.
r1 = (a cos u cos v, a cos u sin v, - a sin u)
r2 = (-a sin u sin v, a sin u cos v, 0)
E = rx • rx = a2, F = rx • r 2 = 0, G = iy r 2 = a sin M

rj x r 2 = i(tf2 sin2w cos v) +j(a2 sin2w sin v) + A: sin u cos w

and H2 = a4 sin2«. We shall use the scalar triple product formula to find L, M, N.

- a sin u cos v - a sin u sin v - a c o s w

L / / = [ r 1 1 , r 1 > r 2 ] = / / = a cos « cos v a cos w sin v - a sin u
- a sin w sin v a sin w cos v 0

-a3sinw
Hence L = —^ =- a
a sin M
IT *• i* 1
12> 1? 2
In a similar manner, M = =0
//
xr [r22>ri»r2] - ^ 3 s i n 2 w .smu2
and N = 2Z 1 z = — 5 =
"a
H a sin u

L M N . -a 0 -asin2« 1
Now — = — = — gives —T = — = -^5 ^— = .
E F G a2 0 a2sin2« a
Thus all points on a sphere are umbilics and the principal directions are
indeterminate at any point on the sphere.

4.5 LINES OF CURVATURE

At each point on the surface, we have two mutually perpendicular directions along
which the normal curvature has extreme values. So the question arises whether
there exist curves on the surface such that the tangent at each point on the curve on
the surface coincides with one of the principal directions. This leads to the notion
of lines of curvature.
Definition 1. A curve on a given surface whose tangent at each point is
along a principal direction is called a line of curvature.
From the above definition, first we note the following properties of the lines of
curvature.

(i) Differential equations of lines of curvature. Taking / = — and m= — in

ds ds
equations (5) and (6) of Theorem 1 of 4.4, the principal directions are given by
Tlte Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 297

(Ldu + Mdv) - K(Edu + Fdv) = 0 ...(1)

(Mdu + Ndv) -K(Fdu + Gdv) = 0 ...(2)
When K is one of the principal curvatures, we get the equations of the lines of
curvature as
(L - KE)du + (M - KF)dv = 0
(M- KF)du + (N- KG)dv = 0
(ii) Eliminating K between (1) and (2), the combined equation of the two
families of lines of curvature is
(EM-FL)du2 + (EN-GL)dudv + (FN-GM)dv2 =0 ...(3)
Since (3) also gives the orthogonal principal directions, the two lines of
curvature at any point on the surface are orthogonal. Thus the lines of curvature at
any point on the surface form two sets of curves intersecting at right angles.
From the existence of solution of the ordinary differential equation (3), we
conclude that these curves cover the surface without gaps in the neighbourhood of
every point except umbilics. Since the curves cover the surface simply without
gaps, we can take them to be orthogonal parametric curves in our future
discussion.
Note. As in the case of principal directions, the equations of the lines of
curvature can be put in a matrix form.
The characteristic property of the lines of curvature is contained in the
following theorem known as Rodrique's formula.
Theorem 1. A necessary and sufficient condition for a curve on a surface to
be a line of curvature is Kdr + dN = 0 at each point of the line of curvature where
ffis the normal curvature in the direction dv of the line of curvature.
Proof. To prove the necessity of the condition, let the given curve on the
surface be a line of curvature. Then the direction (dut dv) at any point P on the
curve is a principal direction at (w, v) on the surface given by
(L-KE)du + (M- KF)dv = 0 ...(1)
( M - KF)du + (N- KG)dv = 0 ...(2)
where Kris one of the principal curvatures at («, v)
Let us write (1) and (2) by grouping the fundamental coefficients of the same
kind
(Ldu + Mdv) - K(Edu +Fdv) = 0
(Mdu + Ndv) - K(Fdu + Gdv) = 0 ...(3)
Using the values
L = - N2 • rh M = - N2-1*1, E = rx • rx, F = iyr 2 in the first equation of
(3) we obtain
(Nxdu + N2dv) • rx + K(rxdu + r2dv) • r2 = 0 ...(4)
298 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Now dr- — du+ — dv = r1du + r2dv ...(5)

ou ov

dN = —du + ^-dv = Nxdu + N2dv ...(6)

du ov
Using (5) and (6) in (4), we get (dN + Kdr) • rx = 0 ...(7)
similarly using the values
M = - Nx • r2, N = - N2- r2, F = rx • r2, G = r2- r2 in the second equation of (3)
and simplifying using (5) and (6)
we obtain (dN + Kdr) • r2 = 0 ...(8)
we claim that (dN + Kdr) = 0
Since N is a vector of constant modulus 1, N 2 = 1 so that N • dN = 0 so that dN
is perpendicular to N. That is dN is tangential to the surface. Since dN and dr are
tangential to the surface atP, (Kdr + dN) is also tangential to the surface. Hence it
lies in the plane of vectors rt and r2.
From (7) and (8), we conclude that Kdr + dN is perpendicular to rt and r2.
Therefore Kdr + dN is parallel to rx x r2 which is the direction of the surface
normal. Hence Kdr + dN is parallel to the surface normal contradicting the fact
that Kdr + dN is tangential to the surface. This condtradiction proves that
Kdr + dN = 0.
To prove the sufficiency of the condition, let us assume that there is a curve on
the surface for which Kdr + dN = 0 for some function feat a point P on the surface.
On this assumption, we must show that this curve is a line of curvature on the
surface having K for its normal curvature at P. To prove this, it is enough if we
show that at each point of the curve, its direction coincides with the principal
direction.
Since Kdr + dN = 0, we have
(Kdr + dN) rj = 0, (Kdr + dN)-r2 = 0 ...(9)
Hence if (du, dv) is the direction of the curve at a point («, v), then by retracing
the steps, (9) gives the equations
(L- KE)du + (M- KF)dv = 0
(M - KF)du + (N- KG)dv = 0
so that the direction at («, v) coincides with the principal direction.
Further since Kdr + dN = 0, we have Kdr = - dN
Substituting for dr and dN from (5) and (6), we get
K(rtdu + r2dv) = - (Ntdu + N2dv) ...(10)
Taking dot product with rxdu + r2dv on both sides of (10), we have
K(rxdu + r2dv) • (rxdu + r2dv) = - (Nxdu + N2dv) • (rxdu + r2dv) ...(H)
Using the fundamental coefficients Ey F, G and L, M, N
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 299

(11) gives K[Edu2 + IFdudv + Gdv2] = [Ldu2 + IMdudv + Ndv2]

Ldu2 +2Mdudv + Ndv2

so that K= ^ ^
£dw 2 +2Fdudv + Gdv2
which proves that K: is the normal curvature of the curve at P in the direction
(duy dv). Since (du, dv) gives the principal direction at P> K is the principal
curvature at P. Therefore the direction at each point of the curve is the principal
direction having ?cfor its normal curvature in the principal direction. Hence the
curve must be a line of curvature on the surface and this completes the proof of
Rodrique's formula.
Theorem 2. A necessary and sufficient condition that the lines of curvature
be the parametric curves is that F = 0, M = 0.
Proof. Let the lines of curvature be taken as parametric curves. Since they
are orthogonal F = 0 ... (1)
Since F = 0iH2 = EG>0 implies E * 0 and G * 0 ...(2)
The differential equation of the lines of curvature is
(EM - FL)du2 + (EN - GL)dudv + (FN - GM)dv2 = 0 ...(3)
The differential equation of the parametric curves is
dudv = 0 ...(4)
Since (3) and (4) are identical, we must have
EM-FL = 0 and (FN-GM) =0 ...(5)
Since F = 0, E > 0 and G > 0 we get M = 0 from (5)
Thus F = 0, M = 0 are necessary conditions for the lines of curvature to be
parametric curves.
Conversely if F = 0, M = 0, the differential equation of the lines of curvature
(3)reduces to
(EN-GL)dudv =0
Since EN - GL ^ 0, dudv =X) so that the lines of curvature become parametric
curves.
Just as the Liouville's formula gives the geodesic curvature Kg in terms of 0
which the curve makes with the parametric v = constant, we shall find the normal
curvature along a given direction making an angle y/ with the parametric curve
v = constant in the following theorem due to Euler.
Theorem 3. If K is the normal curvature in a direction making an angle y/
with the principal direction v = constant, then K= Ka cos2y^+ Kb sin2!//
where Ka and Kb are principal curvatures at the point P on the surface.
Proof. Since El2 + 2Flm + Gm2 = 1, the normal curvature at any point P in
the direction (/, m) is
K = LI2 + IMlm + Nm2 ...(1)
300 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Let us choose the lines of curvature at P as parametric curves.

Then by Theorem 2, M = 0, F = 0 so that (1) becomes
K = Ll2 + Nm2 ...(2)
The direction coefficients of the parametric curves v = constant and

u = constant are r,0 land

If Ka and Kb are the normal curvatures along these principal directions, then
from (2), we obtain
2 / , \2
/V
•(3)

If v^is the angle between the given direction (/, m) and the principal direction

- T = , 0 , then using the cosine formula cos y/ = EZl' + F {lm + I'm) + Gmm\

1 /— cos w
we obtain cos y/= El—j= = NE SO that / = ,— ...(4)

Since the parametric curves are orthogonal, the angle betw.een the direction

(/, m) and [ 0, - ^ = J is (90 - y/)

Hence cos (90-i//) = sin y/=Gm-j= -m4G so that m= J- ...(5)

Using the values of (/, m) in (4) and (5) in (2), we get

L 2 N .2
K= — cos Yw+ — sin Yw
E G

L
Since K„ = — and i K =N—, we obtain
h
a
E G
K=- Ka cos2i/f + Kb sinV which completes the proof of Euler's Theorem.
Corollary. (Dupin's Theorem). The sum of the normal curvatures at any
point on the surface in two directions at right angles is constant and equal to the
sum of the principal curvatures at that point.
Proof. Let Ka> Kb be the principal curvatures at any point P on the surface.
Let K{ and K2 be the normal curvatures along the directions making angles \j/x, y/2
n
with the principal direction such that y/2 = — + y/\
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 301

Hence by Euler's Theorem, we have

KX = Ka c o s 2 ^ + Kb sin2*//, ...(1)
2 2
K2 = Ka cos \j/2 + Kb sin v^2 --(l)
n
Since y/2 = — + y/l9 we get from (2)

K2 = Ka sinV, + Kb c o s 2 ^ ...(3)
Adding (1) and (3), we get
KX + K2 - Ka (cos 2 ^ + sinVj) + /^(sin 2 ^ + cos 2 ^)
Hence K{ + K2 = Ka + Kb which proves the result.
Example 1. Show that the meridians and parallels of a surface of revolution are
its lines of curvature.
The position vector of any point on the surface of revolution is
r = (u cos v, u sin v,/(w)) ...(1)
we know that the meridians v = constant and the parallel u - constant are
parametric curves. By Theorem 2, the parametric curves are lines of curvature if
an only if F = 0 and M = 0. So it is enough if we prove F = 0, M = 0.
From (1), we have rx = (cos v, sin v,/j) and
r 2 = (- u sin v, u cos v, 0). Hence rx • r2 = F = 0.
Further rj x r 2 = (-f\U cos v, -f{u sin v, u)
and r12 = (- sin v, cos v, 0), since/! is a function of u only

Now M = —— — = — [uf{ sin v cos v - uf{ sin v cos v]

H H
Since// * 0, M = 0.
Example 2. If (/,, m1? ttj) are the direction cosines of the tangent to a line of
curvature and (/, m, n) are the direction cosines of the normal to the surface at any
point P, prove that
dl _ dm _ dn
L m, n.

dN ' dl dm dn^
Now we have ds ds ds
ds
By Rodrique's formula, we have Kdr + dN = 0 which is also the same as
dr dN n ^ . dN n T L , rfN . „ , A
K— + = 0. That is Kt + = 0 In other words is parallel to t.
ds ds ds ds
302 Differential Geometry—A First Course

' dl dm dn^
Thus the vectors (l^mx,nx) and are parallel so that
^ ds ds ds j

dl/ds _ dm/ds _ dn/ds dl _ dm _ dn

/j m{ nx lx mx nx

4.6 THE DUPIN INDICATRIX

If O is a point on the given surface, the principal directions at O on the tangent
plane are orthogonal. So the principal directions at O in the tangent plane and the
surface normal at O form a rectangular coordinate system at O. So it is worthwhile
to study the properties of the sections of the surface by planes parallel to the
tangent plane at O with respect to the rectangular Cartesian coordinate system at O.
Such a study is much facilitated by the geometrical interpretation of the second
fundamental form as described in Theorem 2 of 4.3. Against this background, we
define a Dupin indicatrix as follows.
Definition 1. Let O be any point on the given surface. Then the section of
the surface by a plane parallel to the tangent plane at O on it and at a very small
distance from it is called the Dupin indicatrix at O.
Since the Dupin indicatrix is the section of the surface by a plane parallel to
the tangent plane at O, it is a curve whose nature we study with respect to the
rectangular coordinate system at O. In the following theorem, we shall derive the
equation of the Dupin indicatrix and show that it is a conic section with respect to
the coordinate system at O.
Theorem 1. If Ka and tcb are the principal curvatures at O on a surface, then
the equation of the Dupin indicatrix is

x1 v2 ' 1 1
— + — = 2h, z = h where Ra = — and Rb = — ...(1)
R R K K
a b a b
Proof. Before proceeding to the proof, let us first note that the equation (1) is
the equation of a conic section.
Let Q be a point on the Dupin indicatrix at O. Then Q is a point on the curve of
intersection of the surface and a plane which is parallel to the tangent plane at O
and which intersects the surface in points very near to O. If h is the infinitesimal
perpendicular distance QM from Q to the tangent plane at 0, then from Theorem 2
of 4.3, we have 2h = Ldu2 + IMdudv + Ndv1 ...(2)
If we take the lines of curvature at O as parametric curves, then by Theorem 2
of4.5,F = 0,M = 0
Using the condition, (2) becomes
2h = Ldu2 + Ndv2 ...(3)
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 303

Since F = 0, M = 0, the normal curvature frin the direction of (du> dv) becomes

Ldu2+Ndv2
K= = r ...(4)
Edu2 +Gdv2
As we have chosen the lines of curvature at O as parametric curves,
v = constant and u = constant are principal directions with direction ratios (1,0)
and (0, 1). Hence we obtain from (4), the principal curvatures corresponding to
L N
(1, 0) and (0, 1) as Ka = — and Kb = —.
E G
Substituting these values of Ka and Kb in (3), we get
2h=KaEdu2+KbGdv2 ...(5)
The metrics along the parametric curves are
ds{2 = Edu2, and ds22 = Gdv2 ...(6)
Eliminating E, G between (5) and (6), we get
2h = Kads2 + Kbds22 ...(7)
Now construct the rectangular coordinate system 0(xyz) at O where OX and
OY correspond to the principal directions at O and OZ is the surface normal. With
respect to this coordinate system, we can take
x = dsx, y = ds2> z = h ...(8)
Replacing ds{ and ds2 in (7) by these coordinates (8), we obtain
K ^ 2 + K$2 = 2h,z = h which can be written as
2 2
— + ^-=2/*,z = fc ...(9)
R R
a b

where Ra = — , Rb = — are the principal radii of curvature. (9) represents the

Ka ^b
equation of the conic section. Thus the Dupin indicatrix is a conic section.
Remark. The nature of the conic section depends on the point O on the
surface. So we shall describe the nature of the conic section in the following notes.
Note 1. Let O be an elliptic point on the surface. The Gaussian curvature
K = KaKb is of positive sign so that Ka and Kb are of the same sign. So the conic
section (9) is an ellipse with the semi axes (2h Ra)m and (2h Rb)m. Thus at an
ellipitc point the Dupin indicatrix is an ellipse. This ellipse is real or imaginary
according to the sign of h. Thus the surface in the neighbourhood of O lies entirely
on one side of the tangent plane at O.
Note Z Let O be an hyperbolic point. Since KaKb < 0at an hyperbolic point,
Ka and Kb are of opposite signs so the indicatrix is one of the two conjugate
hyperbolas according to the sign of h. So the surface in the neighbourhood of O lies
304 Differential Geometry—A First Course

on both sides of the tangent plane at O. Thus at an hyperbolic point, the indicatrix
is a hyperbola. It will be a rectangular hyperbola if Ka + Kb = 0.
Note 3. Let O be a parabolic point. As K= KaKb = 0, one of the curvatures is
zero at O. That is either Ka = 0 or Kb = 0. In this case the equation of the Dupin
indicatrix represents a pair of parallel lines K^2 = 2h or Kby2 = 2h according as
Kb = 0 or Ka = 0.
Example 1. Prove that at any point P on a surface, there is a paraboloid. Find the
normal curvature at P on the paraboloid in any direction.
The equation of the conic section of the surface by a plane parallel to the
tangent plane at a small distance h from the tangent plane is
2 2
- - + ^ - = 2K z = h ..(1)
R R
a b

Eliminating /i, we get the following surface having the conic section (1).
2 2
— + ^-=2z ...(2)
R„ R,
This surface (2) is.a paraboloid. Hence at every point P on the surface, there is
a paraboloid. Let us find the normal curvature at any point on the paraboloid.
Treating x, y as parameters, any point on the paraboloid has position vector,

V— +—
y2
r = (*, y, z) = x9y>-
\Ra R
b

Let us find E, F, G and L, M, N for the paraboloid.

r, = .,o,- U . 0,1,
R,lbJ

2 2
i~x -y i
so that H2 = ^ y + ^ T + 1
R R
a b

E = 1 + ^r, F = -r^-, G= 1 + ^ r
/e ^<A #

r,, = 0 , 0 , - ^ } r12 = r21 = (0. 0. °)> r22 = 0,0,

R^ J ft,

//L = r n - (rx x r 2 ) = — , HM = r 12 -(r x x r2) = 0

//A^ = r 2 2 -(r 1 xr 2 ) = —
Rh
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 305

Uu* ..du dv v u*
Hence K=L
+M + N ds
ds
ds ds

_I_ du ^
+ K,
H 7s ds

which is the curvature at P on the paraboloid.

Example 2. Show that the indicatrix at every point of the right helicoid
r = (u cos v, u sin v, av) is a rectangular hyperbola.
If the indicatrix is a rectangular hyperbola, we have to show that Ka + Kb = 0 at
any point on the surface.
From the given equation of the helicoid,
rx = (cos v, sin v, 0), r 2 = (- u sin v, u cos v, a)
1*1 x r 2 = (a sin v, - a cos v, u)

Hence E = 1, F = 0, G = u2 + a2, H = yj(u2 + a2)

Further r u = (0, 0, 0), r12 = (- sin v, cos v, 0), r22 = (- u cos v, - u sin v, 0)
Hence HL = r n • (rj x r 2 ) = 0, HM = r12- (r1 xr2) = -a
//iV = r 2 2 -(r 1 xr 2 ) = 0.
Now Ka and Kb are the roots of the equation
ltiEG-F2)- K(EN + GL-2FM) + (LN-M2) = 0
„ . r u EN+GL-2FM
Hence the sum of the roots Kn+ Kh= ^
a b
EG-F2
Since EG-F2* 0, and F = 0, L = 0, N = 0, we have from the above formula
Ka + Kb = 0 which proves that the indicatrix is a rectangular hyperbola.
Since the Dupin indicatrix is a conic section, we are interested to know the
directions of the conjugate diameters and the asymptotes. These lead to the notion
of conjugate directions and asymptotic directions on a surface.
Definition 2. Two directions at point P on the surface are said to be
conjugate if the corresponding diameters of the ellipse or hyperbola given by the
Dupin indicatrix are conjugate diameters.
Let us obtain the condition for two directions at a point P on the surface to be
conjugate.
Theorem 2. Two directions (l{i mx) and (/2, m2) at a point on the surface are
conjugate, then
Llxl2 + M (lxm2 + m{l2) + Nmxm2 = 0 ...(1)
Proof. First let us establish the condition, when the principal directions are
taken as parametric curves so thatM = F = 0. In the proof, we use the property that
if mx and m2 are the slopes of the conjugate diameters of an ellipse
306 Differential Geometry—A First Course

x2 y2 b2
- y + —5- = 1, then mxm2 = — 2 —(2)
a b a
With respect to the rectangular Cartesian coordinate system at P, the equation
of the Dupin indicatrix is
2 2
— + ^=2h,z = 2h ...(3)

Let (du, dv) and (<5w, 5v) be two conjugate directions at P. If 0X and 02 a r e the
angles made by conjugate directions with the principal directions at P, let us find
m{ = tan 0l and m2 = tan 02.
2 2
From equations (3), we have a2 = 2/?a = — , b2 = 2Rb = -—
K K
a b
tr
Hence the condition (2) becomes tan 0{ tan 62 = -

From the choice of the coordinate system, we have from Theorem 1,

Kn=— and Kh = — so that tan 0, tan 02 = = ...(4)

a h 1 2
E G Kb EN
Hence to complete the proof let us find tan 0! and tan 02.

0{ is the angle between the directions - y = , 0 and (/, m) which corresponds

to (du, dv)
H{lm'-l'm)
Since F = 0, from the formula for tan 0 =
Ell' + Gmm''

G m IG dv
we have tan 0, = J =J ...(5)
1
\E I \E du
Exactly in a similar manner, tan 02 = / ...(6)
\ E 8u
G dv 8v
Thus we obtain tan 0{ tan 02 = — • ...(7)
E du ou
Equating the values of tan 0{ tan 02 in (4) and (7), we get
G dv Sv G L u. u .
-— = which reduces to
E du 8u EN
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 307

Ldu8u + Ndv8v = 0 ...(8)

du f dv Su , Sv .
Since — = /j, — = mx, — = /2, — = m2, we rewnte the condition (8) as
ds ds os Ss
Llxl2 + Nmlm2 = 0.
Now we shall derive the condition in the general case when M * 0. If M * 0, let
us first show that MduSv = 0 and MdvSu = 0. Since the directions (du, dv) and
(Su, Sv) at a point on the surface are the components of the vector along the axes,
(du, 0) and (Su, 0) are along one principal axis and (0, dv) and (0, Sv) are along
another principal axis. Since the principal axes are orthogonal, du Sv = 0 and
dvSu = 0 so that when M * 0, MduSv - 0 and MdvSu = 0.
Substituting for L, M, N and adding zero terms MduSv and MdvSu, we have
TyNiduSu + r1-N2dvSu + r2-N1duSv + r2-N2dv8v ...(9)
= (rtdu + v2dv) - (NxSu + N2<5v) = 0 which can also be written as dr- <5N = 0
Using the direction coefficients, the equation (9) assumes the form
Llxl2 + M(lxm2 + ^m^ + Nmxm2 = 0
Since the above arguments are reversible, the condition is sufficient also.
Corollary 1. The parametric curves are in conjugate directions if and only if
Af = 0.
The directions of the parametric curve v = constant and u = constant are

—j=, 0 and 0, —j= . Using these directions in the condition of the theorem,

we have , = 0. Since yJEG ^ 0, M = 0 which proves the corollary.

<JEG
Corollary 2. Lines of curvature at any point on the surface are in the
conjugate directions.
Let dv, Sr be the directions of the lines of curvature at a point on the surface.
Since the lines of curvature are orthogonal, we have dr-Sr = 0 ...(1)
From the Rodriques formula for lines of curvature, we have

5N + KST = 0 so that Sr = - - SN ...(2)

K

Using (2) in (1), we find dv • — 5N = 0. Since K* 0,dr-8N = 0 so that the lines of

K
curvatue are in the conjugate directions by the theorem.
Note. Since the principal directions are orthogonal, the lines of curvature on
a surface give orthogonal conjugate directions.
Example 3. Find the curves conjugate to the parallels 6= u = constant on the
sphere.
308 Differential Geometry—A First Course

For the sphere r = (a cos 0 cos 0, a cos 0 sin 0, a sin 0)

0 = constant, 0 = constant correspond to parallels and meridians. Also we have
L = a, M = 0 and N = a cos20. Let (50, 5(j>) correspond to the direction conjugate
to 0 = u = constant whose direction is (0, dtp). Since (0, d0) and (50, 50) are
conjugate directions, applying the condition for conjugate lines we have
M/v5v = acos 2 0d050 = O.
Since cos 0 * 0, d 0 * 0, we have 50 = 0. That is 0 = constant which means that
the meridians are conjugate to parallels.
Example 4. Show that the parametric curves are conjugate on the surface of
revolution,
r(w, v) = (u cos v, u sin v ,/(w)) ...(1)
By the corollary 1 of Theorem 2, it is enough if we show that M = 0 for the
parametric curves to be conjugate.
From.(l), rx = (cos v, sin v,/i)• r 2 = (- u sin v, u cos v, 0)
Hence rx x r 2 = (- ufx cos v, - ufx sin v, u)
Further r 12 = (- sin v, cos v, 0)
Now HM = r12- (rx x r 2 ) = uf{ cos v sin v - ufx cos v sin v = 0
Since H * 0, M = 0 which proves the result
Example 5. Show that the two directions given by the equation
Pdu2 + Qdudv + Rdv2 = 0 are conjugate if and only if LR - MQ + NP = 0
The given equation can be written as a quadratic

+ /? = 0.

du Su
If — and — are the two directions given by the above quadratic, then
dv 5v

du Su Q du Su R
— + — = - —, and — — = — ...(1)
dv 8v P dv Sv P
By Theorem 2 the two directions at a point on a curve are conjugate if and only
.„ w du Su du Su ,
ifL— —+M — + — | + W = 0 ...(2)
dv Sv
{dv ov J
Using (1) in (2) and simplifying we get LR - MQ + NP = 0
Definition 3. If the Dupin indicatrix at O is a hyperbola, the directions of the
asymptotes at O are called asymptotic directions at O.
When the Dupin indicatrix is a hyperbola, then Ka and Kb are of opposite signs
along the principal axes at O. The asymptotes of the hyperbola give the asymptotic
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 309

directions with Kn = 0, since the normal curvature changes sign, as the direction
passes through the asymptotic position.
Definition 4. An asymptotic line on a surface is a curve whose direction at
every point on it is asymptotic.
From the defintion, we get the following properties of the asymptotic lines,
(i) Differential equation of the asymptotic lines. Since the direction at every
point on the asymptotic line is along the asymptotic direction, the normal
curvature at each point of the asymptotic line is zero.
As Edu2 + IFdudv + Gdv2 * 0, *•„ = 0 gives Ldu2 + IMdudv + Ndv2 = 0
which gives the differential equation of asymptotic lines,
(ii) The asymptotic lines are self-conjugate. To show that the asymptotic lines
are self conjugate it is enough if we show that the direction (duy dv) at any
point on the asymptotic line is self-conjugate.
Two directions (du, dv) and (8u, 8v) are conjugate if and only if
Ldu 8u + M (dvSu + du5v) + NdvSv = 0
Replacing (8u, 8v) hy (du, dv), we get from the above equation,
Ldu2 + 2Mdudv + Ndv2 = 0
which shows that the direction (du, dv) at any point on the asymptotic line
is self-conjugate. Hence the asymptotic line itself is self-conjugate,
(iii) The parametric curves on a surface are asymptotic lines if and only if
L = 0, N = 0 and M * 0. The differential equation of the asymptotic line is
Ldu2 + IMdudv + Ndv2 = 0 ...(1)
The combined equation of the parametric curve is dudv = 0 ...(2)
The parametric curves are asymptotic lines if and only if (1) and (2) are the
same. Hence identifying (1) and (2), we obtain
L = 0,W = 0 a n d A / * 0
(iv) The directions of the lines of curvature bisect the angle between the
asymptotic directions.
Let us take the asymptotic lines as parametric curves.
Then we have to show that the lines of curvature bisect the angle between
the parametric curves. We have from property (iii), L = 0, N = 0 andM^ 0.
The differential equation of lines of curvature.
(EM - FL)du2 + (EN - GL)dudv + (FN - GM)dv2 = 0
becomes Edu2 - Gdv2 = 0 which gives the combined equations of the
bisectors of the angle between the parametric curves. Hence the lines of
curvature bisect the angle between the asymptotic directions.
Theorem 3. The curve r = r(^) is an asymptotic line if and only if

^ . — =0
ds ds
310 Differential Geometry—A First Course

n . dv dN ( du dv XT du __
Proof. = i\ — + r2 —
ds ds I ds ds fifo

I ^ W I ,XT XT X d U d 'dv)2
V
XT I
= N1-r1 — +(N 1 -r 2 + N 2 -r 1 )— — +N 2 -r 2
ds ) ds ds ds )

dv_ dN_ <du* _ __ du dv __ <dv*

Hence + 2M + N KdSj ...(1)
ds ds ydSy
ds ds
du dv
Since are the direction coefficients at any point on r = v(s),
Vds ds y
the given curve r = v(s) is an asymptotic line if and only if

L\ — + 2M M — | =0 ...(2)
ds J ds ds \ds j
dv dN
Using (2) in (1), we obtain = 0 as a necessary and sufficient condition
ds ds
for the curve r = v(s) to be an asymptotic line on a surface.
Corollary. The straight lines on a surface are asymptotic lines.
Proof. Let P be any point on the straight line with position vector r = v(s) on
the surface r = r(w, v). If N is the surface normal and t is the unit tangent at P,...(1)
we
haveNt = 0
Differentiating (1) with respect to s, we obtain
dN dt
—-t + N.—=0 ...(2)
ds ds

o. dt „NU dN 4 XT , , n
Since — = fen, (2) becomes 1 + N-(wi) = 0 ...(3)
ds ds
Since the curve is a straight line K= 0 so that (3) becomes
dN „ dN dr A
t = 0or =0
ds ds ds
Hence by the theorem, the straight line r = v{s) is an asymptotic line on the
surface.
Since the straight lines on a surface are asymptotic lines, the question naturally
arises about curved asymptotic lines on a surface. In this connection, we have the
following theorem.
Theorem 4. A necessary and sufficient condition that a curve on a surface
be an asymptotic line is that the tangent plane at a point of the surface coincides
with the osculating plane of the curve.
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 311

Proof. Let r = r(s) be a curved asymptotic line which is not a straight line on
a surface. If N is the surface normal and t is the unit tangent to the curve atP on the
surface, we have the condition N • t = 0 ...(1)

Differentiating (1) with respect to s, and using — = fen, we have

ds
dN dN dr
1 + N • ( m ) = 0 which gives +ft(N• n) = 0 ...(2)
ds ds ds
Since r = r(s) is an asymptotic line on the surface, we have by Thoerem 3,
dN dr
— •—=0 ...(3)
ds ds
Using (3) in (2) we obtain N-n = 0 a s * : * 0 ...(4)
Equation (1) and (4) show that N is perpendicular to t and n so that N is
parallel to t x n which is b so that N = ± b which shows that the tangent plane at P
to the surface coincides with the osculating plane at P to the curve r = r(s) on the
surface.
To prove the converse, let the osculating plane at every point P of a curve on a
surface coincides with the tangent plane to the surface at P so that N = ± b.
Since N = ± b, taking dot product with n on both sides we get
N-n = (±b)-n = 0 ...(5)

We have from (2) — • — + K:(N- n) = 0 ...(6)

ds ds

Using (5) in (6), we obtain = 0 which proves that r = r(s) is an

ds ds
asymptotic line on the surface.
Example 6. Find the asymptotic lines on the catenoid of revolution
u = c coshl -

Let us first find the representation of the catenoid. Since u represents the
distance from the z-axis of rotation.

u = ^]x2+y2 =ccosh - .

Hence the parametric representation of the catenoid is

x = u cos v, y = u sin v, z = c cos/T 1 — so that

r = | u cos v, u sin v, c cosh \ —

312 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Since the equation of the asymptotic lines are given by

Ldu2 + 2Mdudv + Ndv2 = 0 ...(1)
We shall find LyM,N
( \
*i = cos v, sin v, , r 2 = (- u sin v, u cos v, 0)
2
yjU c2
v
( . A
r.xr,= -wccosv -wcsinv
VT^'V^v ,w/
-cu
rn = l
°'°'(u2-c2f2) , r22 = (- u cos v, - u sin v, 0)
r
12 = r 21 = (" s*n v» c o s v» 0)

CM
Now Lflr = r 1 1 .(r 1 xr 2 ) = — 2 3 ...(2)
(w - c )
...(3)
Mi/ = r 1 2 -( r i xr 2 ) = 0
•••(4)
WJ/ = rjj-fr! x r2) = 2 ^ 2 }i/2

Using (2), (3) and (4) in (1), the equation of the asymptotic lines is
cu.2 2 CM2 rfv2 . , . , .
<& + —, =—775- = 0 which gives
(«2-c2)3'2
(u2-c2)1'2 6

du
v^. = ±dv ••(5)

Since z = ccosh — \,dz = rdu ...(6)

V^7".
Using (6) in (5), we obtain dz = ± cdv
Integrating the last equation, we get z = ± cv + a where a is a constant.
Choosing a = 0, the assymptotic lines on the catenoid are z = ± cv.
Example 7. Show that the parametric curves on the surface
r(w, v) = (u cos v, u sin v, cv) are asymptotic lines.
To prove the parametric curves as asymptotic lines, it is enough if we prove
L = 0,W = 0 a n d M * 0 .
Hence we shall find L, M and N.
 The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 313

1-j = (cos v, sin v, 0), r 2 = (- u sin v, u cos v, 1)

1-j x r 2 (sin v, - cos v, w), H2 = (1 + u2)
r n = (0, 0, 0), r12 = (- sin v, cos v, 0), r22 = (- u cos v, - u sin v, 0)
HL = ru-O-! x r 2 ) = 0, HN = r22-(r1 x r2) = 0
HM = r12- ( rx x r 2 ) = - sin2v - cos2v = - 1

Hence M = — , * 0 so that the parametric curves are asymptotic lines.

Vd+«2)
Example 8. Show that if the asymptotic lines passing through a point on a
surface are orthogonal, then the Dupin indicatrix at that point is a rectangular
hyperbola.
The directions of the asymptotic line passing through a point P(u, v) on the
surface is given by
Ldu2 + IMdudv + Ndv2 = 0 ...(1)
We know that the condition of orthogonality of the above two directions given
by (1) is
EN-2FM + GL = 0 ...(2)
From (5) of Theorem 1 of 4.4, the sum of the principal curvatures is
EN+GL-2FM
Ka+Kb= " -(3)

Using (2) in (3), we get Ka + Kb = 0 which shows that the indicatrix is a rectangular
hyperbola.

4.7 DEVELOPABLE SURFACES

In the plane, we find envelope of straight lines. For example the envelope of the
normals to a curve leads to the evolute in the plane. The extension of the notion of
envelope of straight lines to envelope of planes in space leads to what are called
developable surfaces. When we specialise to different planes such as osculating
plane at a point on a space curve, we get different developable surfaces.
Definition 1. The envelope of one-parameter family of planes is called a
developable surface or a developable.
First let us introduce characteristic lines needed for the study of developable
surfaces.
Let us consider the plane r • a = p where a is a vector normal to the plane and p
is the perpendicular distance from the origin to the plane. We take a and p to be
function of a single parameter u and r is independent of u. We call the plane with
parameter u by plane u. Let us take
f(u) = T'a(u)-p(u)
where j{u) = 0 is the plane u. If two planes u and v are not parallel, the two planes
f(u) = 0 and/(v) = 0 will intersect along a line.
314 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Definition 2. The line of intersection of the two consecutive planes is called

the characteristic line.
Theorem 1. The characteristic line corresponding to the plane u are given by
the intersection of the planes
r a =/?andr-a = p
Proof. If the plane u and the plane v are two neighbouring planes, the line of
intersection of the two planes is given by f(u) = 0 and/(v) = 0.
Hence by Rolle's theorem, there exists a ux between u and v such that
f(ux) = 0. In the limiting case when v —> u and ux ^-> w, we obtain the equation of
the characteristic line as/(w) = 0 and f{u) = 0 which is equivalent to
r-a = / ? a n d r a = p
Note 1. The characteristic line as defined above is also known as the
characteristic of the plane u. The characteristic line can also be regarded as the line
of intersection of the plane u with an infinitesimally near plane.
Since the envelope of the one-parameter family of planes is formed by the
characteristic lines, a developable is a surface generated by the characteristic lines.
Since a developable is generated by the characteristic lines, the characteristic lines
are called the generators of the developable. As each plane of the family touches
the envelope along the characteristic, we see that the tangent plane to the
developable surface is the same at all points of a generator.
Definition 3. When the planes/(w) = 0,/(v) and/(w) = 0 intersect at a point,
the limiting position of the point of intersection of the three planes as v —> u and
w -> u is called the characteristic point corresponding to the plane u.
When v —> u and w —> «, it gives rise to two characterstc lines. So when
v, w -> M, these two characteristic lines will pass through the characteristic point so
that the charactersitc point can be defined as the ultimate point of intersection of
the two consecutive characterisitc lines.
Theorem 2. The characterisitic point of the plane u is determined by the
equations
r a =/?, r i = p and r-a = p ...(1)
Proof. Let «, v, w be three neighbouring points such that f(u) = 0,/(v) = 0,

Hence by Rolle's theorem there exist points ul9 u2 such that

u < ux < v, v < u2 < w for which
/( W l ) = 0 a n d / ( « 2 ) = 0 :
Using Rolle's theorem again, there is a point w3 such that ux < u3 < u2 for which
/("3) = 0
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 315

Hence when u{i u2, u3 all tend to w, we get

/(") = 0,/(u) = 0,/( W ) = 0
or equivalently we get
r a = p , r a = p andr-tf = p
Note. In some of the cases, it may happen that [a a, a ] = 0. Then the vectors,
a, a and a are linearly dependent. Hence the above equations have no solutions or
the solutions are indeterminate. The position vector r of the characteristic point is
the solution of the equations (1). Hence it is important to note that the solution r is
a function of u.
Example 1. Let us consider a cylinder with its generators parallel to a. Then it
has a constant tangent plane along a generator. Since the tangent plane along the
generator depends upon only one parameter a, a cylinder can be considered as a
developable surface as the envelope of the single parameter tangent planes along
the generators. Since a is a constant vector \a, a, a] = 0 so the equation (1) does
not have a solution. Therefore the characteristic point does not exist in this case.
Example 2. A cone is a devlopable surface enveloped by the constant tangent
planes along the generators of the cone. The generators of the cone are the
characteristic lines. Since all the planes through the generators pass through the
vertex of the cone, the vertex is the characteristic point of the surface.
Example 3. Let us consider a family of planes forming a pencil. Then since the
envelope of the planes is the axis, the developable is the axis of the pencil. Hence
the point of intersection of the characteristic lines are indeterminate.
Defnition 4. The locus of the characteristic points is called the edge of
regression of the developable.
From the definiton, the edge of regression is the locus of the intersection of the
consecutive characteristic lines of the developable and it is a curve lying on the
developable. Since the characteristic point does not exist in the case of a cylinder,
there is no edge of regression for the cylinder as a developable surface. As the
cone has only one characteristic point at the vertex, its edge of regression is the
vertex of the cone.
Next we study some important properties of the developable surfaces.
Theorem 3. The tangents to the edge of regression are the characteristic
lines of the developable.
Proof. Let the developable be the envelope of the one parameter family of
planes r a = p. Let r = r(s) be the position vector of any point P on the edge of
regression. Since P is on the edge of regression it is a characteristic point. Hence
by Theorem 2, it is given by the equations
ra=p ...(1)
rd = p ...(2)
and rd='p ...(3)
where the solution r is a function of u.
316 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Differentiating (1) with respect io w, we have

dr ds
a + ra = p
ds du
dr
Since — gives the tangent t to the edge of regression, using (2) in the above
ds
equation (ts)-a = 0 Since s * 0, we get (t-a) = 0 ...(4)
Differentiating (2) with respect to w, we get
(ts)-d +r-d = p
Using (3) in the above equation, we have (ts) • a = 0
Since s * 0, we have Va = 0 ...(5)
(4) and (5) show that the tangent t to the edge of regression is parallel to ax a.
Since the characteristic line lies in both the pianes (1) and (2), it is
perpendicular to both a and a and hence it is parallel toa x a. Since the tangent to
the edge of rgression and the characteristic line are parallel to the same
vector ax a and passes through r(w), the tangent to the edge of regression is the
characteristic line of the developable.
Theorem 4. The osculating plane at any point on the edge of regression is the
tangent plane to the developable at that point.
Proof. First note that the edge of regression is a curve on the developable
surface.
From the equation (4) of the previous theorem, t • a = 0 ... (1)
Differentiating (1) with respect to w, we get

(dt ds) . n
yds du)

Using (,5) of the previous theorem, we have (Kns)-a = 0

Since KS * 0, we get from the above step, n • a = 0 ...(2)
From (1) and (2) we see that a is perpendicular to both t and n. Hence a is
parallel to t x n = b, the binormal at P on the edge of regression. Thus the
osculating plane at P is identical with the corresponding plane of the parameter
family. But each plane of the family is a tangent plane to the developable surface so
that the osculating plane at any point on the edge of regression is the tangent plane
to the developable surface at P.
For further study of the developable surfaces, let us find the equations of the
developable surface.
Theorem 5. The position vector of any point P on a developable surface is
R(s,v) = r(s)+vt(s)
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 317

where r = r(s) is the equation of the edge of regresson and t is the unit tangent
vector along a generator through P.
Proof. Let the position vector of any point P on the edge of regression be
r = r(s). Then by Theorem 3, the tangent vector to the edge of regression is along
the generator through P of the developable surface. Let Q be a point with position
vector/? on this generator. Then Q lies on the developable surface so that

R = OP + OQ as in the Fig. 18

Fig. 18

-»
Let PQ = vt(.s) Hence we have R = r(s) + vt(^) where v, s are scalar
parameters. Thus the equation of the developable surface R(s, v) = r(s) + vt(^).
Theorem 6. The tangent plane is the same at all points of the generators of a
developable surface.
Proof. The position vector at any point of a developable surface is
R(j,v) = r(j) + vt(j) ...(1)
where r = r(s) is a point on the edge of regression and v, s are parameters. Let us
find the direction of the surface normal at a point P on the generator.
Differentiating (1) partially with respect to v and s, we get

ov os
where t, n belong to the edge of regression.
Hence HH = R{ x R2 = t x (t + VKH) = v*:(t x n) = vKb
so that HN = vKb. Thus the surface normal of the developable is parallel to
the binormal of the edge of regression. Let us take N = b. Since b is a function of s
318 Differential Geometry—A First Course

only, N is also a function of s only. Then N is independent of v so thatN is the same

at all points of the generator, proving that the tangent plane is the same at all points
of the generator.
Note. On account of the above property, the developable is also known as the
tangential developable.
Theorem 7. A developable consists of two sheets which are tangents to the
edge of regression along the sharp edge.
Proof. Let O be the point s = 0 on the edge of regression curve C and choose
the orthogonal triad at O as the rectangular coordinate axes 0(x> y, z). If R is the
position vector of the point P(x, y, z) on the developable with respect to 0, then we
have
R = jct + yn + zb ...(1)
The position vector of any point on the devlopable surface is
R(s,v) = r(s) + vt(5) ...(2)
Let us expand r(s) and t(s) of (2) in power series of s by Taylor series at the origin
O. Then we get
dr s2 d2v s
3
d3r „ . 4,
R = s— + T + + 0(r)
ds 2 ds2 3! ds3

+ V\t + S^ + L s 2^ + 0(A ...(3)

[ ds 2 ds J
Using Frenet-Serret formulae we simplify r(s) and t($) as follows.

s2 s3
r(s) = st + — t' + — (K'n + n'K) + 0(s4)
2 6
2 3
= st + — Kn + — (K'n + KTb - ^ t ) + 0(s4) ...(4)
2 6

vt = v j t + sKn + -s2{K'n + KTb - KH) + 0(s3)\ ...(5)

Using (4) and (5) in (3), we obtain

R(^, v) = st + -s2Kn + -s3[K/n + KTb - ^ t } + 0(s4)

2 6

+ vjt + SKU + -s2(K'n + KTb - K2t) + 0(s3)\ ...(6)

The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 319

Now equating the coefficients of t in (1) and (6), we have

x = s - -S3K? + 0(/) + v J1 - — K2 + 0(s3) ...(7)

Let us find the point of intersection of the developable with the normal plane
x = 0 at O. The value of the parameter of the point of intersection of the normal
plane with the surface is obtained from x = 0 in (7). Hence when x = 0, we have
from (7),

V = - S
3 2
S K +,
l-S~K2+,

= -U-I,V+. \l + ^K2+,

= -s--s3Kl + 0(s4)

Substituting the above value of v in (3), we get the position vector of the point
of intersection of the surface and the normal plane at O. Then we have

R(j, v) = st+ -S2KU + -s3{ x'n + KTb - K?t] + 0(s4)

2 6

+ \-S--S3K2 +0(s4) t + SKU + -s 2 (K:'n + KTb - K2t) ...(8)

2
Equating the coefficients of t, n, b in (1) and (8), we get,

x = 0, y = - -s2K+ 0(s3)y z= — KTS3 + 0{sA) ..(9)

2 3
which is a curve in the normal plane.
Eliminating s between the equation (9), we get

2 8 r 3
z =--—y ..(10)
9 K
upto first approximation.
Equation (10) shows that the intersection of the developable with the normal
plane of the edge of regression has a cusp whose tangent is along y = 0 and z = 0
which is the principal normal. Thus two sheets of the developable surface are thus
tangent to the edge of regression along a sharp edge.
Note. Since the two sheets of a surface meet along the tangent^ = 0, z = 0, the
surface itself can be obtained by unrollng it into a plane without stretching. On
account of this reason, the surface is called a developable surface.
320 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Example 4. Find the equation of the developable surface which has helix
r = (a cos w, a sin w, CU) for its edge of regression.
Since the developable surface is generated by the tangents to the edge of
regression, let us find the tangent vector to the edge of regression.
dr dr ds
Now — = = (- a sin u, a cos w, c)
du ds du
dr \ ds) o o ds r^> 7
Since — = t, we have — = {a1 + cl) so that — = J a + c
ds \du) du

Hence t= •(-a sin w, a cos w, c)

Ja^?
If R is the position vector of a point on the surface, then

v
R = r + vt = r + (-a sin «, a cos w, c)
Ja>7?
Substituting for r, we get the developable surface as

(
R(w,v) = COSM- •sin u
^a 2 + c 2

( \ (
vcosw
sin u + ,c u +
yja21 2
+cl I» !
+c!

Example 5. Find the edge of regression of the envelope of the family of planes x
sin 6 - y cos 6 + z = a0 where 6 is the parameter.
We apply Theorem 2 by taking the one parameter family as
f(0) = x sin 6-y cos 9-aO + z = 0 .(1)
Now /'(0) = x cos 0 + y sin 9 - a = 0 .(2)
f"(9)=-xsix\9 + ycos9=0 .(3)
From equations (2) and (3), x = a cos 9, y• = a sin 9 .(4)
Using these values in (1), we get z = a9 .(5)
Equations (4) and (5) give the edge of regression. Eliminating 9, we get the

edge of regression as JC2 + y2 = a2, z = a tan"1 —

The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 321

4.8 DEVELOPABLES ASSOCIATED WITH SPACE

CURVES
At each point of a space curve, we have three planes viz. osculating plane, normal
plane and rectifying plane. All the three planes contain only the arc-length s as
parameter so that they are one parameter family of planes. So as in the previous
section, we can find the envelopes of these single parameter family of planes.
These lead to the three kinds of developable surfaces viz.; (1) the osculating
developable (ii) the polar developable (iii) the rectifying developable. In each case
wefindthe edge of regression of developables and finally, we obtain a criterian for
a surface to be a developable surface.
Definition 1. The envelope of the family of osculating planes of a space
curve is called an osculating developable. Its characteristic lines are tangents to the
curve and hence this developable is also called the tangential developable.
Theorem 1. The space curve is itself the edge of regression of the osculating
developable.
Proof. Let r = r(.s) be the equation of the space curve and R be the position
vector of any point on the osculating plane. Then the equation of the osculating
plane is
/W = (R-r)-b = 0 ...(1)
Since r and b are functions of s, (1) is a single parameter family of planes. To find
the equation of the osculating developable, let us differentiate (1) with respect tos,
then
/,W = (R-r).b,-r,-b = 0
Using Serret-Frenet formula, we get
(R-r)-(-Tn)-t-b = 0
Since t • b = 0 and T * 0, we get (R - r) • n = 0 ...(2)
which is the rectifying plane at r = r(.s) of the curve.
Since the characteristic line is the intersection of (1) and (2), it is the tangent to
C at r = r(s). Thus the characteristic lines to the osculating developables are
tangents to C
Tofindthe edge of regression, let us differentiate (2) with respect to s. Then
( R - r ) - n , - r , - n = Ogiving(R-r)-(Tb-K:t)-t-n = 0
Since K* 0 and t • n = 0, using (1) in the last equation, we get
(R-r)t = 0 ...(3)
which is the normal plane at r = r(.s) to C.
The point of intersection of (1), (2) and (3) is the characteristic point and its
locus is the edge of regression. Since (1), (2) and (3) intersect at r = r(s-) on the
curve, every point r = r(s) of the curve is the characteristic point so that the
characteristic points coincide with every point on the curve. Hence the edge of
regression is the given curve.
322 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Remark. The conclusion of the theorem can also be had in the following
manner also. Since (1), (2) and (3) are true, (R - r) is perpendicular to the three
non-coplanar vectors, t, n, b and this is possible if and only if R - r = 0 so that
R = r. In otherwords the edge of regression coincides with the given curve.
Note. From the theorem, we conclude that any developable surface may be
considered as the osculating developable of its edge of regression. Since the
osculating developables are generated by the tangents to the curve, they can be
considered as tangential developables. Hence if r(s) is a point on the edge of
regression, then the position vector on the developable surface is
R(s, v) = r(s) + vt(s)
Defintion 2. The envelope of the normal planes to the space curve is called
the polar developable.
Theorem 2. The edge of regression of the polar developable of a space curve
is the locus of the centres of spherical curvature.
Proof. Let r = r(s) be the given space curve and R be any point on the normal
plane. Then the equation of the normal plane is
(R-r).t = 0 ...(1)
Since r and t are functions of a single parameter s, (1) is a single parameter
family of planes whose envelope is the polar developable. To find the edge of
regression, we shall find the characteristic point from the following equations.
Differentiating (1) with respect tos, we have
(R-r)t'-r'-t = 0
Since t' = K"n, r' = t and t-1 = 1, we have

(R - r)- Kii - 1 = 0 so that (R - r) n = - = p ...(2)

K
Differentiating (2) with respect to s, we get
( R - r ) - n ' - r ' - n = p'
Since n' = r b - Kt and r' = t, we have
( R - r ) - ( T b - K t ) - t - n = p'
Using (1) and (t-n) = 0, we obtain

(R-r).b = £-=p'(7 ...(3)

T
The point of intersection of (1), (2) and (3) is the characteristic point and its
locus is the edge of regression of the polar developable.
Since (R - r) is orthogonal to t, (R - r) lies in the plane of n and b so that we
can take
R - r = An + jib or R = r + An + jib ...(4)
where we determine the scalars X and ji.
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 323

Taking dot product with n on both sides of (4), we get

(R-r)-n = A ...(5)
Comparing (2) and (5), we obtain X = p
Taking dot product with b on both sides of (4),
( R - r ) b = An b + jub b
Since n • b = 0, b • b = 1, using equation (3), we have ji = op'
Substituting the values of A and ji in (4), we get
R = r + pn + op'b ...(6)
which gives the position vector of the characteristic point but we know that R gives
the position vector of the centre of spherical curvature. Thus the characteristic
point of the polar developable coincides with the centre of spherical curvature.
Hence the edge of regression of the polar developable is the locus of the centres of
spherical curvature.
Definition 3. The envelope of the family of the rectifying planes of a space
curve is called rectifying developable.
Theorem 3. The edge of regression of the rectifying developable has the
equation

R = r+,C(Tt + rb)
K'T - K T '

Proof. Let r = r(^) be the given space curve and R be any point on the
rectifying plane. The equation of the rectifying plane is
(R-r).n = 0 ...(1)
Since r and n are functions of s, (1) is a single parameter family of planes
whose envelope is the rectifying developable. We shallfindthe edge of regression
from the following equation
Differentiating (1), we obtain
(R-r)n'-r'n =0
Since n' = rb - Kt, r' = t and t • n = 0, we get
(R-r)-(Tb-Kt) = 0 ...(2)
Differentiating (2) with respect tos, we get
( R - r)- [rb' + tb - Kt'- KO\ - r'-Crb - Kt) = 0
Since b' = - rn, t' = Kt, and r' = t, we get
( R - r)-[- ^n + ifb - ^n - xft] - t-(rb - xt) = 0
Since t b = 0, t t = 1, using (1), we get from the above equation,
( R - r ) [ r , b - K - , t ] + K' = 0 ...(3)
324 Differential Geometry—A First Course

The edge of regression is the point intersection of (1), (2) and (3). From (1) and
(2), (R - r) is perpendicular to n and rb - Kt So (R - r) is parallel to
n x ( r b - Kt) = Tt+ Kb
Hence we can take (R - r) = X (rt + Kb) ...(4)
where A is a scalar to be determined.
Since t t = l , b b = l , t b = 0, using (3) in the above equation.
K
- K= X (- TK? + Kt) SO that X =
K'X - X'K

K
Using this value of A in (4), (R - r) = — (r t + Kb) which gives the edge of
K'X -T'K
regression.
Note. The characteristic line of the rectifying developable is the intersection
of the planes.
( R - r ) - n = Oand(R-r)-(Tb-KTt) = 0
Both the planes pass through r and the line of intersection of these two planes is
perpendicular to n and (rb - Kt). Thus the characteristic line passes through r and
parallel to n x (xb - Kt) = rt + Kb. Hence the equation of the rectifying
developable can also be taken as
R = r(s) + u(rt + Kb)
where $, u are the parameters of the developable surface. When u = 0, we get
R(s, u) = r(s) showing that the curve is on the rectifying developable.
As the given curve is the edge of regression of the osculating developable, the
following theorem gives the nature of the given curve on the rectifying
developable.
Theorem 4. Every space curve is a geodesic on its rectifying developable.
Proof. The position vector R on the rectifying developable of the given
curve r = r(^) is R = r(s) + w(Tt + Kb) ...(1)
where u and s are parameters of the surface. Let us find the surface normal N to the
surface.

From (1), Rl = —- = rt+Kb

ou
and R2 = t + u [ft + rt' + x!b + Kb']
= t + u [ft + rxn + K?b - Km]
= t(l + iu) + {wdb)
Hence R{ x R2 = (it + Kb) x [t (1 + Yu) + uxfb]
= K(1 + T'iOn-XMK'n
u = 0 on the curve r = r(.s) so that R! x R2 = KH ...(2)
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 325

Since R{ x R2 = //N, we get from (2), //N = Kn. Hence at each point of the
curve, the vectors N and n are parallel so that (1) is a geodesic on the surface which
is the rectifying developable in this case.
Note. From the discussion we had so far, we conclude that any developable
which is not a cylinder or a cone is the osculating developable of its edge of
regression.
Using Gaussian curvature, we characterise a developable surface in the
following theorem.
Theorem 5. A necessary and sufficient condition for a surface to be a
developable is that its Gaussian curvature shall be zero.
Proof. To prove the necessity of the condition, let us assume that the surface
is a developable and show that its Gaussian curvature is zero.
If the developable is a cylinder or a cone, the Gaussan curvature is zero, since
at each point on the cone or cylinder one of the principal directions is the
generating straight line whose curvature is zero. Hence excluding these two cases
of developables, we are left with developables in general. Since a developable can
be considered as the osculating developable of its edge of regression, it is
generated by the tangents to the edge of regression.
Let r = r(s) be the equation of the edge of regression on the developable. If P is
any point on this curve, then the tangent at P is the characteristic line of the
developable. Since the characteristic lines generate the developable surface, any
point Q with the position vector R on the tangent is a point on the developable
surface so that it can be taken as
R ( j , v ) = r(j) + vt(j) ...(1)
For this surface, let us find E, Fy G, L, M and N and show that its Gaussian
„ LN-M2 „
curvature K= =- = 0
EG-F2
Using the suffixes 1 and 2 for differentiation with respect to s and v
respectively,
_ dR dv dt 4 _ dR ., ,
R1 = — = — + v— = t + v*:n, R2 = — = t(s)
os ds ds ov
R n = — +vK/n + vK,n/ = Kn + VK'IH- vK(rb- Kt)
ds
=
Rj2 R21 = K^> *^22 = ^
E = l + v V , F = (t + vwh)-t=l,G = t - t = l , / / 2 = £:G--F 2 = v2x2
^T R, x R 2 vKb
N=— = =-b
H VK
L = N-R 11 =-ft-[K*n + vK/n + vK , (Tb- Kt)] = -VKT
M = N./? 12 = -b-(K-n)=0,Ar = - b . 0 = 0
326 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Hence using the above values, the Gaussian curvature

K=LN~Ml=02
EG-F
and this proves the necessity of the condition.
To prove the converse, let us assume that K = 0 for a surface r = r(w, v) and
show that it is a developable surface. To this end, we have to show that r = r(w, v)
is generated by a single parameter family of planes.
Since L = - rx • Nlf M = - rx- N2 = - N t • r2, N = - r 2 N2
2
LN-M = (ly NO (r2. N2) - (ly N2) (r2- Nx)'
= .(r 1 xr 2 ).(N 1 xN 2 )
Since rx x r 2 = #N, we have LN - M2 = HN • (Nj x N2) = J/[N, Nh N2]
As H * 0, K = 0 implies LN-M2 = 0so that [N, Nlf N2] = 0
Since N N = 1, we have N-Nj = 0 and N N 2 = 0
So N is perpendicular to both Nx and N2. Hence N is parallel to Nj x N2. Thus
[N, Nj, N2] = N- (Nj x N2) cannot be zero unless Nx = 0 or N2 = 0 or Nj is parallel
to N2. So [N, N lf N2] = 0 under the given condition implies the following two
cases.
0 ) 1 ^ = 0 or N2 = 0 0 0 ^ = ^ 2 .
Case (i) Let us consider N2 = 0 only, since a similar argument is true for
N 1 = 0.
The equation of the tangent plane at r = r(w, v) on the surface is
(R-r)-N = 0 ...(2)
where R is the position vector of any point on the tangent plane and R is
independent of w, v. Differentiating (2) partially with respect to v, we have

^-[(R-r>N] = -r2-N + (R-r).N2 ...(3)

ov
Now N2 = 0 and since r 2 is tangential to the surface, r 2 • N = 0. Hence equation

(3) gives — [(R - r) • N] = 0 so that (R - r) • N is independent of v. Thus the

ov
equation of the tangent plane contain only one parameters. Thus the surface is the
envelope of a single parameter family of planes and hence it is a developable.
Case (ii) In this case, when Nx = juN2, let us consider a suitable change of
parameters from w, v to u\ vr so that we can use the previous case. Let the
transformation be
u =u'+ v7and v = u'-jiv'
This is a proper parametric transformation which preserves surface normal N.
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 327

Now N i ^ - r — = — • — + — •—- = N1 + N 2 * 0
aw dw ou' ov oil'

XT/ 9N 9N 9w 9N 3v XT
N2 =— = + = Nj - /xN2
9v' du 9v' 9v 9v'
After the transformation N / and N 2 ' are not parallel as seen from the above
equations. Since N 2 ' = 0, as in the previous case, the tangent plane at P is a single
parameter family of planes so that the given surface is a developable surface.
Example 1. Find the osculating developable of the circular helix
r = (a cos w, a sin w, cu) ...(1)
Since the edge of regression of the osculating developable is the curve itself,
the given helix itself is the edge of regression. Hence we have to find the
developable surface having (1) as the edge of regression which is the same as
Example 4 of 4.7.
Example 2. Find the radii of principal curvature at a point of a tangential
developable surface.
Let the equation of the tangential developable be
R(j,v) = r(j) + vt(j) ...(1)
As in Theorem 5, we can find
E= 1 + v V , G = l , F = l , L = -vJCT,A# = 0,W = 0 > andff = VJC ..,(2)
where K; r belong to the edge of regression.
The equation giving the principal curvatures is
H2Kn2- (EN-2FM + GL)Kn + LN-M2 = 0 ...(3)
Using (2) in (3), we get
V2}?K2 + KnVKT= 0 Or VKKn[vKKn + T] = 0

Hence the principal curvatures are Ka = 0,Kb =

VK
Example 3. When the polar developable is a cone, prove that the curve lies on a
sphere.
According to Theorem 2, the position vector of a point on the polar
developable is
R = r + pn + op , b ...(1)
where r is a point on the curve. Hence
R - r = p n + crp/b ...(2)
is a point on the cone where the normal plane touches it. Since this point is on the
cone where the normal plane touches it, we can take the position vector R - r aspn
+ qb so that R - r = pn + qb where p and q are constants ...(3)
328 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Hence we have from (2) and (3),

pn + qb = pn + op'b ...(4)
Taking dot product with n on both sides of (4), p = p
In a similar manner, dot product with b on both sides, q = ap\
From (3), (R - r)2 = p2 + q2 = p2 + o*p'2 = (p2 + p ' V ) which is a constant so
that the curve lies on a sphere.
Example 4. When the envelope of the rectifying plane of a curve is a cone, the
T
curve satisfies the equation — = as + b where a and b are constants. Can the
K
envelope of the osculating plane be a cone?
Since the edge of regression is a curve on the developable surface, the position
(Tt + Kb)
vector of any point on the rectifying developable is R = r + K where r
(K'T - KT')
(Tt + Kb) .
is a point on the given curve. Hence R - r = K — is a point on the cone
K'T - Kt'
where the rectifying plane touches it. Hence since this point lies on the rectifying
plane, its position vector can be taken as r = pt + gb. Hence we obtain
. (Tt + icb)
pt4 + qb=K —• -

Taking dot product with b on both sides, we get

*c2b-b %'K-K'T 1 , x ,. , .
q= or « = — = a (say) which gives
K'I-KX' K1 q

dsW)
T
Integrating the above equation, we get — = as + b which proves the result.
K
Any point on the osculating plane with respect to the point P on the curve is
r = pt + qn. Since the osculating plane touches the cone along the characteristic
line, it has the direction of the tangent to the curve. Hence pt + qn = At
Differentiating this equation with respect to 5, we have
dX dn , di
p— + q— = A—
ds ds ds
In other words pKn + q(rb - K't) = XKn.
Taking dot product with b on both sides, we obtain # T b b = 0. Since q * 0,
T= 0 showing that the curve is a plane curve. Hence the osculating developable
cannot be a cone.
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 329

4.9 DEVELOPABLES ASSOCIATED WITH CURVES

ON SURFACES
The following theorem of Monge characterises the lines of curvature on a surface
in terms of developables formed by surface normals along the curve. In the proof
we shall make use of Theorem 5 of 4.8 and the Rodriques' formula.
Theorem 1. A necessary and sufficient condition that a curve on a surface be
a line of curvature is that the surface normals along the curve form a developable.
Proof. Let r = r(s) be a curve lying on the surface r = r(w, v). Let N be the
unit surface normal at a point r = r(.s) on the curve so that N can be considered as
a function of s only. We shall prove the theorem in the following two steps.
Step 1. In this step, we prove that the normals to the surface r = r(w, v) along
the curve r = r(^) form a developable if and only if [t, N, N7] = 0.
If R is the position vector of any point Q on the surface normal along the curve,
then Ris a point on the developable generated by the normals and it can be taken as
R(.s, v) = r(^) + VN(J)
where v is the distance PQ along the surface normal at P. By Theorem 5 of 4.8, the
surface generated by the surface normals is a developable if and only if its
Gaussian curvature is zero at every point. This implies that LN - M 2 = 0 at every
point of the surface. Hence let us find L, M, N for the surface.
_ 3R dx dN A XT, _ -.„
Rj = — = — + v = t + vN , R n = Kii + vN
os ds ds

R2 = ^ = N , R 1 2 = R 2 1 =N 7 ,R 2 2 = 0
dv
Now L = / ? i r N = [K:n+vN"]-N*0
HM = [Rl2y Rl$ R2] = [N', t + vN7, N]
So we have HM = [N7, t, N] + v [N', N', N] ...(2)
7
Since N'is equal to NT, [N , N', N] = 0 ...(3)

As H * 0, using (3) in (2), M = — [N7, t, N] = — [t, N, N']

H H
Since R22 = 0 and H ± 0, HN = [R22> Ru R2] = 0 so that N = 0
As L * 0, and W = 0, LN - M 2 = 0 if and only if M = 0 which gives [t, N, N7] = 0
Step 2. To prove the theorem, it is enough if we show that [t, N, N7] = 0 is the
necessary and sufficient condition for r = r(^) to be a line of curvature on the
surface r = r(«, v).
To prove the necessity of the condition, let us assume that r = r(.s) is a line of
curvature on r = r(«, v). Then we have by Rodriques' formula
330 Differential Geometry—A First Course

dr dN . , . , . _T,
K— + = 0 which gives N = - Kt ...(4)
ds ds
Using (4), we have [t, N, N'] = [t, N, - Kt] = 0
Hence the surface normals along the curve r = r{s) form a developable surface.
Conversely assuming [t, N, N'] = 0, we show that r = r{s) is a line of curvature
on the surface.
Now [t, N, N'] = 0 implies [t, N', N] = 0 which is the same as (t x NO • N = 0.
Further N * 0 and N2 = 1 so that N • N' = 0 showing N' is perpendicular to N.
That is N' is in the tangent plane at P. Hence t x N' is parallel to N. So if t x N V 0,
(t x NO • N cannot be zero because two non-zero parallel vectors t x N' and N will
have scalar product different from zero. So we conclude that (t x NO • N = 0 implies
t x N' = 0 which is true if and only if one vector is a scalar multiple of the other. So
we can take N' = - Kt for some constant K.
dN dr
Now N' = - Kt gives = - K — or dN + Kdr = 0 which is the Rodriques'
ds ds
formula characterising the lines of curvature. Thus r = r(s) is a line of curvatrure
on the surface. This completes the proof of Monge's Theorem.
The following theorem gives the alternative interpretation of the conjugate
direction.
Theorem 2. Let C be a curve r = r(^) lying on the surface r = r(w, v) and P
be any point on C. Then the characteristic line at P of the tangential developable
of C is in the direction conjugate to the tangent to C at P.
Proof. If N is the surface normal at P, then the equation of the tangent at P
is
(fl-r)-N = 0 ...(1)
Differentiating (1) with respect to s and using t N = 0, we get
dN
( t f - r ) — =0 ...(2)
ds
Since N is a function of (w, V), we have
dN dN du dN dv _Y , XT ,
= + = Ntu'+ N 2 v' ...(3)
ds ou ds ov ds
where («', vO gives the direction of the tangent at P.
Using (3) in (2), we get
(i?-r).(N 1 « / + N2vO = 0 ...(4)
The characteristic line is the intersection of the planes (1) and (4). If (/, m) are
the direction coefficients of the characteristic line at r = r(.s), then
(R-r) = lrl + mr2 ...(5)
where i^ and r 2 are the tangential components of (R - r) at P.
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 331

Using (5) in (4), we have (lrl + m r 2 ) • (Njw' + N2v') = 0

Expanding the above equation
(Nj • rx)lu' + (N2- rxW + (Nj • v2)mu + (N2- r2)mv = 0
Hence Liu + M(lv + m\i) + Afmv' = 0 which is precisely the condition for the
direction (/, m) to be conjugate to the direction (u\ v') which is the direction of the
tangent at P.
Note 1. The conclusion of theorem roughly means that the line of
intersection of two tangent planes at consecutive points in a direction on a surface
has the conjugate direction.
Note 2. We shall illustrate the theorem using parallels and meridians on a
sphere.
We have already proved in Example 3 of 4.6 that the parallels are in a direction
conjugate to the meridians and meridians have conjugate direction along the
parallels. That is parallels and meridians form a conjugate net on a sphere.
The planes tangent along the parallels envelope a cone whose characteristic
lines are tangent to the meridians and the cone is the tangential developable. The
curve C of the theorem is the parallel. Hence the characteristic line is along a
direction which is conjugate to the tangent to C at P. In a similar manner, the
tangential developable along the meridians envelopes a cylinder whose
characterisitc lines are tangents to parallels so that the characteristic lines are
along a direction conjugate to the tangents to the meridians.

4.10 MINIMAL SURFACES

We have seen in the previous section that the developable surfaces are the
surfaces at every point of which the Gaussian curvature is zero. Besides Gaussian
curvature, we have mean curvature which is the average of two curvatures. So it
is worthwhile to find surfaces for which the mean curvature is zero. This leads to
the definition of minimal surfaces.

Definition. If the mean curvature \x = — (K(I + Kh) is zero at all points of a

surface, then the surface is called a minimal surface.
From Definition 2 of 4.4, we have
1 /f f x EN + GL-2FM
u = - (ka + kb) = =
^ 2V" h)
2(EG-F2)
Since EG -F2^0, the condition for a minimal surface becomes
EN + GL- 2FM = 0.
Note, When the parametric curves are orthogonal, the above condition
reduces to EN + GL = 0.
Example 1. Show that the surface e*^xos x = cos y is minimal.
First let us find the representation of the curve
332 Differential Geometry—A First Course

7 cosy so that z = log cos y - log cos x.

ez = -
cos*
Treating x and y as parameters, any point on the curve has the position vector
r = (x, y, log cos y - log cos x)
Let us find Ey F, G and L, M\ N and check the condition for the surface to be a
minimal surface.

rx = — = (1, 0, tan *), r 2 = — = (0, 1, - tan y)

ox oy

r n = — T = (0, 0, sec2*), r 12 = (0, 0, 0), r22 = (0, 0, - sec2y)

E = rx - rt = 1 + tan2* = sec2*, F = iy r 2 = -tan x tan y

G = r2- r 2 = (1 + tan2y) = sec2y and we have
r x r
i 2 = (~ t a n x > t a n y> 0
HL = r n - (rx x r2) = sec2*, HM = r12- (rj x r2) = 0
//A^ = r22- (rx x r2) = - sec2y

i . r sec 2 * Bir . mT sec 2 y

Hence we obtain L = , M = 0iN =
H H
Using these values of E, F, G and L, M, A^, we find
2 2 2 2
-sec * sec v sec vsec x
y y
EN-2FM + GL = -+0+ .
// //
which shows that the given surface is a minimal surface.
Example 2. Prove that the asymptotic lines are orthogonal if and only if the
surface is minimal.
The directions of the asymptotic lines are given by
Ldu2 + 2Mdudv + Ndv2 = 0
The two asymptotic directions given by the above equation are orthogonal if
and only E N - 2FM + GL = 0 which is precisely the condition for a surface to be
a minimal surface. Hence the surface for which the asymptotic directions are
orthogonal is a minimal surface.
Example 3. Show that (i) the asymptotic lines on a minimal surface form on
isothermal net (ii) the lines of curvature also form an isothermal net on a miminal
surface.
Let us choose the isotropic curves on the surface to be parametric curves,
we obtain
ds2 = X(u, v)dudv ...(1)
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 333

Since the given surface is minimal, M = 0, since E = 0, and G = 0

So the asymptotic directions are given by
Ldu2 + Ndv2 = 0 ...(2)
We prove that the asymptotic lines form an isothermal system. Since the
isotropic curves are parametric curves, equation (2) assumes the form
fdu2 + gdv2 = 0,/=/( W , v), g = g(u, v).

Now fdu2 + gdv2 = (Jfdu + ij£dv) (yffdu - iyfedv) ...(3)

Let us consider the parametric transformation given by

dux = (Jfdu + ijjjdv), idvx = (Jfdu - iyfedv) ...(4)

Now du2 + dv2 = 4iy[Jgdudv

Using (1) in the above equation, we obtain

J 2 J 2 ^yffgds2
dux + dvx =— so that we get
A(W, V)
2( \
ds2 = ^ = (du{2 + dv,2) = ii(ux, v{) [du2 + dv2] which proves that
*Hfg
the asymptotic lines on a minimal surface form an isothermic system.
(ii) Since M = 0, the condition of orthogonality becomes
P —C
EN + GL = 0 so that — = = k (say)
L N
Then (2) becomes
Edu2-Gdv2 =0 ...(5)
which are the bisectors of asymptotic directions. So (5) gives the equation of the
lines of curvature on the surface.
Choosing the isotropic curves as parametric curves on the surface, (5) takes
the form
edu2 - gdv2 = 0,e = e(u, v) g = g(u, v) ...(6)
Now let us consider the following parametric transformation

du2 = (yfedu + -yfgdv), idv2 = (yfedu - yfgdv)

Then du22 + dv22 = A^dudv = -^-ds2 by (1)

A(w, u)

so that ds2 = ^fi [du2 + dv2}

4y]eg
Using the transformation, we can rewrite the above as
ds2 = n(uu vx)[du2 + dv2] which proves that the lines of curvature on a minimal
surface form an isothermic system.
334 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Note. In the above illustration, we assume the forms of the equation of the
asymptotic lines and lines of curvature with respect to the isotropic curves as
parametric curves.
As the minimal surface is the geodesic analogue for surfaces, it is but natural to
expect that the area of the minimal surface should be a minimum as the geodesies
are curves of shortest distance. It actually happens when the surface passes through
a closed curve as shown by the following theorem.
Theorem. If there is a surface of minimum area passing through a closed
curve, then it is necessarily a minimal surface in the sense that it is of zero mean
curvature.
Proof. Let r = r(w, v) be a surface bounded by a closed curve C Let S' be
another surface obtained from S by a small displacement e in the direction of N

where £ is a function of w, v. Further we take — = ex and — = e^ are small and

ou dv
satisfies the condition ex = 0(e) and % = 0(e) as e -> 0.
Since S' is obtained after a small displacement along the normal to S, the
position vector of any point on S' is given by
R(w, v) = r(w, v) + eN ...(1)
where r, e and N are functions of u and v.
If A is the area of the surface 5, we prove the theorem from the first variation
SA which we find as follows. Let E*> F*, G* denote the first fundamental
coefficients of 5' we find
A* = f H* du dv where H*2 = F*G* - F* 2
s
Differentiating (1) partially with respect to u and v, we have
Rj = r 1 + e1N + sN,
R 2 = r 2 + e>N + eN2
F* = R, Rj = (rt + e,N + e N , ) - ^ + ^ N + eNx)
= i y 1-j + 2£jiyN + 2CIVN! + 0(i)
Since i y N = 0 and L = - rx • N lf we get
E*=E-2eL + 0(e2)
F* = R r R 2 = (r, + e,N + eN^-fo + ^ N + eN2)
= r r r 2 + &Fv N + e r r N 2 + e i N * r 2 + e N r ri+ 0(£?)
Since iyN = r 2 N = 0, M = - iyN 2 = - r 2 N , we have
F*=F-2eM+0(^)
G* = R 2 R2 = (r 2 + ^ N + eN2) • (r 2 + ^ N + eN2)
= G2-2eN + 0((?)
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 335

Now H*=E*G*-F*2
= {E- 2eL + 0(t?)} {G - 2eN + 0{i)) -[F- 2eM + CKe2)}2
= EG-F2- 2e{EN - 2FM + GL}+ 0(i)

= H2_4eH2iEN-2FM_±GL[+ ^
2
2H

EN-2FM + GL . L
Since u=— ~ is the mean curvature.
^ 2H2
#* 2 = H2 - 4/ieH2 + 0(t?) which gives
//* = H[\ - 4e/x + OCe2)]172 = H[\ - leji] + 0(£)
Let A and A* denote the area of the surfaces S and 5*.
Then we know that A = Hdudv
s

Now A* = JH*dudv = \ (H - 2e/iH)dudv + 0(e 2 )

= f Hdudv - J 2e\xHdudv + 0(e2)

s

= A - f 2ejj,Hdudv + 0(e2) so that

A* - A = - J2efiHdudv + 0(e2) ...(2)

Let A* - A = 8A and also we have dA = Hdudv

Hence neglecting terms containing e2, equation (2) becomes

<5A = -\2endA whene-»0

5

From the above we conclude that 8A is the first variation of the area enclosed
by the fixed curve C. The first variation 8A vanishes for all e > 0 if and only if
ji = 0. That is the mean curvature vanishes so that the surface is a minimial surface.

4.11 RULED SURFACES

As we have already noted, the developable surfaces are generated by the
characteristic lines which are straight lines, being the intersection of two
consecutive tangent planes. So it is natural to find general surfaces generated by
the motion of straight lines which coincide with developable surfaces as particular
cases. This has motivated us to study the surfaces generated by straight lines
called ruled surfaces.
336 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Definition 1. A surface generated by the motion of a straight line with one

degree of freedom is called a ruled surface. The various positions of the straight
lines of the family are called generators or rulings.
Note. As stated in the previous paragraph, developable surfaces are special
classes of ruled surfaces. An example of a ruled surface which is not a developable
surface is a hyperboloid of revolution because the tangent plane varies from point
to point along the same generating line of a hyperboloid which cannot happen in
the case of a developable surface. This property will explained at length later. The
ruled surfaces which are not developables are called skew surfaces or scrolls.
Definition 2, Any curve C on a ruled surface with the property that it meets
each generator precisely only once is called a base curve or directrix.
From the definition of base curve, we see that a base curve is not unique, since
any curve on the surface cutting the generator only once can be chosen as a base
curve.
Combining definitions 1 and 2, we conclude that a ruled surface is determined
by any base curve and the direction of the generators at each point where it meets
the curve. To study the properties of ruled surfaces, let us first obtain the position
vector of any point on the ruled surface.
Equation of a ruled surface. Let r = r(w) be the position vector of a point P
on the base curve of a ruled surface. Letg(w) be the unit vector along the generator
at P. Let R be the position vector of any point Q on the surface. Since the generator
passes through Q, we have
R = r(W) + vg(w) ...(1)
where v is the distance of Q from P in the direction of g. (1) gives the equation of
a ruled surface with w, v as parameters.
From (1), we conclude that v = 0 gives the equation of the base curve and as v
varies, u = constant gives different points of a generator. Hence the parametric
curves u = constant are generators.
Theorem 1. For a ruled surface
R(w, v) = r(w) + vg(w)
where r = r(w) is a point on the base curve and g(w) is a unit vector along the
generator, the Gaussian curvature

v [r, g, g] 2
=
* —JF~
LN - M2 w e n
Proof. Since K = ^ » ^ ^ ^ M, N and H of the surface.

n dR dr dg
Rx = —- = — + v —- = r + vg
du du du
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 337

R2 = -5-=g(«0
dv
£ = R r R 1 = (r + vg)-(r + vg) = r 2 + 2vr-g + v 2 g 2

F = R! • R2 = (r + vg) • g = r • g, since g • g = 0

G = R2- R2 = g g = 1, as g is a unit vector.

H2=EG-F2 = (r2 + 2vr-g + v 2 g 2 ) - ( r - g ) 2

The unit normal N is given by
/W = R 1 xR 2 = (r + vg)xg ...(1)

Rn = f + vg,R12=g,R22 = 0

HL = [R n , R„ R2] = [f + vg, r + vg, g]

= [r, r, g] + [g, r, g]v + [r, g, g]v + [g, g, g]v2

//M = [R 12 ,R 1 ,R 2 ] = [g,r + vg,g]

= [g,r,g] + [g,g,g]v = [r,g,g]

. HN = [R 22 ,R 1 ,R 2 ] = 0, since R22 = 0
Hence using the formula for K, we have

x = _MJ=-[r,gg]2
H2 H*
which shows that for a ruled surface Kis never positive.
Note. From (1), the direction of the surface normal is given by
HN = [r + vg] x g which varies at different points of the same of generator unless
[r, g, g] = 0. Hence the tangent plane to the surface varies at different points on the
same generator unless [r, g, g] = 0. Howerver in the case of a developable surface,
the tangent plane touches the characteristic line at every point and it is the same
along the characteristic line which is the generator of the surface. This is the
marked difference between a ruled surface and a developable surface.
Corollary 1. A necessary and sufficient condition that a ruled surface be
skew is [r, g, g] * 0.
Corollary 2. We know that K = 0 is the necessary and sufficient condition for
a surface to be developable. Hence a necessary and sufficient condition for a ruled
surface to be developable is [r, g, g] = 0
Theorem 2. For a ruled surface (i) one family of asymptotic lines is the
generators and (ii) second family of asymptotic lines is given by the solution of the
Riccati's equation
338 Differential Geometry—A First Course

dv o
du
where A, B and C are functions of u only.
Proof. Taking the ruled surface as R(w, v) = r(w) + vg(w). we have as in
Theorem 1,

HL = [f, r, g] + [g, r, g]v + [f,g, g] v + [g, g, g]v 2

HM=[vlgig]iN =0 ...(1)
The differential equation of asymptotic lines on, a surface is
Ldu2 + IMdudv + Ndv2 = 0
where L, M, and N are given by (1).
Since N = 0> the asymptotic directions on a ruled surface are given by
du[Ldu + 2Mdv] = 0
Hence one set of asymptotic lines on a ruled surface are given by
du = 0 ...(2)
and another set of asymptotic lines are given by
Ldu + 2Mdv = 0 ...(3)
When du = 0, the asymptotic lines are the family of parametric curves u = constant
which are the generators of the surface. Hence generators constitute one set of
asymptotic lines.
From (3), the second family of asymptotic lines are given by

d
-^-±- -.(4)
du 2M
Using the values of L, and M from (1) in equation (4)

We get -^ = - — -{[r, r, g] + [g, r, g]v + [r, g, g]v + [g, g, g]v 2 }

du 2[r,g,g]
which can be rewritten as
dv o
— = A + B v + Cv where A, B and C are functions of u only. Thus the
du
second set of asymptotic lines are given by Riccati's equation whose most general
cP + Q
solution is given by v = where P, Q, R and S are functions of u and c is a
cR + S
constant.
Note. The first set of asymptotic lines are straight lines, being the generators
of the ruled surface, whereas the second set of asymptotic lines is a family of
curves being the solutjon of Riccati's equation. Since c is an arbitrary constant, we
get an asymptotic line for each value of c.
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 339

Corollary. The cross ratio of four points in which four given asymptotic
lines are met by any generator is the same for all generators.
Proof. Let us consider the intersection of the four asymptotic lines
corresponding to c{> c2, c3 and c4 with the given generator u = w0. Let v b v2, v3 and
v4 be the values of the parameters v at these points. Then by the theorem,
_ cxP + Q _ c2P + Q _ c3P + Q v _ cAP + Q
c^R + S c2R + S c3R + S c4R + S

Hence <hl±Q _c_2l±Q = ^-c2)jPS-QR)

1
cxR + S c2R + S (cxR + S) (c2R + S)
In a similar manner, we have
(c2-c4)(PS-QR) (c3-c4)(PS-QR)
V2-V4 = — , V3~V4= —
2 4 3 4
(c2R + S) (c4R + 5) (c3/? + 5)(c 4 /? + 5)
( g l -c 3 )(ps-e^
v,1 - v 33 = —
(ClR + S)(c3R + S)
Hence the cross ratio

(Vl - V 2 ) ( V 3 - V 4 ) = (^1 - C 2 ) ( C 3 -Q)

(vi - v 3 ) ( v 2 - v 4 ) (q - c 3 ) ( c 2 - c 4 )
which is independent of u0 and is the same for all generators. Since v is the distance
measured along the generator from the base curve, (v{ - v2) represents the distance
between the points v{ and v2 and so on. Thus the cross ratio of four points in which
four given asymptotic lines met by any generator is the same for all generators.
[i* p p]
Definition 3. The function p(u) = 7 is called the parameter of
g
distribution of a ruled surface.
From the very definition, we note the following properties of p(u).
(i) p(u) has constant value at each point of a generator.
Since r, g and g are all functions of u only, p(u) is a function of u only and it is
independent of v. Since u is constant along a generator, the functionp(w) is constant
along each generator. That is it has constant value at each point of a generator.
(ii) The parameter of distribution p(u) is independent of the base curve.
To see this, for a fixed w, let r + wg be the position vector of a point on another
base curve. Let p(w) be the parameter of distribution with respect to this base
curve. To find p(vi>), let us replace r by r + wg in p(u). Then we have

. A [r + wg, g, g] [r,g,g] + [wg,g,g] [r, g, g]

P(w) = T2 = T2 = —-2—
g g g
340 Differential Geometry—A First Course

since [wg, g, g] = 0. Hence p(w) = p(u) which shows that the distribution of
parameter is independent of the base curve.
(iii) p(u) is also independent of the choice of the parameter u. Instead of the
parameter w, let us take / as the parameter. Then

dx dg dx du dg du dx dg
, »8» i u2
du dt du dt du' ' du
P(0 = dt dt = piu).
dg dg du (d^
dt du dt (du

Note 1. Since p(u) is independent of the parameter chosen, we can take the
arc length s instead of u as parameter. Then

[dx dg]
ids' ' dsj [r',g,g']
p(s) =
(dg) 2
g'2
[ds)
Note 2. We can rewrite the formula for Gaussian curvature using p(u).
From the definition of p(u), [r, g, g] 2 = g4[p(u)]2

Hence K=
-[r,g,g] 2 VMg4
H4 H4
Since the Gaussian curvature is zero for a developable surface, we conclude
that the developable surface is a ruled surface for which the parameter of
distribution vanishes identically.
Using the consecutive generators of a ruled surface, we characterise a
developable surface as follows.
Theorem 3. A ruled surface is developable if and only if the consecutive
generators intersect.
Proof. The method of proof is to show that the shortest distance between two
consecutive generator is zero so that they intersect for a developable surface.
Let P and Q be two neighbouring points on a base curve with the position
vectors r (w) and r (u + du). Let the unit vectors along the generators through P and
Q be g(w) and g(u + du).
To the first degree of approximation, we can take
x(u + du) = x+ xdu, g(w + du) = g(w) + gdu

Hence the vector PQ is xdu.

The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 341

lfP\Q\ is the shortest distance between the generators, PXQX is perpendicular

to both the generators and
PXQX = Projection of PQ on the line P{Q{
—>
= PQ. unit vector along P{Q{
So we shall find the unit vector along P{Q{
Now the vector g x ( g + gdu) = g x gdu so that the vector g x g is
perpendicular to both the generators through P and Q. Since g is unit vector, g is
orthogonal to g so that we have

|gxg| = |g||g|siny=|g|,as|g|=l

Hence the unit vector perpendicular to both the generators through P and Q

along p ^ i s ^ j i
|g|
Using the above vector, the shortest distance between both the generators is

{iduy^Jli3^du
|g| |g|
The consecutive generators will intersect if and only if the shortest between
them is zero. This implies [r, g, g] = 0 which shows that the Gaussian curvature
K = 0 so that the surface is a developable surface. The converse is proved by
retracing the steps.
[r, g, g]
Note. Since the parameter of distribution p(u) = \/x2—, the shortest
|g|
distance between the generator is p \g\du. If we use the parameter s in place of w,
we get the formula for shortest distance between the generators as

dg ds dg
du -p ds, since p is invariant for a change of parameter.
ds du ds
Analogous to the characteristic points and its locus as the edge of regression,
we shall introduce central points of a generator and line of striction on a ruled
surface.
Definition 4. Let P and Q be two points on a base curve of a ruled surface.
Let the common perpendicular to the generators through P and Q meet the
generators at Px and Q{. As Q tends to P the point Px tends to a definite point C on
the generator through P. This point C is called the central point of the generator
through P.
This point C is a special point on each one of the generators.
Definition 5. The locus of the central points on all the generators is a definite
curve lying on the ruled surface called the line of striction of the ruled surface.
342 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Theorem 4. The position vector of a central point of a generator on the ruled

surface R(w, v) = r(w) + vg(w) is
g-r
R(w, V) = r(w) + vg(w) where v = =-
g
and the line of striction on the ruled surface is a curve given by g • r + vg2 = 0
Proof. Let the equation of the ruled surface be
R = r(W) + vg(W) ...(1)
Since the central point is a special point on the generator, the position vector of
the central point on the generator is given by an approximate value of the
parameter v in (1).

From (1), we have Rx = — = r.+ vg, R2 = — = g

ou ov
Further HN = RX x R 2 = (r + vg) x g ...(2)
Let P and Q be two points on the base curve with the unit vectors g(w) and
g(w + Su) along the generators through P and Q. Let PXQX be the common
perpendicular to the generators through P and Q. By defintion, when Q -> P then
P, tends to the central point C of the generator through P.
->
Let us find the limiting direction ofP^. As Q -> P, the vector PjQi tends to
be tangential to the surface at C. Hence if N is the surface normal at C, PXQX is
perpendicular to the surface normal N at C in the limiting position. Since the
common perpendicular P\Q\ in the limiting position is perpendicular to the
generator at P, PXQX in the limit is parallel to g x N, as PXQX is perpendicular to
both g and N.
Now PXQX is perpendicular to both the generators throughP and Q. Since g(w)
and g(w + Su) are the unit vectors along the generators, we obtain

j & . w + y-rt'OUo.&^o ...(3)

ou

Taking the limit as Q -> P and using the fact that PJQJ is parallel to g x N,
(gxN).g=0from(3).
Since (g x N) • g = (g x g) • N, substituting for N, we have
(gxg)-{(r + vg)xg} = 0 from (2)
Expanding the above equation

(gxg)-(rx#) + v(gxg)2=0 ...(4)

The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 343

We simplifying the two terms of (4) separately.

Using the formula (a x bf = a2b2 - (a • bf, we get

(gxg)2=g2g2-(g-g)2

Since g g = 0, (gx g) 2 =g 2 g 2 ...(5)

Next ( g x g ) - ( r x g ) = (g.r)(g.g)-(g.g)(g-r)
Since g • g = 0 and g • g = 1, we have
( g x g ) - ( r x g ) = g-r ...(6)

Using (5) and (6) in (4), we obtain g • r + vg2 = 0

g«r
which gives the value of the parameter as v = ~ 2 -*- ...(7)
g
Since v gives the distance of the central point from the base curve, the position
vector of C is

R = r(iO-4^g(«) .-.(8)
g
Since the line of striction is the locus of C, the vector equation of the line of
striction is given by (8).
As a consequence of equation (3), we have already noted that in the limit when
Q -> P, PXQX tends to the tangent at C satisfying the relation (g x g) N = 0.
Substituting for N and simplifying as-in (7), we obtain

g.r + v g 2 = 0 ...(9)
Thus the line of striction is a curve given parametrically by the above equation.
Corollary. The line of striction is the base curve if and only if g • r = 0.
If v = 0, the central points lie on the base curve so that the line of striction
coincides with the base curve. Using v = 0 in (9), we get g • r = 0.
Definition 6. The tangent plane at any central point of a generator is called
the central plane of the generator.
One of the most important properties of a developable surface is that its tangent
plane touches the characteristic line at every point. That is the tangent plane to a
developable is the same at all points of a given generator. But this is not so in the
case of ruled surfaces which are skew. As a matter of fact, we prove in the
following theorem that the tangent plane turns through an angle n as it moves from
one end of the generator to the other end and the tangent planes at the ends of a
given generator are perpendicular to the central plane for a ruled surface. The
study is much facilitated by considering the equation of the ruled surface with the
base curve as line of striction.
344 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Theorem 5. The tangent of the angle through which the normal N rotates as
the point P moves along a generator of a scroll varies directly with the distance
moved from the central point.
Proof. Since we like to find the angle between the tangent planes at different
points of a generator, we find the surface normals N0 at the central point and N at
any point of a generator.
Let the equation of the ruled surface be
R = r(u) + vg(u) ...(1)
Choosing the line of striction yas the base curve and a generator through a
point on y, the equation of the line of striction is g • r = 0. Since g2 = 1, g • g = 0.
Thus the vector g is orthogonal to r and g. Hence g is parallel to r x g. Therefore
we can take
rxg = ag ...(2)
for some scalar a which we find as follows.
Taking dot product with g on both sides of (2), we obtain [r, g, g] = a g- g.

Sincep = ' , we obtain from the above equationpg 2 = a g 2 s o that a = p.

g
Using this value of a, (2) becomes r x g = pg ...(3)
Let us find the direction of the normal at any point of the generator and at the
central point.
From (1), we get Rx = r + vg, R2 = g
HN = R{ x R2 = (r + vg) x g
= r x g + vg x g = pg + vg x gfrom (3)
Thus we have HN = pg + vg x g
Hence (HN)2 = (pg + vg x g) 2
N-N// 2 =p2g2 + 2pvg-(g x g) + v2(g x g) 2
Since N-N = 1, g• [g x g] = 0, (g x g) 2 - (g. g) 2 = g 2 as g• g = 0
Thus we find H2 = (p2 + v 2 )g 2 so that

H
|g|= 2,y2
2 -(4)
l
(p +vzy2
If a is the unit vector along g, we have from (4)

g = l g l g = , 2Ha2,y2 -( 5 >
{pL +vly2
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 345

Using this value of g, we can rewrite HN as

rjxi PHa vH

2 2 2
(/7 +V / (/? +V2/2
2

Since tf * 0, N = - pa + V
axg ...(6)
z l 2
(p + v y (p + vzy2
z

(6) gives the normal to the surface at a pointA on the generator distance v from
the central point C. Since v = 0 at the central point, the surface normal N0 at the
central point is
N0 = « ...(7)
If 0 is the angle between the tangent planes at any point P of a generator and the
central point C, then 0 is given by the angle between N and N0.
Since a • (a x g) = 0, we have from (6) and (7)

N N
' o = , 2 P 2,y2a'a -W
(/r +vzy2
Since N and N0 are unit surface normals, N • N0 = cos 0 and a • a = 1 so that we
have from (8)

cos 0 = —. . ., from which we have

(p2+v2)A

V 1
sin 0 = — ^r—rr and tan 0 = — v ...(9)
(p2 + v2Y2 P
Since the parameter of distributionp is a constant along a generator, (9) shows
that the angle through which N rotates as the point P moves along the generator
varies as the distance v moved from the central point C on the striction line.
7t 71
Note 1. As v varies from -«> to ©o, the angle 0 increases from to — when
71 71
p>0 and it decreases from — to when/? < 0. At the central point, when v = 0,
the angle 0 = 0 . From these conditions, we make the following three observations
(i) When the central point is reached from one end of a generator, the normal
71
has rotated through angle —.
(ii) When the point of contact moves from one end of the generator to the
other end, the tangent plane turns through an angle n.
(iii) The tangent planes at the end points of a generator are perpendicular to the
central plane.
346 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Note 2. Since we know the value of//2, we can give the formula for K solely
in terms of p and v as follows.

The Gaussian curvature K=

V g°4 ... (1)
H
From (4) of the theorem H2 = (p2 + v2) g 2 ...(2)
2
Eliminating H between (1) and (2), we obtain
-2
K=-
0> 2 +v 2 ) 2
Theorem 6. If d is the length of the common perpendicular between two
successive generators of a scroll, then
d = sp(u)\g\.
Proof. Let P be r = r(w) and () be r = r(w + 8u)

Then P<2 isr(w + Su)-r(u) = -^r(ii) + ^j-r + ... if<5w = s

2 - >
Neglecting the terms involving s , we can take PQ =sr(u)
Letg(w) andg(w + Su) be the unit vectors along the generators through P and
Q. Since the shortest distance is perpendicular to both the generators at P and Q, it
is parallel to
g x (g + gSu) = g x g Su as g x g = 0
Hence we can take the direction of the shortest distance to be g x g.
If d is the shortest distance between the generators,
d = Projection of PQ on PXQX

= ^r(w)~^7=5r(w)[gxg].—,
|gxg| |g|

since [g x g] = |g| |g| sin - = |g|, as |g| = 1

™ i , sr(u) • [g x g] ,y[r, g, g] . x l ..
Thus we have d = v ' \* * = * s = sp(u)\g\
Hence if p * 0, d is of the same order as that of the arc length s.
Corollary. The line of striction appears as the locus of the feet of
perpendiculars to the consecutive generators and it is not perpendicular to the
generators.
Since d is of order s * 0, d * 0 for two consecutive generators from the line of
striction. Though the central point lies on a generator, the line of striction is not
perpendicular to the generator on which the central point lies.
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 347

The above fact can also be explained as follows.

a. r
The equation of the line of striction is R = r(w) + vg(w), v = - =-z-
g

Hence we have = r + vg(w)

du

Therefore —— g = r g + vg-gv = r g , since r - g * 0 and g g = , 0

du

Since —- is tangential to the line of striction and g(w) is the unit vector along
du

the generator. -r—-g * 0 shows that the line of striction is not orthogonal to the
ou
generator.
Note. In the case of the space curves, the length of the common
perpendicular d of tangents at two consecutive points distances apart on the curve
3
KTS
is approximately d = which is equally true for the distance between the two
consecutive tangents to the edge of regression. Thus only when the ruled surface is
a developable, d involves s to the third order otherwise it is the same order as that
of the arc length.
When we specialise the ideas of ruled surface to the developable surface, the
generators, central point and the striction line reduce to characteristic line,
characteristic point and the edge of regression, but the surface normal remains
constant at all points of a developable surface, since the tangent plane touches the
surface at all points along the characteristic line so that we cannot have rotations of
N as the characteristic point moves along the characteristic line.
Example 1. If a /} - b a * 0, show that the line
x = az + a, y = bz + P
generates a skew ruled surface and find its equation where a, b and a, j3 are
functions of u.
The equation of the given line is
x-a = y-P = z-0 (l)
a b 1
so that it passes through (a, /?, 0) and has the direction cosines (a, b> 1). Hence we
take r = (a, j3, 0) is on the base curve and the unit vector along the generator as
g(w) = (a, b, 1).

Now r = (a, /}, 0) and g(w) = (a, b, 0) ...(2)

348 Differential Geometry—A First Course

The ruled surface is skew if and only if [r, g, g] ^ 0

Now g x g = (-b,a,ab- db)

Hence [r, g, g] = (a ft - b a) * 0 by hypothesis

so that the given line generates a scroll.
The equation of the ruled surface is
R(w, v) = r(w) + vg(w) = (a, /?, 0) + v(a, b, 1)
from which we have the following cartessian representation of the scroll
x = a + v<2, y = j3 + vb, z = v
Example 2. For a ruled surface generated by the binormals of a skew curve, find
the parameter of distrbution and the Gaussian curvature. Show also that the ruled
surface generated by the binormals of a skew curve has the curve itself as the line
of striction.
Choosing the given skew curve r = r(^) as the base curve, let (t, n, b) be the
moving triad at any point on the curve. Since the ruled surface is generated by the
binormals, the unit vector along the generator g(w) is b.
Hence the equation of the ruled surface is R = r + vb where s and v are
parameters.

Now R1 = ^ = r' + vb' = t - v T n , R 2 = - ^ = b

OS OV

HN=RlxR2 = (t- vxn) x b = - n - rvt

Hence H2 = (n + rv t) • (n + rv t) = 1 + ? V
Th • offA-
The parameter t -u ••
distributions p = [r'.&gl
=— = [t,b,b']
=-
g' 2 (-rn)2
[t,b,b'] (txb)-^ -n-(-rn) 1
Now =- = = = = =— =G
(-rn)2 r2 T2 r
Hence the parameter of distrbution p = o
r r ', g, g'] 2 -T 2

The Gaussian curvature K = - ' 4

H (l + r v 2 ) 2
2

Since g' • r' = b' • t = (- m ) • t = 0, the base curve is the line of striction. Thus the
given curve is the line of striction.
_p'r'
Note. The above conclusion can also be had by noticeing v = — ^ — = 0 so

that the base curve coincides with the line of striction.

Example 3. Show that the parameter of distribution of a ruled surface generated
by the principal normals of a skew curve is equal to rCr2 + K 2 )" 1 where jcand rare
the curvature and torsion of the curve. Also find the Gaussian curvature and the
line of striction for this ruled surface.
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 349

Choosing r = r(s) to be a point on the curve, let (t, n, b) be the moving unit triad
at P. Since the ruled surface is generated by the principal normal at P, the unit
vector along the generator g(s) = n where we treat s as the parameter.
From the definition the parameter of distribution,

Now [r\ g, g'] = [t, n, n'] = [t, n, rb - jet] = [t, n, rb]

Hence [r\ g, g'] = [t, n rb] = (t x n) r b = b r b = x
Fuither g'2 = n' 2 = |rb - KTt|2 = T2 + K2.

Then we have p = —~ T.
T + ir
The formula for the Gaussian curvature is

[r',g,g'] 2
K=-[
H*
To find //, consider the equation R = r + vn of the ruled surface.

Then R, = — - = t + v(rb - Kt), R2 = — - = n.

os ov
R , x R 2 = [t + v(rb - Krt)] x n = b(l - KV) - rvt
Hence |R, x R2|2 = (1 - KV)2 + iv2

-r2
Thus we have K=
[(1-KTV)2+T2V2]2

Further r ' g ' = t n ' = t ( r b - Kt) = - K* 0

Hence the base curve is not the line of striction.
Since the line of striction satisfies the condition,
g7- r' + vg' 2 = 0, we have (rb -Kt)-t + v(rb -Kt) 2 = 0

which gives v = —« ~-. Using this value of v, any point on the line of striction
(xl +KZ)
is
kn
R(j, v) = r(s) +
T2+K2
As the point P moves on the base curve, the above formula gives the position
vector of various points on the line of striction.
Example 4. Show that the cross ratio of four points of a generator of a scroll is
equal to the cross ratio of four tangent planes at these points.
350 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Taking the slopes of the tangent planes with the tangent plane at a central point
on the line of striction, we find the cross ratio. Let us consider the four points A, B,
C and D on the generator. If they are at distances vlf v2, v3 and v4 from the central
point, then from the corollary of Theorem 2, the cross ratio
(V1-V2)(V3-V4)

(Vi - v 3 ) ( v 2 - v 4 )

is a constant. The cross ratio of the four tangent planes is

(tan 0j - tan 0 2 ) (tan 0 3 - tan 0 4 )
(tan 0! - tan 0 3 ) (tan 0 2 - tan 0 4 )
where <f>x,fa,03 and 04 are the angles made by the normals at A, B9 C and D with the
normal at the central point on the striction line. We shall use Theorem 5 and
simplify each factor in (2), and show that (2) is equal to (1) so that (2) is constant.
(tan 0! - tan 02) (cos fa cos 02) = sin fa cos 02 - sin fo cos fa
Using Theorem 5 in the above equation,

2 2 /2 2 2 /2 2
(~ +
(/? j.V
„ ^) f r,
(p a.+„ V^ ) f «(P a. +„ 2V!
^ / )2 2
f ~(p „ 2 V^ )2
_i_ +
{ 2 2

so that tan 02 - tan 02 = — (vj - v2)

P
In a similar manner, we have

tan 03 - tan 04 = — (v3 - v4)

tan 0i - tan 03 = — (vx - v3)

and tan 02 - tan 04 = — (v2 - v4)

(tan 0! - tan 0 2 ) (tan 0 3 - tan 0 4 )

Hence
(tan 0! - tan 0 3 ) (tan 0 2 - tan 0 4 )

=
(vi
\ _ i - vz^_j
2 )(v 3 - v4 A)/ .. . .
w h l c h 1S a c o n s t a n t

(vt - v 3 ) ( v 2 - v 4 )
Example 5. Prove that the Gaussian curvature of a ruled surface is the same at
two points of a generator which are equidistant from the central point.
Taking the line of striction as the base curve, we find the Gaussian curvature at
a distance v from a central point. Any point on the ruled surface is
R = r(W) + vg(W) ...(1)
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 351

Since we have chosen line of striction as the base curve, we have g-r = 0 and
since g is a unit vector g-g = 0. These two together imply g is parallel to r x g. Let
it be r x g = a g . Taking dot product with g on both sides, (r x g)-g = ag2 so
that a = p.
Thus we have proved r x g = p g ...(2)

Rj = r + V g,R 2 = g s o t h a t £ = r 2 + 2r-gv + v 2 g 2
G = g 2 , F 2 = R r R 2 = r . g + vg-g
Using g-g = 0, r g = 0, we get

EG-F2 = r2g2+v2g2g2-(r-g)2 ...(3)

Since (r x g)2 = r 2 g 2 - (r • g)2, we have from (3)
EG-F2 = (rx g) 2 + v 2 g 2 , as g2 = 1
Using (2) and (3), we obtain H2 = EG-F2 = p2g2 + v 2 g 2 ...(4)
The formula for the Gaussian curvature is

K « ^ 4£ -..(5)
H
2 4 2
Using (4) in (5), K = -r^—P i J-J- = _ —- -P j ^
2
2 2
g\p +vy (p2+v2)2
Hence the Gaussian curvature at a point v0 from the central point is

(p2+v2)2
If we take another point - v0 equidistant from the central point, then also

P
K
(p2+v2)2
Thus K is the same at equidistant points on both sides of a central point.
If we consider the absolute value of the Gaussian curvature, it is maximum at
the central point. That is when v = 0
Example 6. Find the equation of the asy mptotoic tangent plane along a ruling of
a ruled surface.
By definition, the asymptotic tangent plane is orthogonal to the central plane.
Let R be the position vector of a point on the asymptotic tangent plane and r = r(w)
be a point on the ruling. Then R - r(w) is a vector in the asymptotic tangent plane.
Let u be a unit vector along the generator through r(w). Then [(R - r(«)] x u is
parallel to the central plane. Since the central plane is orthogonal to the generator
with unit vector g(w), we have
352 Differential Geometry—A First Course

{[R - r(w)] x u} • g(w) = 0 which is the equation of the asymptotic tangent plane
at a point of a ruling.
Example 7. Show that (i) the striction line of the hyperboloid of revolution is a
central circle (ii) the generators cut at constant angle (iii) the parametric
distribution is constant.
Let the hyperboloid of revolution of one sheet be
2 2 2

2 2
a b c2
Its generator through the central section can be taken as
x - a cos u _ y - a sin u _ z
asinu -acosu c
(i) We show that the central section is the line of striction. For this let us choose
the central section as the base curve. The generators pass through
r(w) = (a cos w, a sin w, 0)
and the unit vector along the generator is given by

g(w) = (a sin w, - a cos w, c)

yja2 + c 2

Hence any point on the ruled surface is R = r(w) + vg(u)

Now r = (- a sin w, a cos w, 0), g = , (a cos w, a sin w, 0)

Hence r-i* = , (- a2 sin u cos w + a2 sin M COS M) = 0 which is the

condition for a base curve to be a line of striction. This proves that the central
section is the line of striction. Since the intersection of the line of striction and the
generator is (a cos M, a sin w, 0), it is a central point. Thus the locus of the central
point is* 2 +y2 = a2,z = 0. This proves that the line of striction is the central circular
section.
(ii) To prove that the generators cut the line of striction at a constant angle, let
us find the direction of the tangent t at any point of the line of striction. Now the
position vector of any point on the line of striction is r = (a cos M, a sin w, 0)
A dx dv du , ^.du
Hence t=— = = (-a sin w, cos w, 0 ) —
ds du ds ds
using t4.tt = 1,
i u
we have —du I
= —.
ds a
Hence t = (- sin u, cos M, 0)
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 353

If 6 is the angle between g(w)and t, we have

a
tg = cos 0= -

We can rewrite the above equation as

(
cos(;r- 0) = so that 6 = n - cos ' which is a
J777 fa
2
+c2
constant.
[r, g, g]
(iii) The parameter of distribution p(u) =
g2

Since a cos w
g = smw,-
{JZ7? yja2 + c2 V^+^J

acosu • sin w, 0 so that | g| =

2
g- 2
V^ + c 2
7 fl2+< (fl2+c2)
/

- a sin « a cos u 0
1 ca
[r, g, g] = 7-2 a sin M - a cos M C
(^+c0 (a2+c2)
a cos w a sin u 0

[r,g,g] ca2 (a2+c2)

Hence p(u) = - -« = c which is a constant.
g (a +c2)
2

4.12 THREE FUNDAMENTAL FORMS

We conclude this chapter by defining the third fundamental form and obtaining the
relation among all the three fundamental forms.
Once we know the position vector r and the surface normal N at a point on the
surface, we have defined dr • dr as the first fundamental form and using dr and dN,
-dr-dN is defined as the second fundamental from. So it is natural to consider the
left out scalar product dN-dN also. This leads to the notion of third fundamental
form.
Definition. If N is the surface normal at a point on a surface, the thrid
fundamental form of the surface is defined ad dN • rfN.
Let us denote by I, II and III, the three fundamental forms. Using this notation,
we have
I = drdr = Edu2 + IFdudv + Gdv2
II =-tfr-rfN = Ldu2 + 2M dudv + Ndv2.
354 Differential Geometry—A First Course

If Kn is the normal curvature, we know that

Ldu2 +2Mdudv + Ndv2 ,. , .
K„ = ~ 7T which gives
Edu2 +2Fdudv + Gdv2
Kn ds = Ldu2 + IMdudv + W dv2
2

Hence we get K„ I = II which is the relation between the first and second
fundamental forms.
Theorem 1. If I, II and III are the three fundamental forms, then
XI - 2/1II + III = 0 where K is the Gaussian curvature and ji is the mean
curvature.
Proof. We establish the theorem by choosing the lines of curvature at a point
of the surface as parametric curves. Since the lines of curvature are parametric
curves, we have F = 0, and M = 0.
Using these conditions, we have
I = Edu2 + Gdv\ II = Ldu2 + Ndv2 ...(1)
and the normal curvature in the direction {du> dv) is
Ldu2 + Ndv2
K„ = 5 j- ...(2)
" Edu2 +Gdv2
Let Ka and K^ denote the principal curvature at the point (w, v). This means that
Ka is the normal curvature in the direction v = constant whose direction ratio is
(1,0) and Kb is the normal curvature in the direction u = constant whose direction
ratio is (0, 1).
L N
Hence we have from (2), Ka = — and Kh = — ...(3)
E G
Using these values of L and N, II becomes
II = KjEdu2+ KbGdv2 ...(4)
If K is the normal curvature at the point r in the direction of the line of
curvature, then the Rodrique's formula gives Kdr + dN = 0
Since dx = xxdu + r2dv, dN = Ntdu + N2dv
the Rodrique's formula becomes
K[rxdu + r2dv] + Nxdu + N2dv = 0 ...(5)
For the line of curvature v = constant and K= KQ,
we have from (5), Karxdu + Nxdu = 0
Since du * 0 , we get Kavx + N{ = 0 ...(6)
In a similar manner for the parametric curve u - constant.
We obtain the relation Kbr2 + N2 = 0 ...(7)
Now the fundamental form III becomes
III = dN>(M = (N{du + N2dv)2
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 355

Substituting for N, and N2 from (6) and (7), we get

III = [Karxdu + Kbr2dv]2
Since rx r 2 = 0, we get from the above step.
Ill = Ka2Edu2 + Kb2Gdv2 ...(8)
2 2
Eliminating Edu and Gdv from (1), (4) and (8), we get

I 1 1
II Ka Kb = 0
III K\ K2

Expanding the above determinant, we have

lKaKb(Kb-Ka) - ll(Kb + Ka)(Kb-Ka) + lll(Kb-Ka) =0
Since Ka * Kb, KaKb = K and Ka + Kb = 2^u, we have
KI - 2fi II + III = 0 which gives the required relation among I, II and III.
Using the above theorem, we obtain a nice formula due to Beltrami-Enneper
for the torsion of a point on an asymptotic line.
Theorem 2. The; torsion at a point of an asymptotic line on a surface is
±yj-K where K is the Gaussian curvature.
Proof. From Theorem 1, the three fundamental forms are related by
K\ -fill + 111 = 0 ...(1)
where K is the Gaussian curvature and ji is the mean curvature. For the points
along the asymptotic lines, we have
II = Ldu2 + IMdudv + Ndv2 = 0 ...(2)
By Theorem 4 of 4.6, the osculating plane at any point on the asymptotic line
coincides with the tangent plane of the surfacee so that we have b = N. ...(3)
Hence from (3), we have b' = - rn = N' ...(4)
Since III = dN- dN and I = ds2, we have from (4) on taking dot product
^=N,2=<^N = m (5)
ds ds I

Using (2) and (5) in (1), we get T2 = - K or r = ±yj-K which proves the
theorem.
Example 1. Find the third fundamental form of the right helicoid
r = (u cos v, u sin v, av) and verify the relation KI - 2\x II + III = 0.
Since r = (u cos v, u sin v, av), we have
rx = (cos v, sin v, 0), r 2 = (- u sin v, u cos v, a)
So E = r{• rx = 1, F = rx• r 2 = 0, G = r2- r 2 = u2 + a2
Hence I = du2 + (u2 + a2)dv2y ...(1)
356 Differential Geometry—A First Course

r x
i 1*2 = {a sin v, - a cos v, w), // = ^w2 + a2

So N= a . a cos v
• s i n v, - -
{JJT7 ' yl777'J777
(
N1 = -ai/sinv OK cos v ••(2)
(u2+a2)3/2V+a2)3/2V+a2)3/2

a cos v a sin v
N,= ^,0 •••(3)
•JM2 + a2 -y/"2 + °2 J
v

Hence L = -N1r1 = 0,M = -N2r1 = - •,iV = - N 2 T 2 = 0...(4)

yfTTa*
- 2a dudv
Using (4), we have II = 2
Ja *?
LN-M2
Thus the Gaussian curvature K = •••(5)
EG-F2 (u2+a2)2
EN+GL-2FM A
•••(6)
The mean curvature u = ^ =0
2(EG-F2)
Now using N, we find dN • dN
dN = —— dw + —— dv
au dv

^9Nf j 2 „ 9N 3N '3N^
Therefore III =</N-rfN = dv1 •(7)
3« du dv

'dN}2 ;
9N 9N . f 3 N f .„
Let us find , — r— and —— as follows.
au av V" v /
Taking dot product of (2) with itself.

fdN]2 a2u2
•••(8)
(du) (w 2 +a 2 ) 3 (w 2 +a 2 ) 3 (u2+a2)2
In a similar manner, we obtain

dN
and =0 •••(9)
dv J (u +a) du dv
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 357

Using (8) and (9) in (7), we get

2
III = f 2 ~a 2 2 [du2 + (a2 + u2)dv2] ...(10)
(u ~+az)
z

Using (1), (4), (5), (6) and (10), we obtain

a
KI - 2juII + III = - , 2 2 2 [du2 + (u2 + a2)dv2]

2
[du2 + (u2 + a2)dv2] = 0
(w +a2)22

Thus we have verified the relation among three fundamental forms.

Example 2. Find the torsion of the asymptotic lines on the surface of revolution,
(
r = asm in u cos v, a sin u sin v, a\ log tan — + cos u\\ ...(1)

We use Beltrami-Enneper Theorem to prove the result.

From(l), we have,
rx = (a cos u cos v, a cos u sin v, a cot w COS M)
r2 = (-a sin w sin v, a sin w cos v, 0)
Hence E = r1r1 = a2 cos2u + a2 cot2*/ cos2w = a2 cot2w.
G = r2- r 2 = a2 sin2w, F = rx• r 2 = 0, H = a2 cos w.
Let us find the unit normal to the surface
I-J x r 2 = (- a2 cos2w cos v, - a2 sin v cos2w, a2 sin u cos u)
r x r
i 2
N= = (- cos u cos v, - sin v cos w, sin u)
H
To find L, M, N, let us find Nx and N2.
Nx = (sin u cos v, sin u sin v, cos w)
N2 = (cos u sin v, - cos u cos v, 0)
L=-Nl'T1=-[asinu cos w cos2v + a sin w cos w sin2v + a cot u cos2w]
- a cos u r . 2 2 -,
= [sin u + cos w] = - a cot«.
sin w
M = 0 and we have
N = - N2- r 2 = - [- a sin w cos u sin~v - a sin u cos w cos v]
= a sin w cos w.
LN-M2 a2 cot w sin w cos u 1
Hence K= 2 2 2 2 2 2
EG-F a cot u a sin u a
358 Differential Geometry—A First Course

So by Beltrami-Enneper Theorem, the torsion of the asymptotic line is

r = ±VrK =±-
a
The equation of the asymptotic lines on the surface is
Ldu2 + IMdudv + Ndv2 = 0
Substituting for L, M and Nt we have
:oti du2 + a sin u cos udv2 = 0 which gives
-acotu
du
dv = ±-
sin u
To find K, we can use any one of the formulae involving E, F and G. For
instance, as F = 0 we can use the formula

2H\du{Hj dv{H)
Since we like to give some additional information on asymptotic lines on the
surface, we have found K using L, M and N.

4.13 EXAMPLES IV
1. Prove that a surface for which E, F, G and L, M, N are constants is
necessarily a circular cylinder.
E = rx - rx = r J, G = r2T2 = r22 are constants imply that rx and r2 are vectors of
constant magnitude. From F = rx • r2 is a constant, we conclude that rx and r2 are
constant vectors.
Since rx and r2 are constant vectors, then
L = - rj • N2, M = - rx• N2, = - r2 • Nx, N = - r2 • N2 are all constants will imply
that Nj and N2 are constant vectors,
^ u dN dN du 3N rfv ^ du „ dv L
Further =— +— = Cx— + C 2 — where
ds du ds ov ds ds ds
N{ = Cx and N2 = C2 are constant vectors.
dN du dv
Since is perpendicular to N, the vector C{— + C 2 — lies in the tangent
ds ds ds
plane at P and has constant direction for fixed w, v.
du dv
Hence r(s, v) = r(s) + vA where A = C{ — + C2— is the equation of a cylinder
ds ds
whose generators are all parallel to A. Thus if the fundamental coefficients L, M, N
and E, F, G are all constants, then the surface is a cylinder.
r r ri
2. If — = — = — is true for a real surface, prove that the surface is either
L M N
spherical or plane and conversely.
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 359

First let us suppose that the given surface is a sphere or a plane, then we prove
that the above condition is satisfied. The equation of the sphere with centre r0 and
radius a is r - r 0 = aN ...(1)
where N is the unit outward drawn normal to the sphere.
From (1), we get rt = aNly and r2 = aN2.
Hence E = r1rl = aNx- rx = -aL
F = rt • r2 = aN2 • r2 = rx • aN2 = - aM
G = r2- r2 = aN2- r2 = - aN.
Hence we have from the above equations,

L ~ M~ N ~~
If the surface is a plane, then a —> °° so that L = M = N = 0
Conversely let us assume the condition and show that the surface is a sphere.

Let = = =
7 ^ ^ T(sa^A7ta
L> M N A
Then we can take L = EX,M = FX,N = GX. ...(1)
From the definition,
L = -N 1 -r 1 ,M = - N 2 - r 1 = -N 1 -r 2 ,^ r = -N 2 -r 2 .
Taking L alone and using (1), we obtain
Nj-r! + L = 0 so that N ^ + EX = 0
Substituting for E, Nx • rt + rx • rx A = 0 which gives
(NJ + A F ^ F ^ O ...(2)
In a similar manner, using F and G, we get
(N2 + Ar2) • rx = 0, (Nx + Xrx) • r2 = 0, (N2 + Ar2) • r2 = 0 ...(3)
Since N 2 = 1, Nx • N = 0 and N2• N = 0 so that Nx and N2 are both perpendicular
to N and hence they lie in the plane of rx and r2. Hence Nx + Xrx and N2 + Ar2 lie in
the plane of rt and r2.
Since rv r2 and Nj + Xrx lie in the same plane and rx & 0, r2 ^ 0, Nj + Xrx
cannot be perpendicular to both rx and r2 as given in (3)
Hence the equation (Nj + Xrx) • rx = 0, (Nj + Arx) • r2 = 0 will imply
N t + Arx = 0 so that Nx = - Arx ...(4)
In a similar manner, we can prove N2 = - Ar2 ...(5)
Differentiating (4) and (5) with respect to u and v, we get
N21 = - X{r2 - Xr2V and N12 = - X2r1 - Xr12
Since N21 = N12 and r12 = r21, we get X2rl = Xxr2
Since the vectors rx and r2 are not parallel, we conclude Xx = 0, and X2 = 0
Thus X is independent of u and v so that A is a constant.

Using (4), Nx= - Xcx so that rx = - — Nx ...(6)

A
360 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Integrating (6), r = - —-N + r0 so that

A
(r - r0) = - l—NNo ror( r(r- r- 0 r)02) = = —
± which shows that under the given

conditions, the surface is a sphere.

When A = 0, we get from (4) and (5), Nj = 0 and N2 = 0. Thus N is independent
of both u and v showing that N is a constant vector. Therefore the surface is a plane.
3. Show that the principal radii of curvature of the surface

y cos — = x sin — are equal to ± — (X2 +y2 + a2). Find the lines of curvature
\a) \a) a
also.
Let us first find the parametric representation of the given surface.
x y x2 + y2
- = w(say).
cos

Further ^ = tan ( - J so that [ - j = tan"l(-^ j

Taking v = tan"1 — , z = av so that v = —.

\xj a
Using u and.v as parameters, the given surface has the representation
x = u cos v, y = u sin v, z = av
Hence the position vector r of a point P on the curve is
r = (w cos v, M sin v, av)
This surface is known as therighthelicoid. For this surface let us find E, F, G
and L, M, N.
Tj = (cos v, sin v, 0), r2 = (- u sin v, u cos v, a)
rx x r2 = (a sin v, -a cos v, u)
E = i y r2 = 1, F = i y r 2 = 0, G = r2-r2 = u2 + a2
# 2 = EG-F2 = (u2 + a2) and hence tf*0
r n = (0,0,0), r12 = (- sin v, cos v, 0)
r22 = (- u cos v, - u sin v, 0), r21 = (- sin v, cos v, 0)
HL = r 1 1 (r 1 xr 2 ) = 0,
HM = r12- (rl xr 2 ) = - a sin2v - a cos2v = - a
HN = r 22 -(r t xr 2 ) = - a u sin vcos v + ausin vcos v = 0

Since / / * 0 , L = 0,iV = 0,M = - — = ~fl

» Vi?^ 2
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 361

The principal curvature are given by

(EG-F2)K? - (EN-2FM + GL)K+ LN-M2 = 0
Substituting the values of E, F, G and L, M, Nt we get
a2

{u2 + a2)Kl z T = 0 which gi ves K=±

u2+a2 6
(x2+y2+a2)

So the principal radii of curvatures are ± — (x2 + y2 + a2).

The lines of curvature are given by the equation

{EM - FL)du2 + {EN - GL)dudv + {FN - GM)dv2 = 0.
Using the values of E, F, G and L, M, N, we obtain

—, du2 + {u2 + a2) • , dv2 = 0 which gives

2 2 2 2
yjU + a yjU + fl

du
dv = ±
+a

Integrating the above equation, v = ± sinh"1 — + c where c is a constant.

4. At a point on a developable surface find (i) The radii of principal

curvatures (ii) the principal directions and (iii) The asymptotic lines.
If r = r(s) is a point on the edge of regression, the position vector of a point on
the developable surface is
R{s, v) = r(s) + vt{s)
dt
Now I*! = t + v— = t + vx-n, R2 = t.
ds
Then E = Rj Rj = 1 + v2*2, F = R{ R 2 = 1, G = R 2 R 2 = t t = 1
R{ x R 2 = (t + vKu) x t = - vKb and H = v/c, N = - b.

Rn = — + v|Yn + K{rb - Kt)], R12 = fen, R22 = 0

ds
Now //L = R 11 -(R 1 xR 2 )
= {Kn + V[K?TI + K{rb - art)]} • (- vfdb) = - x V r b • b
Thus we have L = - VKT.
Also M = N-R 12 = (-b)-(K:n) = 0,W = N-R22 = (-b)-0 = 0
(i) The principal curvatures are given by
K>n[EG-F2]-Kn[EN+GL-2FM]+LN-M2 =0
362 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Using the values of L, M, N and E, F, G, we find

K2V2I^ + K„VKT = 0 so that Ka - 0 or Kb =

VK
(ii) The principal directions are given by

dv2 dsdv ds2 dvl -dsdv ds

E F G | = |l1++v vVV 1 1 | =0
L M N -VKT 0 0

Expanding the determinant along the last row,

dsdv{vKx) + vKXds2 = 0
Since VKT*0,ds + dv = 0. Integrating this equation we obtain s + v = c which
are straight lines on the surface. Furher v = c - s.
Hence r(.s, v) = r(.s) + (c-s)t which are the involutes of the edge of regression.
ds = 0 or s = c gives the other principal direction.
(iii) Since LN - M2 = 0, every point on the surface is a parabolic point. The
asymptotic directions are given by L du2 + IMdudv + Ndv2 = 0
Using the values of L, M and N, we findLdu2 = 0. Since u = s is the parameter,
2
Lds = 0 so that s = c as L * 0. Hence the asymptotic lines are straight lines on the
surface.
5. If Kl9 K2,... Km are the normal curvatures of m sections of a surface which
2TZ
make equal angles — with one another, prove tht if m > 2.
m
K{ + K2 + ... + Km = miJ,
where jx is the mean curvature.
Let Ka and Kb be the principal curvatures at P on the surface. Let Kn be the
normal curvature at P in the direction making an angle y/ with the principal
direction. Then by Euler's Theorem, we have
Kn = Ka c o s V + Kb sinV ...(1)
(l + cos2i/0 (l-cos2i/0
= Ka — + Kb — which can be rewritten as

*n =2(Ka+ Kb) +
2(Ka" Kb) C
°S2¥
Hence Kn =jU + A cos2y/ ...(2)
1
where ji is the mean curvature and A = — (Ka - Kb)

Let us consider the m sections of the surface. Let 6 be the angle which the
normal section with curvatue K{ makes with the principal direction through P
corresponding to Ka. Treating 0as the first section, we need (m - 1) sections. These
sections make angles
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 363

0+ —, 0+ ,... 0 + ( m - 1) —
m m m
Corresponding to each angle we get a formula of type (2).
Hence KX = ji + A cos 20
2n\
K2=jJ, +A cos2 0 +

\ 2n
Km = ft + A cos 2 0 + ( m - l ) —
L HI .
Now let us find the sum of the above m terms

Kx + K2 + ... + KTm = mji + A cos 20 + cos 2| 0 + —

m

2;r
+ ...+ cos2 0 + ( m - l ) .(3)
m
Using the formula for the sum of a trigonometric series,

2n
cos 20+ cos 2| 0 + — | + ... + cos 2 0 + (m-l)—-
m m

2;r
cos 20 + (m - 1) sin 2/r
m =0 ...(4)
2^:
sm
m
Using (4) in (3), we obtain
Kx + K2 + ... /cm = m/Li which completes the proof.
6. Two surfaces intersect each other along a curve C at a constant angle. If the
curve C is a line of curvature on one surface, show that it is the line of curvature on
the other. Is the converse ture?
This is an application of Rodrique's formula for lines of curvature on a surface
known as Joachimsthal's theorem.
Let Sx and S2 be two surfaces and C be their curve of intersection. Let r be the
position vector of any point on C. Let Nx and N2 be the unit surface normals to S{
and S2 at P. The angle 0 between the two surfaces is equal to the angle between the
normals N2 and N2 at P and so we have
N r N 2 = cos0 ...(1)
Since 0 is constant by hypothesis, differentiating (1),
L
we get -N 2 + N1 2_ = o ...(2)
ds ds
364 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Assuming C is a line of curvature on S{1 we prove that it is a line of curvature onS2

also. Since C is a line of curvature on Sx, we have from the Rodrique's formula.
Kdr + dNx = 0 which is the same as
dv rfN, A dN{
L L
K— + = 0 or =-Kt ...(3)
ds ds ds
where t is the unit tangent vector to C. Taking dot product with N2 on both sides of
(3), we have

ds

Since N2-1 = 0, we have from the above step N2 =0 ...(4)

ds

Using (4) in (2), we find Nx • ^ 1 - Q

ds

Since N2- N2 = 1, we get N2 =0

ds
dN2
Thus is perpendicular to both Nx and N2 so that it is parallel to t. Hence
ds
we can take = -/ct.
ds
where K is some scalar and this equation is equivalent to Kdr + dN2 = 0 which
shows that C is a line of curvature for S2-
Now let us prove the converse also. If the curve of intersection of the two
surfaces is a line of curvautre on both the surfaces, then the surfaces cut at constant
angle.
Let the curve C of intersection of S{ and iS2 be the line of curvature on both Sx
and S2. Since C is the line of curvature on S{, we have from the equation (4)

N - ^ = 0
2 ...(5)
ds
In a similar manner, if C is the line of curvature on S2 we have as in (4)

N r ^ - = 0 ...(6)
ds

Now - f (cos 6) = - f (N r N 2 ) = N x - ^ +^ - N 2 ...(7)

ds ds ds ds
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 365

Using (5) and (6) in (7), —(cos 0) = 0 which implies cos 0 is a constant and
ds
consequently 0is a constant.
7. A developable surface D is enveloped by the tangent planes to a surfaces at
points on a curve C lying on the surface S. Prove that at any point P on C, the
generating line of D is in a direction conjugate to the direction of the tangent to C
at P.
Let the curve lying on the surface ber = r(s). The equation of the tangent plane
atPis(/?-r)N = 0 ...(1)
When we consider points on the curve, N is a function of s only so that (1)
represents a single parameter family of planes. Hence the envelope of (1) is a
developable surface. Differentiating (1) with respect to s, we have

dN
(J?-r).—+N-
ds
(-—1
I ds)
=0

dv
Since — = t and N • t = 0, we get from the above equation,
ds
dN
(*-r)—=0 ...(2)
ds
The intersection (1) and (2) gives a generator of D. Since both the planes pass
through r, the generator passes through r.
From (1), the generator is perpendicular to N. Hence it lies in the tangent plane
which is the plane of the vectors rx and r2 so that we can take it to be
R-r = XTX + JIT2 ...(3)
where A, ji are the direction ratios of the generator.
dN
From (2) the generator is perpendicular to
ds

dN (dN du dN dv} XT du XT dv
But + = N j — + N2— ...(4)
ds
you ds dv ds J ds ds
Using (3) and (4) in (2), we get

du dv
(Arj+^rj)- N f — + N , — = 0 which gives
ds ds

Mvy-N,)^ + A 0 y N 2 ) ^ 4 - ^ . ^ ] ^ + M r 2 - N 2 ) ^ = 0
ds ds ds as
Using the fundamental coefficients,

„ du dv du dv
LX—+M
ds ds ds I ds
366 Differential Geometry—A First Course

which is precisely the condition for the generator is the direction (A, ji) to be
f dv du\
conjugate to the tangent direction — , — at P.
yds ds)
8. Prove that at any point of a surface, the sum of normal curvatures in
conjugate directions is constant.
We shall establish the result by taking the lines of curvature as parametric
curves. In that case F = 0, M = 0. Let (du, dv) and (5w, 8v) be two conjugate
direction on the surface. The condition for these two directions to be conjugate is
LduSu + M(du8v + dvSu) + NdvSv = 0 ...(1)
Since Af = 0, the radii of normal curvature px andp 2 along conjugate directions
are given by
Edu2 +Gdv2 _ ESu2 +G5v2
Pi = -TTT—77TT'
Ldu2 + Ndv2' P2=
Pl r s..22 . +N8v
~ LSu *,*..22 -(2)

From (1), we get — = - — — ...(3)

ov L du
8u
Using (3), we can eliminate — in p 2 .
ov
_ EN2dv2 +GL2du2 _ EN2dv2 +GL2du2
Pl
~ LN2dv2 +NL2du2 " LN(Ldu2 + Ndv2)

{Edu2 + Gdv2)LN + EN2dv2 + GL2du2

Hence p{ + p 2 =
LN(Ldu2 + Ndv2)

Ldu2 (EN + GL) + Ndv2 (EN + GL)

LN(Ldu2 + Ndv2)

EN + GL Ldu2 + Ndv2 EN + GL
LN Ldu2 + Ndv2 LN
which is independent of the directions so that px + p 2 along conjugate directions is
constant.
9. Prove that the rectifying developable of a curve is the polar developable of
its involute.
Let C be the given curve having Cx for its involute. The rectifying plane given
by
(fl-r)n = 0 ...(1)
Using the suffix 1 for the quantities pertaining to C h the position vector of any
point on the involute is
r i = r + (c-$)t ...(2)
where c is a constant.
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 367

The polar developable of C, is the envelope of its normal planes and hence the
equation of the normal plane of Cx is
{R-vx)t{=0 ...(3)
If we prove (1) and (3) are identical, then they envelope the same surface and
hence the developables are one and the same. Differentiating (2) with respect tos,
drx dsx dv dt ^ ,
— = — + (c - s) 1 = (c - s) Kn
dsx ds ds ds
ds
Hence we have t{ —- = (c - s) KTI which gives tx = n,
ds
Substituting for rx in (3) and using t, = n, we get
[R - {r + (c - s)t} ] • n = 0 which reduces to
(R - r) • n = 0 which is (1). The converse follows by retracing the steps.
10. Find the asymptotic lines on the surface given by
x = a{\ + cos u) cot v, y = a{\ + cos u),z = a cos u cosec v
The asymptotic lines on a surface are given by the equation
Ldu2 + IMdudv + Ndv2 = 0
So let us find the fundamental coefficients L, M and N.
The position vector of any point on the surface is
r = [a (1 + cos u) cot v, a (1 + cos «), a cos u cosec v]
Now i*! = - a sin u (cot v, 1, cosec v).
rn=-a cos u (cot v, 1, cosec v)
r = a sm u
i2 ~ (~ cosec2v, 0, - cosec v cot v)
r
2 = [~ a (1 + c o s u) cosec 2v, 0, - a cos u cosec v cot v]
r 22 = [2a(l + cos u) cosec2v cot v, 0, a cos u cosec v(l + 2 cot2v)]
=a cosec v[2(l + cos u) cosec v cot v, 0, cos w(l + 2 cot2v)].
Now LH = r n • (rl x r 2 )
rx x r 2 = a2 sin u cosec v[cos u cot v, cosec2v(l + cos u) - cos u cot2v,
-cosec v(l + cos u)]
Hence LH = -a sin u cosec v{cos u - cos w(cosec v - cot2v)} = 0
2 2

MH = r12-(r! x r2)
= - a3 sin2w cosec3 v cot v
NH = r22-(rlxrl)
= -a3 sin w(l + cos u) cos u cosec3 v.
Since L = 0, the differential equation of the asymptotic lines becomes
dv[2Mdu + Ndv] = 0
368 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Substituting for M and N, we have

dv[2 sin u cot v du + (1 + cos u) cos u dv] = 0
Hence dv = 0 or 2 sin u cot v du + (1 + cos w) cos udv = 0
Sodv = 0 gives v = constant as one asymptote. To find the other asymptote, let us
solve the other equation which gives
2 sin u du sin v
-dv
cos u (1 + cos u) cos v

That is 2 sin w sin u du = dv

cos u 1 + cos u cos v
Integrating the above equation, we have
\2
1 + cos u
log = log cos v + log c which gives
COSM

(1 + cos uf
= c as another asymptotic line on the surface.
cos u cos v
11. Prove that the projection on the XOY plane of an asymptotic line of a
cylindroid z(x2 + y2) = 2 mxy is a lemniscate.
We can take the parametric representation of a point on the cylindroid as
r = (w cos 9, u sin 9, m sin 20) ...(1)
Then r t = (cos 9, sin 0, 0), r 2 = (- u sin 0, u cos 0, 2m cos 29).
rj x r 2 = (2m sin 0cos 29, - 2m cos 0cos 20, w)
r n = (0, 0, 0), r12 = (- sin 0, cos 0,0)
1*22 = (- w cos 0, - w sin 0, - 4m sin 20)
HL = r n - (i*! x r2) = 0, //M = r12- (r2 x r2) = - 2m cos 20
and HN = r22- (rx x r2) = - Amu sin 20
Substituting for L, M, N in the equation of the asymptotic lines, we obtain
J0[cos 29du + u sin 29 d9] = 0 which gives the asymptotic lines as d9 = 0 or
cos 29du + u sin 29d9 = 0 ...(2)
d0 = 0 gives 0= constant as an asymptotic line whereas (2) gives

...(3)
u cos 20

Integrating (3), we get log = log c2 or u2 = c2 cos 20 which are curved

cos 20
asymptotic lines. Since u = r in the XOY plane, the projection of the curved
asymptotic line on the XOY plane is r2 = c2 cos 20 which is a Lemmiscate.
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 369

12. If K and r are curvature and torsion of an asymptotic line, prove that
/c=[N,r', r"]andT=[N,N',r']
As proved in the Theorem 4 of 4.6, for a curved asymptotic line, the osculating
plane at any point P coincides with the tangent plane to the surface at P so that we
have b = N.
The principal normal to the asymptotic line is
n =bxt =Nxr' ...(1)
Differentiating b, b' = N' so that - m = N'
Taking dot product with n, T = - N ' n ...(2)
Using (1) in (2), r = - N' • (N x i-') = [N, N', r']
To find the curvature of the asymptotic line, let us differentiate t = r'. Then
dt
ds = r or jcn = r
Taking dot product with n on both sides, we have
K-= r" • n = r" • (N x r') = [r", N, r'] which can also be written as K= [N, r', r"]
13. The surface of revolution given by x = u cos v,b = u sin v,

z = a log{w + yju2 - a2 } is generated by rotating a catenary about its axis. Prove

that it is a minimal surface. Show also that it is the only minimal surface of
revolution.
To prove that it is a minimal surface. We verify the condition
EN - 2FM + GL = 0 for a surface to be minimal.
1
Now = (u cos v, u sin v, a log{w + yju2 - a2 })

r t = cos v, sin v,
Ju^7)
r 2 = (- u sin v, u cos v, 0)

ri x r 2 = -au -au
r-—Y • cos v,' n.—
f sin v, u

E =iyri = 2 2 y
F = rl'T2 = 0iG = rrr2 = u2
u -a
(
Further Tii = 0,0,-- au , r 12 = (- sin v, cos v, 0)
(u2-a2f\
1*22 = (~ w c o s v, - w sin v, 0)

Now //L = r 1 1 ( r 1 x r 2 ) = - au
(u2-a2)*
370 Differential Geometry—A First Course

M = r 1 2 -(r 1 xr 2 ) = 0
au
HN = r22-(r1xr2) =
JT^a2
™r ~„»* ^r u1 {au2) -u2au2
Hence EN - 2FM + GL = ( W - a ) H(u2-a2/>
2 2
H(u2-a2)*
so that the given surface is a minimal surface.
To establish that it is the only minimal surface, we take z =/(w) to be a general

curve in the XOZ plane and prove that/(w) can only be log

Using this choice of z, we can take

r = (u cos v, u sin vj(u))
vx = (cos v, sin v,/i), r 2 = (- u sin v, w cos v, 0)
rx x r 2 = (-/i« cos v, - / ^ sin v, w)
E m y r ^ 1 +/ 1 2 ,F = i y r 2 = 0,G = i y r 2 = w2.
rXi = (0, 0,/,,), r21 = (- sin v, cos v, 0)
r 22 = (- u cos v, - u sin v, 0)
//L = r 1 1 ( r 1 x r 2 ) = w/11
HM = r12- (rl x r2) =fxu cos v sin v -fxu cos v sin v = 0
HN = r22-(r1xr2) = u2fl
Substituting the values E, F, G and L, Af, N in the condition
EN - 2FM + GL = 0 for a minimal surface, we get
"/,i + 0 + / i 2 ) / i = 0

Using z = — so that — = —lr in the above equation,

du du du
dz i
we get u— + z(l + z ) = 0 which can be rewritten as
du

1 , du „
z1 + z 2 dz+ — = 0
u
Integrating the above equation,
1 2
log z log (1 + z ) + log w = constant = log a (say)
Simplifying the above equation, we obtain
2 2
W Z 2 0
2 = <z o r z =
l+z J7^
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 371

Since z = — , — = ,
1
du du ^ - a

Integrating the above equation f[u) = a log I u + yju2 -a2 J + /J

When u = ay let f(a) = a log a so that /? =0,

Thus we have z =f(u) = a log I w + ^/w2 " # 2 1

Hence except for position in space, the only minimal surface of revolution is

(x = u cos v, v = u sin v, z =J[u)) where/(w) = a log f u + ^/w2 - a 2 J

14. Prove that the right helicoid is the only ruled surface which is minimal.
Let us take the parametric representation on the right helicoid as
R = (w cos v, u sin v, av) ...(1)
First we prove that it is a minimal ruled surface and then establish that it is the
only ruled surface which is minimal.
Since the surface is generated by a straight line moving parallel to the plane
z = 0 and intersecting a line perpendicular to this plane viz. z-axis, we represent the
equation of the right helicoid in the form of a ruled surface. We take the z-axis as
the base curve and the lines parallel to the plane z - 0 as the generators of the ruled
surface. If ev e2 and e3 are the unit vectors along the axes of coordinates, we can
write (1) as
R = u{ex cos v + e2 sin v) + ave3 ...(2)
Since z-axis is the base curve, we rewrite the above equation as
R = ave3 + u(el cos v + e2 sin v)
where ex cos v + e2 sin v is the unit vector perpendicular to the z-axis. For the sake
of convenience , let us interchange u and v. Then R = aue3 + v g(w) where
g(w) = e{cos u + e2 sin u which is of the form R = r(w) + v g(w) showing that the
right helicoid is a ruled surface. First let us prove that it is a minimal surface.
Now R(w, v) = aue3 + v(e{ cos u + e2 sin u)
R{ = ae3 + v[- sin u ex + cos u e2]
1*2 = g(w) = c o s u e\ + s*n u e2
Rx x R2 = - a sin u ex + a cos u e2 - ve3
E = Rj RL = v2 + a2, G = R2 R2 = 1, F = Rx • R2 = 0.
R n = v[- cos u ex - sin u e2]t R22 = 0
R12 = - ex sin u + e2 cos u.
L = R n • (Rj xR 2 ) = v[a sin ucosu-a sinucos u] = 0
M = R12-(Ri xR 2 ) = A,iV= R22- (R, x R2) = 0
372 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Substituting the values L, M, N and£, F, G, the condition EN - 2FM+ GL = 0

for a minimal is satisfied. Hence the right helicoid is a minimal surface.
To prove that it is the only minimal ruled surface, let us assume that there exists
a ruled surface for which z =f(u). We shall show that/(w) =au + b. Using this value
of z, the equation of the ruled surface is
R = af(u) e3 + vg(u) = af(u) e3 + v[cos u ex + sin u e2]
Rj = afe3 + v[- sin u ex + cos u e2]
R2 = 8(w) = f( c o s u)e\ + (s^n M )^]
Ri x R2 = (- af sin M)^ + (af cos w)e2 + ^ ( - v).
E = a 2 /' 2 + v2, G = 1, f = v[- sin u cos « + sin « cos w] = 0.
R n = af"e3 + v[- cos u ex - sin u e2]
R12 = [- sin ue{ + cos u e2L R22 = 0
# L = R n - (Rj x R2) = - vfl/7' + v[af cos w sin u - af sin « cos u]
so that # L = - vaf"
HM = R12. (R! xR 2 ) = a s i n ^ / ' + a cos2uf = af
M = R 2 2 -(R,xR 2 ) = 0.
Using the above fundamental coefficients, the condition for a minimal surface
becomes - vaf'(u) - 0.
Since va * 0, integrating the above equation we obtain f(u) = au + b. As we
have interchanged u and v in the equation of the ruled surface, replacing u by v, we
get z =f(v) = av + b so that the minimal ruled can only be a right helicoid.
If is of interest to find the line of striction and the parameter of distribution.
We know that the line of striction is a base curve if and only if r • g = 0.
Now r = ae3 g = - sin u ex + cos u e2 so that
r-g=aey(-sinue{ + cosue2) = 0. Hence the base curve is the line of stric-
tion. Since z-axis is the base curve, the line of striction is the z-axis.
Further [r, g,g]=a and | g| = l
[r 0 pi
So p = ' = a which is a constant.
|g|2
15. If a curve on a ruled surface satisfies any two of the three conditions (i) of
being a geodesic (ii) of being the line of striction (iii) of intersecting the generators
at a constant angle, show that the remaining condition is satisfied.
Let P be a point on the base curve of a ruled surface, t be the unit tangent vector
at P, N be the unit surface normal and g be the unit vector along the generator at P.
Let a be the angle between the generator at P and the base curve. Proper
interpretation of this relation establishes the result.
Now let g t = cos a, andg x t = sin a N ...(1)
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 373

From the formula for the geodesic curvature, we have

Kg = [N, r', r"] = [(g x t) cosec a x r'] -i-" from (1)
= [(gxt)cosec a x t ] ' t '
= [(g • t)t cosec a - (t • t)g cosec a] • t'
Since t t ' = 0 a n d t t = 1, we get K^sin a = - g - t ' ...(2)
Rewriting (2) as
da
Kgsin a = - [ ( g t ) ' - g ' - t ] = sin a— + afrom(l)
ds
where a = g' t == g' r'.
da a
Thus we have K
8 = — + ...(3)
ds sin a
With the help of the Eq. (3), we prove the result. Let us first assume (i) and (ii)
and prove (iii)
Since the base curve is a geodesic, Kg = 0 and since it is the line of striction
An
a=g'r' = 0. Hence (3) gives — = 0. In other words a is constant. Thus (i) and
ds
(ii) imply (iii).
Let us assume (ii) and (iii) and prove (i).
Since the base curve is the line of striction a = g' • r' = 0
da da
As a is constant — = 0. Using these, (ii) and (iii) imply a = 0 and — = 0.
ds ds
Hence from (3), we get Kg = 0 which proves that the base curve is a geodesic.
da
Let us assume (iii) and (i) and prove (ii), (iii) and (i) imply — = 0 and Kg = 0.
Using these in Eq. (3), we obtani a = g7-!*7 = 0 showing that the given curve is the
line of striction. Hence (iii) and (i) imply (ii).
In the following problems, we shall take the equation of the surface as
z = f(x, y) which is known as Monge's form. We adopt the following notation
whenever we deal with the surface given in the Monge's form.

dx' dy* dx2 ' 3^3^' dy2

16. Show that the equation of the principal curvatures through a point on the
surface z =/(*, y) is
H*K*-H[(l+p2)t+(l+q2)r-2spq}K+rt-s2 = 0.
Also obtain the differential equation of lines of curvature on the surface and
deduce that at an umbilic
374 Differential Geometry—A First Course

r s t
Treating, x, y as parameters, let us find F, F, G and L, A/, N.

Hence r , x r 2 = ( - p , - ^ l )
E = l y r j = 1 +p 2 , F = r r r 2 = pq, G = r2 r2 = 1 + q2
H2=EG-F2=l+p2 + q2
r n = (0,0, r), r12 = (0, 0, s)9 r22 = (0, 0, 0
HL = r n - (rx x r2) = r, # M = r12-(r2 x r2) = 5
//A^ = r 22 -(r 1 xr 2 ) = r
The equation giving the principal curvature is
(EG -F 2 )* 2 -(EN -2FM + GL)K+ LN -M2 = 0
Substituting for F, F, G and L, A/, N and simplifying, we get
H V - H{ (1 + p2)f - 2p?j + (1 + <?2)r} JC+ (rf -*2) = 0
Differential equation of lines of curvature is
(EM-FL)dx2 + (EN-GL)dxdy + (FN-GM)dy2 = 0
Using the values of the fundamental coefficients, we get
{(1 + p2)s-pqr}dx2 + {(1 +/? 2 )/-(l + q2)r}dxdy + {pqt-(l +q2)s}dy2 = 0
At an unibilic, we know that

E F G u. u . 1 + p 2 ptf l + <?2
— = — = — which gives — = £-2- = —
L M N r s t
17. Find the unibilics of the ellipsoid
2 2 2
* + > + * = ! ...(1)
a 0 c
and prove that the tangent planes at these points are parallel to the circular sections
of the ellipsoid.
Treating (1) as a function of z, let us find p, q, r, s and t.
Differentiating (1) partially with respect tox and)', we get
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 375

Using (2), we obtain.

3£' C2\\ X 1 1 C2 2
dx a U z J 2 a

~3? a 2 L~ 2 2 T~ «
C 2
.(3)
dy b2lz z1 \ z
At an umbilic, we have from the previous problem

i + p2 _pq _ i + 4 2 .(4)
r s t
Using the first two ratios of (4), we get
5(1 +p2)-rpq =0
Subsituting for s from (3) and simplifying, we obtain
2
M{(l+p ) + rz}=0
2
We prove that 1 + p + rz * 0 so that either p = 0 or q = 0
c
2
Using (3), we have 1 + p2 + rz = 1 + p2 - -T + P = l - - r1 * 0
1
V J
a
Now thefirstand the third ratio in (4) gives
f(l+p 2 )-r(l+<7 2 ) = 0
Substituting for t and r from (3) in the above equation,
a2p\b2 - c2) + b2q\c2 - a2) = c\a2 - b2) ...(5)
Using the above relation between/? and q, wefindthe coordinates of a point on
the ellipsoid.
Let us take a>b>c and consider the cases p = 0 or q = 0.
If p - 0 in (5), q becomes imaginary as c2 < a2.

c a2-b2
If q = 0in(5\p = ±- |L ...(6)
a \b -c
and q - 0 in (2) given y = 0
Equating the values of p in (2) and (6), we get

c2x c \a2-b2 .
—y- = ± — \—z
2 2
a\b -c Y which gives
a z '
376 Differential Geometry—A First Course

xla
2
yja b2 y/b2^1

Thus the umbilics are given by

1.x2 v2 z2
xla y zlc _ \a2+b2+c2 1
r = ±-=
1
JT^b 0 ^ ? yla2-b2+b2-c2 J7^7
From the above, we find the coordinates of an umbilic as,

aJa2-b2 n 1 ^ ? "

The tangent plane at a point (x{, ylt Z\) on the ellipsoid is

2 i2 2 ~
fl Z? C
Hence the tangent plane at an umbilic is

t — yja2 - b2 ± -yjb2 - c2 = ± yja2 - c 2 which are planes parallel to the

a c
central circular sections of the ellipsoid.
18. Show that the necessary and sufficient condition that z = f(x, y) is a
developable surface is rt - s2 = 0.
Taking the equation of the surface as r = r(x, y, z), and treating ,v, y as
LN-M2
parameters, let us find K= 2

As in Example 16, we have rx = (1, 0,p), r2 = (0, 1, q)

HL = r,HM = sandHN = t
u r, „ LN-M2 rt-s2
Hence the Gaussian curvature K = = = -A—
H2 H4
The surface is a developable if and only if K = 0 which implies and is implied
by r r - 5 2 = 0 a s / / * 0 .
Note. When the equation of a surface is given in the Monge's form z =/(*, y),
the above criterion is very useful for proving the given surface to be a developable.
For example, let us consider the surface xyz = a2.
2a2 2a2 a2
For this surface r = —r—, t = —=-,
3 »'"" 3 »s = 2 2
x y xy xy
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 377

rt-s 4a«
Hence 4 4 4 4 4 *0
1F~ H
x y x y
Therefore by the above criterion xyz = a2 is not a developable surface.
19. Show that the lines of curvature of the paraboloid;cy = az lie on the surface

sinh-1 — ± sinh"1 — = constant.

Writing the equation of the surface in the Monge's form

xy * dz y dz x d2z A
z = —t we have/? = — = - , q = —- = - , r=—5- = 0
a ox a oy a dx

3;c3;y a' 3;y2

If the surface is represented as R(JC, y) = (*, y, 2),
3r
then n = — = (1, 0, p), r2 = (0, 1, q)
ox
r Xr
l 2 = (-P»^ 1)

E=l+p'=l + +TyF = pq=-lr,G=l+qz=l + -T

and / / 2 = l + / ? 2 + <?2.
Further to find L, M, N, we have
r n = (0, 0, r), r12 = (0, 0, j) and r22 = (0, 0, t)
//L = r11-(r1 xr 2 ) = r = 0,HM=r 12 -(r 1 xr 2 ) = 5
/ / # = r22- (rx x r2) = t = 0
The lines of curvature along the principal directions are given by
(EM-FL)dx2 + (EN-GL)dxdy + (FN-GM)dy2 = 0
Substituting the values of the fundamental coefficients,
,2\
! +• dy1 = 0 giving
a2 jaH afi
v
dx dy
.= +-
y[S+X 2
7^7
Integrating the above equation, we obtain

sinh-1
(3* sinh 11 — = constant
378 Differential Geometry—A First Course

20. Show that the indicatrix at a point on the surface z =/(*, y) is a rectangular
hyperbola if
(1 + p2)t - Ipqs + (1 + q2)r = 0.
From the Example (16),
E = l+p2,F = pq,G=l+q2
HL = r,HM = s,HN = t
The indicatrix at a point on z =f(x, y) is a rectangular hyperbola if
EN-2FM+GL = 0ifH*0.
Using the values E, F, G and L, M, N in the above equation,
(1 + p2)t - Ipqs + (1 + q2)r = 0
21. Show that the asymptotic lines on the surface z =f{x, y) are given by
rdx2 + 2sdxdy +.tdy2 = 0
Taking the equation of the surface as R(x, y, z) = (*, y, z),
we have as in Example (16),

L = — , M = — , A ^ = - ^ , / / 2 = l + p 2 + ^2
H H H
The asymptotic lines are given by
Ldx2 + 2Mdxdy + Ndy2 = 0
Substituting the values of L, M andN, the equation of the asymptotic lines are
given by
rdb?- + Isdxdy + tdy2 = 0
As an application of the above formula let us find the asymptotic lines on the
2 2
x y
paraboloid 2z = - y - :Lr
a b

Writing the above equation in Monge's form z = —

a2 b2

dz _ x _ dz
we find p = — := —[,q
q = .
Hx ~~a ~Ty b2

-i-£-J_ - ^ =n t-hz = !

Using these particular values in the formula for the asymptotic lines, we get
1 2 , 2l 1 . 2l (x dx ,dy
-?r
2 dx - 2 -=- dyy = 0 or — = ± —
a fo a b
Integrating the above equation, we obtain the asymptotic lines as
x y
— ± — = constant.
a b
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 379

4.14 EXERCISES IV
1. Find the fundamental coefficients E, F, G and L, M, N for the helicoid.
r(w, v) = ((w) cos v, (w) sin v,/(w) + cv)
Also find the unit normal to the surface.
2. Find the position vector of a point on the surface generated by the normals
of a twisted curve. Find the fundamental coefficients and the unit normal
to the surface.
3. For the surface r = (u cos v, u sin v,/(«)), find
(i) the principal directions and principal curvatures at any point on the
surface.
it
(ii) the normal curvature along a direction making an angle — with the
4
meridian of the surface.
4. Find the position vector of any point on a surface generated by tangents to
a twisted curve. Obtain the principal directions and principal curvatures at
any point on the surface.
5. Find the Gaussian curvature of the conoid
r(w, v) = (u cos v, u sin v, cos 2v).
6. Find the Gaussian curvature and mean curvature of the helicoid
r(w, v) = (u cos v, u sin v,/(w) + cv). Show that the Gaussian curvature is a
constant along a helix. Find also the mean curvature along the helix.
7. Show that the Gaussian curvature and mean curvature on the surface
x = u + v,y = u-v, z = uv

at the point x = 2, y = 0, z = 1 are K= and jx = —j=

16 8v2
8. Find the nature of the points on the following surface.
(i) r(a, v) = (w, v, u2 - v2) (ii) r(«, v) = (w, v, u2 + v3)
9. Show that all points on a tangent surface of a curve C are parabolic.
10. Show that the points of the paraboloid r(«, v) = (u cos v, u sin v, u2) are
elliptic but the points of the helicoid r(«, v) = (u cos v, u sin v, v) are
hyperbolic.
11. Find the differential equation of the lines of curvature of the surfaces
generated by (i) binomials and (ii) principal normals of a twisted curve.
12. Find the lines of curvature on a plane.
13. Show that any curve on a sphere is a line of curvature.
14. If a plane or a sphere cuts a surface everywhere at a constant angle, prove
that the curve of intersection is a line of curvature on the surface.
15. Show that the Dupin indicatrix of the surface z = xy at the origin is
JC*-)/ 2 = ± 1 .
16. Prove that the Dupin indicatrix at a point of a sphere is a circle.
380 Differential Geometry—A First Course

17. Prove that the parametric curves are conjugate on (i) a surface of
revolution r = (u cos v, u sin v, /(«)) and (ii) the tangential developable r(w,
v) = r + vt.
18. Find the direction conjugate to u = constant on the surface
r(«, v) = (u cos v, u sin v,j{u))
19. Obtain the differential equation of the asymptotic lines on the surface of
revolution
r(w, v) = (w cos v, u sin v,/(w))
20. Find the asymptotic lines of the cone
x = u cos 0, y = u sin 6,z = u cot a.
21. Find the asymptotic lines on the paraboloid of revolution z = x2 + y2.
22. Prove that the generators of a ruled surface are asymptotic lines.
23. Find the condition for the asymptotic lines to be orthogonal.
24. Prove that the normal curvature in a direction perpendicular to an
asymptotic line is twice the mean normal curvature.
25. Show that the curvature of an asymptotic line may be expressed as

-^{(ri.rOC^O-Cr^rO^.r'O}
H
26. Prove that the surfaces generated by the tangents to a twisted curve is a
developable surface.
27. Obtain the tangential developable of the curve r = (w, w2, w3).
28. Show that the edge of regression of the polar developable of a curve of
constant curvature is the locus of its centres of curvature.
29. Find the curvature and torsion of the edge of regression of the osculating
developable.
30. Show that the surface sin z = sinh x • sinh v is minimal.
31. Prove that the only real minimal surface of revolution is that formed by the
revolution of the catenary about its directrix.
32. Find the ruled surface formed by the principal normals of a curve.
33. Obtain the distribution of parameter and the striction line of the surface
r = (u cos v, u sin v, av).
34. Find the parameter of distribution of a ruled surface
r(w, v) = a(u) + vp(u). Hence obtain its Gaussian curvature.
35. Show that for the Enneper's surface
( 3 3 ^\
I M 9 V 2 2 2
r(«, v ) = w + KV , v - — + vw , w - v
V ^ 3 J
The Second Fundamental Form and Local Non-intrinsic Properties of a Surface 381

(i) The principal curvature are

2 2
1 2 2 2 , i
* ~(l + ll +V ) * ~ (1 + K 2 + V 2 ) 2

(ii) The lines of curvature are parametric curves

(iii) Asymptotic lines are u + v = constant and (w - v) := constant.
36. Find the third fundamental form of the following surfaces,
(i) r(w, v) = (w cos v, u sin v, cu)

(ii) r(«, v) = \a sin u cos v, a sin u sin v, a log tan —+ COSM

 The Fundamental Equations of
Surface Theory

5.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we shall take up for study the fundamental equations of surface
theory, consisting of equations of Gauss, Weingarten equations and the Mainardi-
Codazzi equations known also as Codazzi equations and give some simple
applications of these equations to the theory of parallel surfaces. We shall conclude
our study by giving a detailed discussion of the fundamental theorem of surface
theory.

5.2 TENSOR NOTATIONS

We employ the same Cristoffel symbols of the first kind TiJk and second kind rljk
used in the equations of geodesies is Chapter 3 for giving the fundamental
equations of the surface theory in a shortened neat form. Since we need them very
often throughout this chapter, we recollect them for their particular values
ij, k- 1, 2 as follows.
Definition 1. For ij, k = 1, 2

Tijk = -{(r,- 'Tj)K + (r,. .rK)j - (r- - r j j

2
where () k , () ; , (), denote differentiation with respect to rk, r;- and r,- respectvely.
From the above definition, we have already noted in Chapter 3, rijk = 17 rjk.
For particular values of ij, k = 1, 2, we have

r
m = r r r n = 2^1 r
2n = r 2 , r n = / V 2^2

= r
^112 r r 1 2 = T^2 ^212 = r 2 # r 1 2 = T ^ j
The Fundamental Equations of Surf ace Theory 383

^121 ~ r r r 2 i - ~z^i ^221 - r 2 ' r 2 1 - T ^ l

^122 = r
rr22 = ^2~ T^l ^222 - r 2 ' r 2 2 ~ T^2

Also we note from the above

^112 = ^121 an(

^ ^221 = r 2 1 2

The Christoffel symbols of the second kind denoted by

Tjk, / = 1, 2 J = k = 1, 2 are defined as

r
jk =H~2 [Gr\jk -Fr2jk)>rfk =H~2{Er2jk -frijk)

For particular values ij, k, we have the following

r,\ = - ^ ( G r m - Fr211) = J L ( GF, - IFF, + FE2)

ti Lti

r/2 = -L(Gr U 2 -Fr 2 1 2 ) = -l y (GE 2 - J FG 1 )

ti Lti

r
22 = ^ 2 " ( G r 1 2 2 - F r 2 2 2 ) = ^ y ( 2 G F 2 - G G 1 - FG2)

r121 = -J r (Fr 2 1 1 -Fr 1 1 1 ) = -l y (2FF 1 -F£ 2 -FF 1 )

ti Lti

r?2 = -),-(£ r212 - F T , 12> = - ^ - ( ^ G , - FE2)

ti Zti

T2\ = -^{E T222 - F T122) = ^Y(EG2 - 2FF 2 + FGO

Note. It is worthwhile to note that the Christoffel symbols exclusively

depend upon the coefficients of the first fundamental form and their first partial
derivatives.

5.3 GAUSS EQUATIONS

One of the fundamental equations of the surface theory is given by Gauss
equations. SinceE, F, G depend on the first order derivatives andL, M, N involve
the second order derivatives of r, we cannot find any algebraic relation between
them except possibly in some special cases. However we can obtain a differential
relation between!?, F, G andL, M, N which is the aim of Gauss equations given in
the following theorem.
384 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Theorem 1. If r^ r 2 andN are three linearly independent vectors at a pointP

on the surface r = r(w, V), then
r 1 1 =r 1 1 1 r 1 + r ? 1 r 2 + L N
ri2=r l 1 2 ri + r122r2 + ^ N
r
22 = r j 2 r 1 + r^ 2 r 2 + A^N
Proof. At a point P on surface, let us introduce a coordinate system
consisting of three linearly independent vectors rv r 2 and N of which rx and r 2 lie
in the tangent plane atP and N is the unit normal to the surface. With respect to this
coordinate system, let us express r n , r12 and r 22 at P as linear combinations of
these basic vectors.
Hence we can represent
r n = a ^ ! + a y 2 + a3N ...(1)
r 1 2 =/J 1 r 1 + /J 2 r 2 + /?3N ...(2)
r 2 2 = y i r 1 + y 2 r2+y 3 N ...(3)
where we determine ah /J,, y, / = 1,2, 3.
Taking dot product with N on both sides of the above equations and using
I-J• N = r2- N = 0, we obtain
N - r u = (%N-N, N-r 12 = /J3N-N, N-r 2 2 =y 3 N-N
Since N - r u = L, N-r 12 = M, N-r 22 = Wand N-N = 1, we get
a 3 = L, p3 = Mmdy2 =N ...(4)
Having found out Oj, /53 and y3, we find a{,pl9 yx> and a 2 , /J2, y 2 as follows.
To determine these, we need the derivatives of the fundamental coefficients E, F
and G.
dE
*i —^-(r 1 2 ) = 2r 1 T l l f Tx.Tn=\Ex ...(5)
8« ou 2
9£ 9 2 1
E2 =
" dv — dv
(r 1 ) = 2r 1 r 1 2 , rvvn=-E2
2
...(6)

9 2 1
G, = — ( r | ) = 2r 2 -r 21 , r 2 -r 21 = - G 1 ...(7)
9M
ou 2
9G
G2 = — (r2) = 2r 2 'r 2 2, i y r 2 2 = - G 2 -(8)
" dv dv 2

^i = V - ( r r r 2 ) = r 2'rii + r 1 .r 1 2
ou
The Fundamental Equations of Surface Theory 385

Hence i y r n = F, - l y r12 = F{--E2 ...(9)

_3_
^2 = T " ( l V r 2 ) = I
V r i 2 + iYr22
9v

So r1r22=F2-r2-r12 = F 2 - ^ G 1 ...(10)

We convert each of the equations (1), (2), and (3) as simultaneous equations
and solve them for a,, j8/f / = 1, 2.
For this purpose, let us take dot product of (1) with rx and r 2 respectively. Then
we have
iYrn =a1iyr1 + a 2 r 2 n
iyrn =a1r1r2+o2r2r2
Since rx • rx = F, r2- r 2 = G, using (5) and (9), we get

a1F + F a 2 - - F 1 = 0

^F + G^-^F,-|fi2j=0

Solving the above two equations,

2a{ 2a2 1
G ^ - 2FF{ + FE2 ~ 2FFj - FF 2 - ^ F " EG - F 2

G F - 2FF + FF 2 _!
Thus we get a
\ = * —? = r
li
1 2
2(FG-F )
2EFl-EE2-ElF _ 2
2
2(EG-F2)

Hence the equation (1) becomes

r n =r} 1 r 1 + r 2 1 r 2 + LN
Taking dot product with rt and r 2 of (2),
1V12 =j8 1 r,-r 1 + j5 2 r 2 -r 1
r 2 r 1 2 =)3 1 r 1 r 2 + /3 2 r 2 -r 2
Using the fundamental coefficients and (6) and (7),
386 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Solving the above two equations, we obtain

2j8, 2p2 _ 1
GE2 - FGX EGX - FE2 EG - F 2

GE2 - FGX ,
Hence p,1 = =- = 1 19
2(EG-F2) n

_ EGX -FE2 _r2

2
2(EG-F2) n

Let us take dot product of (3) with rx and r 2

then r 1 r 2 2 = y 1 r 1 r 1 + 7 2 r 1 -r 2

So the simultaneous equations in yx an y2 become

-M<
EYl + Fy2- \F2--GX =0

Solving these two equations, we get

= 2GF2-GG,-FG2 = p l
1
2{EG-F2) 22

EG2-2FF2+FGX ^2
L
72 = * ^ = T£ 2
2{EG-F2)
Thus the equations (1), (2) and (3) become
r ^ r ^ + rfo+LN
ri2 = r 1 1 2 n + r 2 2 r 2 + MN
r 22 = r^i-j + r 2 2 r 2 + NN
The above three equations are known as Gauss equations. r n , r12 and r 22 are
called Gauss coefficients Thus the Gauss equations give Gauss coefficients in
terms of is, F and G and their partial derviatives andL, M, N. These equations are
also known as the partial differential equations of the surface theory.
The Fundamental Equations of Surface Theory 387

Corollary 1. If the parametric curves are orthogonal, then the Gauss

equations are

rn = — - n - r 2 + LN
11
IE l 2G 2

r12 = — r , + — r 2 + MN
12
IE x 2G

122 l 2
IE
Ld 2G
LKJ
Proof. Since the parametric curves are orthogonal F = 0 and//J2. =/sG. Using
these conditions, the Christoffel symbol coefficients in the Gauss equations
became

1 G£, _ £ i 2 __ -EE2 _ ~E2

1
11 •
" 2EG 2E n ~ 2EG 2G

1
12 "
GE2 -h, 1n—
EGi
' 2EG 2E 2EG " 2G

.1 -GGX -z9v EG2 G^

Y =
~22 2EG 2E 22
2EG 2G
Using these cofficients, the Gauss equations take the given form.
Corollary 2. If the lines of curvature are parametric curves on the surface,
then the Gauss equations are

11 l 2
2E 2G
E2 G{
r12 = —-r, + — L r 2
12
2E l 2G 2

22 x 2
2E 2G
Proof. When the lines of curvature as chosen as parametric curves,
then F = 0, M =0 and H2 = EG. Using these conditions, we can rewrite the Gauss
equations in the above form as in Corollary 1.
Note. The Christoffel symbols in terms of E, F, G and their derivatives are
the same in this case as well as in Corollary 1.
Theorem 2. If the set of conjugate lines at P forms the coordinate axes at P,
the second of the Gauss equations becomes
r
i2~ri2ri-ri2r2 = 0
and conversely any partial differential equation of the above type determines a
surface on which u = constant and v = constant are conjugate lines.
388 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Proof. When the conjugate lines at P form a coordinate system at P.

Then M = 0. So the second of Gauss equations become
r
12~ ^12rl~^12r2 =
0
If we write the above equations in the Cartessian form, we get a set of three
differential equations in JC, y, z each of which is a function of w, v.
Conversely when (2) takes the above form, the parametric coordinates (w, v) on
the surface are conjugate. The proof follows by observing that any function of w, v
appearing in place of r\2 and T2n in the equation are determined by E, F, G and
their derivatives obtained by the corresponding surface as the solution of the given
equations.
Theorem 3. If v = constant is an asymptotic line on a surface, the first of the
Gauss equation is
'11-^1-^,1-2 = 0

and conversely, solutions of any partial differential equations of the above type
determines a surface on which v = constant is an asymptotic line.
Proof. When v = constant is an asymptotic line on a surface, then L = 0.
Using this condition, the first of the Gauss equations takes the given form.
Conversely three functionally independent solutions for x9 yy z in w, v of any
partial differential equation of the above type determine a surface on which
v = constant is an asymptotic line. The proof follows as in Theorm 2.

5.4 WEINGARTEN EQUATIONS

Since N 2 = L we have N-Nj= 0 and N N 2 = 0 showing N{ and N2 are
perpendicular to N.

As Nj = — and N2 = -r— are vectors perpendicular to N, they he in the

du ov
tangent plane at P. So we can express N, andN2 in terms of rx and r2. These lead to
Weingarten equations which are supposed to be complementary to Gauss
equations.

Theorem 1. (Weingarten Equations). If Nj = —— and N2 = — ,

ou ov

then Nt = - ^ ii™ - GL )rx + (FL - EM)v2]

H

N2 = - ^ - [(FN - GM )r, + (FM - EN)r2]

H
Proof. Nj and N2 lie on the tangent plane at P.
Let Nl=plrl+p2r2 ...(1)
N2 = ^ 1 r 1 + ^ 2 r 2 -(2)
The Fundamental Equations of Surf ace Theory 389

wherepx, p2 and q{y q2 are the scalars to be determined in terms of F, F, G and L,

MyN.
Taking dot product of (1) with rx and r 2 respectively,
N
rri = P\*i'*\+Pi*r*i
N r r 2 =Pir 1 -r 2 +p 2 r 2 -r 2
Since L = - Nj • rx = and M = - Nj • r2, we have from the above equations
Epl + Fp2 + L = 0
Fpl + Gp2 + M = 0
Solving the above two simultaneous equations for/?!, and/?2,

P\ = Pi = 1
FM-GL FL-EM EG-F2

FM -GL FL- EM
Hence p, = 5- , p 2 = =-
1
FG-F 2 2
FG-F2
Taking dot product of (2) with rx and r 2 respectively,
N 2 -ri =9ir 1 -r 1 + ^ 2 r 2 -r 1
N 2 -r 2 =tf 2 iyr 2 + <72iyr2
Since M = - N2- r{ and N = - N2 • r2, the above equations become,
Eql + Fq2 + M = 0
Fql +Gq2 + N = 0
Solving the above equations for qx and q2, we have
_ FN-GM FM-EN
q
'~ EG-F2' q2
~ EG-F2

Hence N, = - \ [(FM - GL)YX + (FL - FM)r 2 ] ...(3)

H

N2 = \ [(FN - GM)TX + (FM - EN)r2] ...(4)

H
The equations expressing Nj and N2 in term of F, F, G and L, Af, N are called
Weingarten equations.
Corollary. When the lines of curvature are parametric curves, then the
Weingarten equations are

N r a n d N r
l = -- l 2=--^ 2-

Proof. When the lines of curvature are parametric curves on the surface,
then F = 0, M = 0 and H = EG. Using these conditions in (3) and (4), we get
390 Differential Geometry—A First Course

which are the simplest form of Weingarten equations.

LN-MZ
Theorem 2. If N is the surface normal, Nj X N2 = N.
H
Proof. From equations (1) and (2) of Weingarten equations we have
N, x N2 = (pxry + p2r2) x ( 9 l r,+ q2r2)

= (Pi<l2-P2<li)(rixr2) -d)

FM-LG FM-EN (LF - EM) (FN-GM)

Now plq2-p2ql= ff2
Hz Hl Hz

'{EG-F*HLN-M>)=™^L •••(2)
H H
Using (2) in (1) we obtain,

N 1 , . . . ..2w . tN-M J
i x N 2 = 77T (IN - Mz) (r, x r2) = N as r t x r 2 = NH
//^ tf

5.5 MAINARDI-CODAZZI EQUATIONS

Having expressed ru, r 12 and r22 in terms of E, F, G and L, M, N, the question
naturally arises about similar relation among the partial derivatives of higher order.
In connection with the partial derivatives of third order, we have the following
compatibility conditions.

d (d2r <d2r^
,or(r 1 1 ) 2 = (r, 2 ), ...(1)
dvldu2 du dvdu

( d^zr
2 I' ( r 12)2-( r 22)l ...(2)
dv dvdu duldv

Mainardi-Coddazi equations express the above identities in terms of the

fundamental coefficients and their partial derivatives.
Theorem 1. The Mainardi-Codazzi equations are

ov ou

d
-^--^=LT2\ + M(Xl2-T\2)-NT\2
ov ou
The Fundamental Equations of Surf ace Theory 391

Proof. Subtituting for r n , r 12 and r 22 from the Gauss equations in the

equations (1) and (2),

| - [rj i r i + r2nr2 + LN] = J- [r} 2ri + r 2 2 r 2 + MN] (A)

dv au

T" [ r i2 r i + r ?2 r 2 + MN ] = ^-[T\ 2 vx + T222r2 + NN] (B)

dv au
Using Gauss equations again, let us find each term on the left hand side of (A)

|"[r!ir1]=|-(r1,I)r1 + r1,1r12
dv dv

= T-(r!i)r, + r.'.crkn + r 2 2 r 2 +MN ) -.(3)

dv

|-[r?,rj = ^-(r? 1 )r 2 + r?Ir22

dv dv

= |-(r1i)r 2 + r f j o r ^ + r222r2 + WN ) ...(4)

dv
We find the third term using Weingarten equation,
9 _____ 3L_. _ 3N 9L._
— [LN] = -—N + L — = - - N + LN2
dv dv dv dv

= | ^ N + -L.[(FN-GM)ri + (FM - E_V)r2] •••(5)

Now gathering the coefficients of rx, r 2 and N, we have the left hand side of (A) as

i-rrh + r'r 1 + r 2 r ' FN GM

+^ ~ ^
3v l
-Z-\ \0 + l
\\l \2 + 1 11 1 22 +
(EG-F*)

3
( r 2 ) i r ' r 2 i r2r2 i L M EN
^ ~ "> to +
3v ( u) u 12 + 1
» 22
EG-F2

dL
T},M + r?,N + N (C)
dv
Let us do similar simplifications for each term on the right hand side of (A).
Using Gauss equations,
a
(r 1 1 2 ri) = ^-(r 1 l2 )r, + r;2r11
du du

= ^-(r! 2 )r 1 + r112[r'11r1 + r 2 1 r 2+ LN]

au
392 Differential Geometry—A First Course

•z-irhrA
du —(r2ljr2 + f \ p n
= du

= ^-(r,22)r2+ r?2[ri2r1+ r,22r2+iWN]

du
Using Weingarten equations,

du du du du

=^ N + jL [(FM - GL)rx + (FL - EM)r2]

Hence gathering the cofficients of r^ r2 and N, we have the right hand side
of (A) as

£(r, ! 2) + i M + r^r/a + ^ - ( F M - GD r, +

|-(r,22)+r,22r,22 + ^ r 2 + ^ ( F L - EM) To +

Ti2L + rhM +^N (D)

du
Since (C) and (D) represent both sides of the equations (A), let us equate the
cofficients of rv r2 and N in (C ) and (D).
Equating the coefficient of rx, we obtain

12 22
dv " " " (EG-F2)

= f(r; 2 ) + rl 2 rl 1 + r 2 2 r l 2 + M ( F M - f )
du n n
" n n
(EG-F2)
Simplifying the above equation, we have
(LN-M2) _ 9 , 8_ ,
u 2 , 2 ,
r—^—=i- - - ^ - U 12) _ ^ ~ U ll^ + 1
12 1 1 2 _ 1 l l 1 22 (E)
(EG-F2) du dv
Equating the coefficient of r2, we have
d /T,2x -1-2 T.2 T.2 L(FM-EN)
2 1 L
—(r, ,) + r, , r ,2 + r „ r 22 + — r-
n 12 22
dv " " (EG-F2)
=
^(r'2) +r 2 r 2 +r 2r 1+
' ' ' ' (EG-F2)
Simplifying the above equation,
The Fundamental Equations of Surface Theory 393

XLN-M2) = d 2 d
-E\„„ 2p 2 : = —,(r(n)2)-^(r,2,) + r, 2 2 rf 2 -r 2 , r222 + r{ 2 r 2 ,-r,\r 2 2 (F)
(EG-F ) du dv
The coefficient of N gives.
dL dM i o o i
— - — ^ r ^ - w r ^ + MoVrJ,) (O
dv du
In a similar manner, we can simplify both sides of (B) and arrive at equations
analogous to (E), (F) and (G).
Besides the equation (E) and (F), the equation similar to (G) from (B) is
d
-^--~=LT\2+M{Tl2-Tl2)-N^2 (H)
dv du
The equations (G) and (H) are called Mainardi-codazzi equations which give
the partial derivatives of coefficients of the second fundamental form.
Note 1. The equations (E) and (F) give Gaussian curvature in terms of E, F and
G with their partial derivatives of first and second order. A property depending
only on Ey F, G and thier partial derivatives of first and second order is known as
intrinsically invariant property. Thus the Gaussian curvature is intrinsically
invarint. Gauss considered this as a most excellent theorm. In words of Gauss, "it is
Theorema egregium."
Note 2. The equation (F)

(LN-M ) _ d 2x ^ r r 2 ^ 4 . r 1 r 2 r1 r2 + r 2 r2 r2 r 2
-n——~ 2 1Z/ l l _ 1 1 + 1 l _ 1
l l 1 22
EG-F ~2~ - ^—
du U 12J- 3"^~U
V \\) + \2 11 l l 12 12 12

is of particular interest in our study, since the left hand side gives -EK where K is
the Gaussian curvature. In the following theorm, we simplify (F) by choosing lines
of curvature as parametric curves.
Theorem 2. If the lines of curvature are parametric curves, then

LN 9 ( i aVG^i a ( I aVif
+ • =0
V^G du JE du ) + dv\y[G
—- dv
Proof. When the lines of curvature are parametric curves, we have F = 0 and
M = 0. We rewrite the equation (F) under these conditions.
IN
When F = 0,M = 0 , A : = — ...(1)
EG
Let us find out the right hand side of (F) under the condition F = 0
d_ 2 d (EGl)_ d (E Gx
Xl) 2
du'r "du\2H )~du\H2H
394 Differential Geometry—A First Course

H du{2HJ 2H du[ -JG

Ei <JEGi
••(2)
Hdu\2H) 2H 2JEG ~ 2G3/i

h(r'l)=^[~~H2H
E d (E. E7 d
Hdv\2H) 2Hdv

E d ( E- ?
2 H ^2G2
••(3)
Hdv\2H AEG AG1

GE-\ EE-)
r112 r^11 - - 2EG
1
2EG AEG
••(4)

GE{ EGj _ Eft

r ' r 2 - 2EG
1 2EG ~ AEG
..(5)
ll 1 12 _

r2 r2 _ EG
l EG{ G,2
1 •(6)
1 2 1 12 -
2EG 2EG AG'
2 T-2 _ ~EE2 EG2 —E2G2
1 11 A
79 — •(7)
2EG 2EG AG2
Using the equations (2) to (7) in (F), w e get

2Hdu\H) 2Hdv\H

FN 1
Since E*Q,K=—- =
EG 2H du{HJ dv\H

LN 1
Hence =0
EG 2H du{HJ dv{HJ

Since H = -JEG * 0 , w e get from the above equations,

LN 1 G, d ( E2 y = 0 ••(8)
JEG • +2— 3M VEG 9V^VIGJ_

i a " i aVG]
Now ...(9)
2 8M 7£G du -»/£ 9M J
The Fundamental Equations of Surface Theory 395

1 d ( E2 _a_ 1 dyfE
and ...(10)
dv y[G dv

Using (9) and (10) in (8), we finally obtain

LN d_ 1 dy/G) d 1 dyfE^
=0
J~EG du Vtf du J 3vl 4G dv

Note. From the above equation, we get

i aVG i i T dyfE
K=
EG du\^E du J ' dv{ VG 9V

This equation is also called Gauss equation.

Remark. The surprising fact about the equation (F) is that it gives the
expressions for the Gaussian curvature K introduced in Chapter 3. The Gaussian
d (G, d (E.
curvature coincides with -
2H du\H) dv\H
In the following theorem, we verify that the Gaussian curvature defined in
Chapter 3 is precisely what is given in this section as in the above remark.
Theorem 3. The Gaussian curvature given by

-£x=|-(rf2)-|-(r?1) + r l 1 2 r ] 2 1 r 1l l 1r 212 A-V212 Lv112'- r z11 Ar 22

1 111 10 ' 1 10 A 10 1 II 1
...(1)
ou ov
and the formula

* = -LA EF2 - EGX +

2EF{ - FE{ EE0
...(2)
H du 2HE Hdv 2HE
are precisely one and the same.
Proof. Since K is invariant, it is enough if we prove the result in a special
coordinate system which we can choose as geodesic polar coordinates.
In geodesic polar coordinates, we have
ds2 = du2 + X2dv2
For this fundamental form, we have
E = 1 , F = 0,G = A2(M,V),//=A
Now we shall calculate K by the formula (1)

=
iyy = 0 , F J 2 0, F22 = 9" A 2AA\ — — AAJ
2/i

r
n - 0 , r 1 2 - — y 2 A A, - —
396 Differential Geometry—A First Course

22
2A2 2
A
Substituting the above values of Christoffel symbols in (1), we have

EK = -JL(h.)Z
du{ X

(AAn - A2) AL = _ALL

= - ...(3)
A2 A2 A

LN- - M 2
Hence
EG -F2 A
Let us find K using the earlier formula given in (2),
Using the values of E, F and G in (2), we get

2H\du\H) dv{H

__J_ld_(2XAX}\ _ An
...(4)
2X[du
From (3) and (4), we conclude that the two definitions of Gaussian curvature
are one and the same.
After deriving Mainardi-Codazzi equations in Theorm 1, we were very much
interested in the expressions for Gaussian curvature which we came across while
derving Mainardi-Codazzi equations. This is because the formula (F) for Gaussian
curvature provides a link between the definition of Gaussian curvature defined by
LN-M2 , , ^ J c A .
2~ and the Gaussian curvature defined using excess of a curve in Chapter 3.
EG — F
So our immediate concern was to show that they are one and the same. Having
established this very important property, we now establish some special forms of
Mainardi-Codazzi equations which we need for our later use. Here afterwards, we
refer to Mainardi-Codazzi equations as Codazzi equations.
Theorem 4. If the lines of curvature are parametric curves, then the Codazzi
equations are

N,=V£+£) . .(2»
The Fundamental Equations of Surface Theory 397

Proof. When the lines of curvature are chosen as parametric curves, then
F = 0 , M = 0.
When M = 0, the Codazzi equations are

= LT\2 -NT2n
a7
dN =
Lr22-• Nr?2
du
0, let us find the Christoffel symbols in the
_E2
r1 _E1_ r1 2 -
1
12 2E' 11 - 2G

r1 r1 2 - G,
x
22 IE' 12- 2G
Substituting the above valules, we obtain

2
dv 2 \E G
dN ., G, (L AT
= Nl = —\ — + — which completes the proof of the theorem.
du 2 \E G J
Corollary. The Codazzi equations (1) and (2) can also be written as

d ( L\ N d
._ , „ 4E = 0
dv -JE) G dv

and ^^l_£9VG=o
du{y/GJ E du
Proof. From the theorem, we rewrite the equation (1) as,
9L E2L E2N
=0
dv 2E 2G
Since E * 0, we have
\ dL E2 L 1 E2N n .. . . .
—== — = —==•—-— = 0 which is the same as
4E dv 2E 4E 4E 2G

"•£]-£!*<*)-
dv\4E)Gdv
398 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Since G & 0, the second equation becomes,

I dN G{ N 1 G{ L A u . u . u
—=• — £- •=*=— = 0 which is the same as
4G du GA 2 E VG 2

A'
9w (^J"l£(^
In the following theorem, we make use of the above form of Codazzi equations.
Theorem 5. If Ka and Kb are the principal curvatures, then the Codazzi
equations are
1 E0
(K = (Kb Ka)
^ 2E ~
1 G,
and (**)i = £-£-(*«-**)
Proof. Choosing the lines of curvature as parametric curves, from Theorem 3
of 4.5, the principal curvatures are
L N
A
Ka = —
— andand KKbbh=—
=— ...(1)
E G
By the theorem 4, the Codazzi equations are

1 (L N\ XJ \„(L N\

Using (1) in (2), we obtain

L2 = \E2(Kxa+K bl N^^G^+K,) ...(3)

2 * a D/ l
2
From(l), we have

dfCfl EL2 ~ LE2 L12 E2 Li L12 E2

.(4)
~d7 " E* ~~E~~E~"E~~E~~EKa
Using ( 3) in (4), we get

dKa 1 E2 , N E2 1 E2 ,
dv 2 E E 2 E
In a similar manner,

dKb _ GNX -NG{ _NX Gx N_

du G2 " G G G
The Fundamental Equations of Surface Theory 399

Using (3) in the above equation, we get

**b 1 Gi , x G, 1G,
a b b
du 2 G G 2 G

5.6 PARALLEL SURFACES

As an application of the Weingarten equations, we study the parallel surfaces.
Definition. A surface S whose points are at a constant distance along the
normal from another surface S is said to be parallel to S.
Two concentric spheres are parallel surfaces.
Note. Since we choose the constant distance along the normal arbitrarily,
there are infinte number of parallel surfaces. From the definition it follows that a
parallel surface can be regarded as the locus of points which are on the normals to
S at a constant distance a from S. Since every curve on S gives rise to a curve on its
parallel surface, we shall investigate the relations between the lines of curvature,
Gaussian curvature and mean curvature between these two surfaces S and S. In
order to do this we first obtain the representation of points on S using the
representations of points on S.
Let r be the position vector of a point P on S and r be the position vector of a
point P on the parallel surface S. Then P is at a constant distance a from P along
the normal to the surface S. Therefore we have
r =r-aN
where a may be positive or negative. With this represention of a parallel surface,
we establish the following theorem.
Theorem 1. The curves on S corresponding to the lines of curvature of S are
also lines of curvature on S .
Proof. Let us choose the lines of curvature on S as parametric curves. This
implies
F = 0,M = 0 ...(1)
To prove the corresponding curves S as lines of curvature on S, it is enough if
we show that F = 0 , M = 0.
The position vector of a point on S is
r =r-aN ...(2)
Using condition (1), the Weingarten equations become

Ni = - | r „ N2 = - | r 2 ...(3)

Using (2) and (3) , we express r as a constant multiple of r so that the

fundamental coefficients of S are expressible in terms of those of S.
400 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Differentiating (2) with respect to the parameters u and v,

We have f1=r1-aN1 ...(4)
r2=r2-aN2 ...(5)
Using (3) in (4) and (5), we obtain

Since we take the lines of curvature on S as parametric curves, the principal

curvatures Ka and Kb are given by
L N
A
Ka = - and * * = - .
Using the principal curvatures in the above equations, we obtain
Fj = (1 + aKa)rv r2= (1+ aKb)r2
If E, F, G are the fundamental cofficient of S, then

£ = ? ! • ? ! =(l+aKa)2r1.r2 = (l+aKa)2E

F = ?! • r2 = (1 + aKa) (1 + aKb) rt • r2 = 0

G = r2 -r2 = (1 +aKb)2r2- r2 = (1 +aKb)2G

HN = rx x r2 = (1 + GKTJ (1 + aKb) (rx x r2)

= [1 + a(Ka + /cfc) + a2 Ka Kb] HN

Since K= KaKb and 2n = (Ka+ Kb)y we get

/7 N = [1 + 2a/j, + a2K\HN ...(6)

Further H2 =EG = (l+aKa)2 (1 + 0 ^ )2EG

= [l+2a i u + fl2^]2H2

Thus we have H = [1 + 2a\L + tf2K]// ...(7)

Using (7) in (6), we find N = ± N = eN where e = ± lor e takes the value 1
or - 1 according as (1 + laji + Ka2) is positive or negative.
1 1 9 —
If a = or a = , then (1 + 2\xa + Ka) vanishes so that H = 0
K
^a b
implying that the point under consideration is a singular point. Avoiding this
possibility, we always take N = eN which shows that although S and S have the
same normal lines, they may be directed in opposite directions.
The Fundamental Equations of Surface Theory 401

Now let us find L, M and N of the parallel surface.

L = - N j • vx = e(l + aKa)N{ • rx = e(l + aKa)L, since N = eN
M = - N , -r2 =e(l +a/c 6 )N 1 - r 2 = e(l +aKb) M = 0,
since M = 0 by hypothesis
N = - N 2 • r2 = e(l + aKb)N2 • r 2 = e(l + #/c^N
Since f = 0, M = 0, the curves on S corresponding to the lines of curvature
on S are also lines of curvature on S .
Theorem 2. If K and Ji are the Gaussian curvature and mean curvature of
5 , then

K = ——^— Tj= ^^aK^e

(\ + 2lia + Ka2y l + 2/Lia + Ka2
where e = ±l
Proof. Let us find L and N

L = - N t -^ = e(l + aKa)N\' r i = *0 + aK
a)L
N = -Nrr2=e(l + a^)N 2 -r 2 = ^(l +aKb)N
2
Further tf = (1+ 2jU<z + Ka2)2H2
Using the above, we find K and jtZ as follows.
- _ LN_ _ {\ + aKa)(\ + aKb) LN
~ H2 ~ (l + 2na + Ka2)2 H2

Since — = Kand (1 + aKa) (1 + aKb) = 1 + 2/ua + Ka2

H
We have from the above equation,
K
K = 2
(l + 2/ia + Ka )

r. . „- ~ - L N
Further 2/i = Ka + ^ = -= + =
/£ (jr

" (\ + aKa)2'~E* (l + aKb)2'G

L N
Using Ka = — and K^ = — , we obtain,
E G

j ( l + a/c a ) (l + aiCi)] (l + l^a + Ka2)

which proves the result.
402 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Given a constant positive curvature, we can determine the mean curvature of a

parallel surface S at a distance a along the normal to S by the formula of the above
theorem. Hence the question arises given a surface of constant positive curvature,
does there exist a parallel surface of constant mean curvature and vice versa ? This
question is answered by following Bonnet's Theorm for parallel surfaces.
Theorem 3. (i) With every surface of constant positive curvature A"2, there
are associated two surfaces of constant mean curvature ± (2A)"1 which are parallel
to the former and distant ± A from it.
(ii) With every surface of constant mean curvature (2A)"1 there exists a parallel
surface of constant Gaussian curvature A"2 distant A from it.
Proof, (i) Let S be the given surface of constant Gaussian curvature K = A ~2
where A is a constant and let S be the surface parallel to S at a distance a from it.
If JL is the mean curvature of S, then by the previous theorm.
e(ji + Ka)
(1 + 2/Lia + Ka2)
Taking a = ± A, and K = A"2, we get from the above formula,

P .„,?^,.i?fiLjL.
(l±2 iA A A - ) " " r
A +
2
jn
±(M) -
2A
2
2A ±

Thus there are in general two parallel surfaces of constant mean curvature
± (2A)"1 distant ± A from the given surface S. This proves (1).
(ii) Let S be the given surface of constant mean curvature ji = (2A)~l. By the
_ ir
previous theorem, the Gaussian curvature K of S is K = =-
(l + llia + Ka1)
Taking a = - A and jJL = (2A)"1, we get

K = j =- = A"2 which is a constant.

1 + 2(2A) (-A) + KA 2
-1

Thus there is a parallel surface of constant Gaussian curvature A"2 distant A

from it. This proves (ii).

Note 1. If a = or a = , then the mean curvature in (i) becomes infinite.

K K
a b
To avoid this possibility, we have excluded these values ofa. However this possibility
occurs when S is a sphere of radius A. Let its centre be C.
1 1'
Then Ka= Kb=— and so K = KaKb = —
The Fundamental Equations of Surface Theory 403

Hence by (i) of the theorem, the parallel surface is at a distance a = ± A.

Corresponding to a = A, one parallel surface of constant mean curvature is a
concentric sphere of radius 24, since a = A is measured along the outward drawn
normal to the surface to obtain a point P on the parallel surface so that CP = 2A.
Since we get the other parallel surface for a = - A, we get the centre of the sphere
when we measures from the surface in the opposite sense towards the centre of the
sphere. As this is so for every normal to the surface, the other parallel surface
degenerates into the centre of the sphere.
Note 2. To obtain at least one parallel surface without singularities, we
choose a to have the same sign as that of the principal curvature. This will prevent
S from having singularities. Under this condition, there is always one parallel
surface of constant mean curvature, while the second surface have singularities at
the umbilics of the given surface. Hence the first part of the Bonnet's Theorem can
be stated as with every surface of constant positive Gaussian curvature there exists
at least one non-singular parallel surface with constant mean cuvature.
Theorem 4. The parallel surfaces of a minimal surface are surfaces for which

Ra + Rb = constant where Ra= — theRb = — .

K K
a b

Proof. The condition for a minimal surface is

EN-2FM +LG = 0 ...(1)
If the lines of curvature are parametric cuves, then we have F = 0, M = 0. Using
these conditions,

(1) gives - = —

L N
Since — = Ka and — = Kb, we have Ka = - Kb or Ra = - Rb ...(2)
E G
Let S be a surface parallel to S. Since the lines of curvature of S and S
correspond, we have by Rodrique's formula.
Kdr + dN = 0 ...(3)

and icdr + dN = 0 ...(4)

Since S is parallel to 5, N = ± N so that (4) becomes Kdx ± dN = 0

First let us consider the case Kdx + dN = 0 ...(5)
From the above (5) - (3) gives Kdf -Kdr = 0 which is the same as

Rdf-Rdr =0 ...(6)
From the position vector of a point on a parallel surface we have
dx =dr-adN ...(7)
404 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Using (7) in (6), we obtain R[(dr- adN)] -Rdr = 0

Substituting for dN from (3) in the above step, we have
Rdr + adr- Rdr = 0

Since dx * 0, we obtain R =R + a which is true for Ra = — and Rb = — .

Hence we obtain
Ra=Ra + a and using (2), - Rb =-Rb + aso that the second relation becomes
Rb=Rb-a.
Thus Ra + Rb =Ra+ Rb which proves that Ra + Rb is a constant.
If K dr - dN = 0, we obtain the same result.

5.7 FUNDAMENTAL EXISTENCE THEOREM FOR

SURFACES
Just as the cuvature and torsion in terms of the arc length determine a space curve
uniquely but for its position in space, the question naturally arises whether a
surface can be determined by the first and the second fundamental forms uniquely
except for its position in space. The answer is contained in the following theorem
known as the fundamental existence theorem for surfaces which is an elegant
synthesis of the equations of Gauss, Weingarten equations and Mainardi-Codazzi
equations.
Theorem. When the coefficients of the two quadratic differential forms
Edu + 2Fdudv + G dv2, Ldu2 + 2Mdudv + Ndv2
2

are such that the first quadratic form is positive definitie and the six coefficients E,
F, G andL, M, N satisfy Codazzi equations and equations of Gauss, there exists a
surface r = r(w, v) uniquely determined within a Euclidean displacement for
which the forms are the first and second fundamental forms.
Proof. First let us outline the method of proof. Establishing the existence and
uniqueness of a surface r = r(w, v) under the given conditions is equivalent to
finding the unique moving triad (1, A,, N) at every point P of the surface where 1, X
are the tangential directions at P and N is the surface normal at P. We achieve this
as a result of unique solution of the partial differential equations formed with the
help of the equations of Gauss and Codazzi equations. The existence of the
surface is guaranteed by the solution of the partial differential equation and
uniqueness of the surface is the outcome of the unique solution of the initial value
problem.
First we shall establish the theorem in the particular case when F = 0, M = 0
and deduce the general form of the theorem from this. For the sake of
The Fundamental Equations of Surface Theory 405

convenience, we shall give the proof of the theorem in the following four steps.
(1) Uniqueness part of the theorem.
(2) Existence of the surface with the orthogonal unit triad (1, A,, N) at every
point of the surface.
(3) The equation of the surface r = r(w, v) with the given quadratic forms as
fundamental forms.
(4> Deduction of the general form of the theorem.
Step 1. The uniqueness part of the theroem is established by showing that if
such a surface exists having the prescribed fundamental forms, then at each point
of the surface three mutually orthogonal unit vectors (1, X, N) consisting of two
tangent-vectors to the parametric curves and unit surface normal must satisfy
certain set of linear differential equations. Then using the uniqueness of solution of
the initial value problem of the differential equation, we assert that there exists
atmost one solution for which the vectors assume prescribed values of the
parameters at the initial point.
Hence if two surfaces existed with the prescribed fundamental forms, then by a
Euclidean motion, we can bring the two triads of vectors to coincide at some initial
point. Then the uniqueness of solution implies that the triads of vectors coincide at
all points so that the two surfaces differ at most by a Euclidean motion.
Using the conditions F= 0, M = 0, let us assume that a surface exists having the
fundamental forms.
Edu2 + Gdv2, Ldu2 + Ndv2
and let its equation be r = (w, v) with respect to a system of rectangular coordinates.
Let 1 and X be the unit tangent vectors along the parametric curves v = constant and
u =constant.

Then we have \=—j=rvX=—j=r2 ...(1)

where rx and r 2 are tangential vectors at P with magnitudes E = Tj • rx and

G = r2- r 2 so that (1, X) are tangential directions at P to the parametric curves.
Using F = 0, M - 0, the equations of Gauss become

11 l 2
IE 2G
E2 G{
r r r
12 = l + 2
12 l
IE 2G 2
— G\ G7
r 22 = - r ,l + — r22 + WN ...(2)
IE 2G
and the Weingarten equations become

N
l = -|rI' N
2 = -f r * -(3)
Now let us find the partial differential equations satisfied by 1, K and N.
406 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Differentiating 1 paritially with respect to u, we get

31 1 E,
r,1
du V£ "iFTri
Using (2) in the above equation, we have
31 1 1 B,
du ~ .2£ !
2G 2 J VI 2 ^ r '
Substituting for r2 from (1) in the above equation,
31 -XE2 LN
3« ~ IJGJE -JE

1 3 ^ LN
••(4a)
JG 3V -JE

„ L 31 1 IE,
Further — = -r=r !2 £-r,
3v JE 2E%
Using (2) in the above equation,
3[_J_ £2 GI ] 1 E2
3v JE „2E * 2G 2J 2£% r i
Substituting for r2 from (1) in the above equation
31 G, . 31 1 3VG.
— =—r-\—K or — = -7= A, •(4b)
3v IJEJG 3V JE du
In a similar manner, we obtain
3A,_ 1 3Vfi,
•(5a)
3M JG dv

dX 1
and — =- =—-—1+-T=N .(5b)
dv : 3M JG
Using F = 0, M = 0 and r, = Vfil, r2 = VG A,
in the Weingarten equation (3) we get
The Fundamental Equations of Surface Theory 407

The equations (4a) to (6b) are the partial differential equations giving the
necessary conditions for the existence of a surface with the tangential vectors I, X
and surface normal N at P on the surface satisfying the equations of Gauss, and
Weingarten equations with the given first and second fundamental forms.
Now let us take 1 = (lx, ly9 lz\ X = (A,, Ay, Xz) and N = (Nxi Nyi Nz) are the
solutions, of the above vector equations. Since the components are also solutions,
we have three sets of solutions (lx, Xx, Nx), (ly, A>, Ny) and (lv Xv Nz) for the
dependent variables /*, A*, N* satisfying the following equations.
dC_ 1 dJE L 1 dJG
+ -f=N»• di*_ ...(7a)
du VG dv •JE dv •JE du

dX_=J_djE_f dti_ ...(7b)

du VG dv ' dv JE du y[G

^ 1 = — — I * dN* = N
X* ...(7c)
du ~ JE ' dv " 4G
By the unique solution of the initial value problem, the above equations admit
at most only one solution. (/*, A*, Af*) which assume the prescribed values u = u0,
v = v0. If there exist two surfaces S and S' satisfying the conditions of the theorm,
then by the Euclidenan motoion we can bring the triad (1, X, N) to the coincide
with (T, A,', NO at the initial point u = u0 v = v0. Hence by the uniqueness of solution of
the initial value problem (1, X, N) and (1', X\ NO must coincide for all values of
u and v so that S and S' coincide. This completes the proof of the uniquenes part of
the theorem.
Step 2. To establish the existence of a surface having the prescribed
fundamental forms, it is enough if we show that the above set of equations (7a) to
(7c) have solutions. These equations have solutions if and only if they satisfy
integrability conditions. So we shall verify whether the above equations satisfy the
following integrability conditions.

... d (df d_ df_

T-\-Z-
(0 ov[ au du dv

(ii)
'a;P dX_
dv du du dv

d_'3N^ 3N*
(iii)
dv du du dv
It is enough if we verify the integrability condition (i), since the other two
conditions can be verified in a similar manner. To check the integrability condition,
we make use of the Gauss equations and Codazzi equations, when F = 0, M = 0 as
given below.
408 Differential Geometry—A First Course

LN d_( 1 dy[G 1 djE

=0 ..(8a)
[EG du •JE du dv y/G dv

±(±V»±{JE)=0 ,.(8b)
dviyfEJ Gdv

..(8c)
duljG) EduK '
Now let us verify (i)

+ from (7a)
dv 1 du J dv I VG dv -JE

a
1 d4E 3(A*) d ( 1 3V^V J^i^l + yy* f L '
VG 3V dv dv\jG dv ) -JE dv dv{jE,

Substituting for —— and from (7b ) and (7c), we obtain

dv 9v
1 dJE 1 djG ,* N * d_ 1 dyfE'
y/G dv
—F=—Z /
JE du
+—r=N
VG dv JG dv
U*

++ —(- —X*) + N* —(—) ...(9a)

JE{ VG ) dv(yfEj
Now let us find
d_(df_ d 1 dyfG ,"
from (7a)
du[ dv du
J
1 d_ i aVcT
A*
4E 3M 3M du 4E du J

3/T
Substituting for from (7b), we obtain
du
_3_ _Lf^L._Lf!^£/* + A 1 3 ^
A* ••(%)
du 3v Vfi 9M VG 3V 3M Vfi 3«
From (9a) and (9b), we obtain
3 _ 3 'dT "3 f L\
= N'
3v 3M dv[jEj G dv
The Fundamental Equations of Surface Theory 409

LN d ( 1 d4G\ d ( 1 dyfE
Jt*
yfEG + du "~ ~ +
~ "~ ~
Using (8a), and (8b) in the above equation, the right hand side becomes zero so
that

df *\
d_(dl_ = 0 which proves (i) and the equation (7a) is integrable
dv du du I dv
and its solution exists.
Since the set of differential equations 7(a) to (7c) satisfy integrability
conditions, the system is complete and this complete system gives three particular
solutions (lx, Xx, Nx), (lyy Xyi Ny) and (/z, lv Nz) which assume the values (1,0, 0),
(0, 1, 0) and (0, 0, 1) at initial point u = u0 and v = v0. Thus three vectors
(lx, Xxi Ay, (ly, Xyy Ny) and (lv lv Nz) are three mutually orthogonal vectors at u = u0
and v = v0. We prove that they continue to be orthogonal unit vectors for all values
of u and v.
To prove this, we have to show that
/ / + * ; + # * = 1, and lxly + XxXy + NxNy = 0
2
// + A/ + A^ =1 l^ + XyX. + NyN^O
lzlx + XzXx + NzNx = 0 ...(10)

Now dlx = -^-du + —-dv

du dv

Substituting for —^ and —— from equation (7a),

ou dv

1 dJE 1 3-N/G
Xrdv
dL = N du +
VG dv *JE ' •JE du
Further

dXx = ^LdU+^dV
du dv
Using the equations 7(b), we get

1 3VG N
« dv
+
\[E du 7G^
.., dNx , dNx ,
and dN, = —^du + —*-dv
du dv

— ^ Lxd u —-=X r dv
-JE S
410 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Having found out dlx, dXx, and dNx, let us find l/i^ + XxdXx + NxdNx

... 1 dy[E . ^ L 1 1 aVG . , "

i aVs, , f i aVc. w
+ A, - i = ——L rfw+ -{--==•—-—/ +—==N \dv
x x r
4G dv \ JE du 4G

+ Nr —f=L du — r = Xxdv = 0

Thus lxdlx + AxdAx + NxdNx = 0 implies

d ^ 2 + A2 + Af2) = 0 giving / 2 + A2 + Nx = constant (say) q for all values of w and
v. Since at the initial points u = w0, v = v0, lx = 1, Xx = 0 , and Nx = 0 , we get q = 1
Hence we have lx + A 2 + Nx = 1. In a similar manner, we can prove
/y + A2 + ^ 2 = l , a n d / z 2 + /z2 + ^ 2 = l
2

Since we know dlxt dXx and dA^, let us find dly9 dXy and dNy using 7(a) to 7(c)
as follows.
_f , 1 3Vfi3 t w ) . 1 3VG. .
yfG dv JM' 4E du

dK = J^^Ldu + {-L^-L y + JLyNAdv

* yfG dv " E du JG

L ( N
dNy = ._ l y d u + _ _ lydV

1 dfE L 1 1 3VG '

i aV£. __
, L 1 i aVc '
+ /,

+ A,
7G-^rlydU +
YlE-lu-ly+lGNyUV

+K 1 ^ (_ K ^ G _^ y
x
VG 3V y[E du yfG

+ Nt L N
—lydu + \- — Xy\dv
The Fundamental Equations of Surface Theory 411

+ W. 4rdu + \ —7=A V dv = 0.

Hence we have d(lxly + XxXy + NxNy) = 0 so that we obtain

lxly + A^ Ay + NjSly = constant (say) c2.
At the initial point u = uQt and v = v0, we have (1, 0, 0) and (0, 1, 0) for
(/v, Ax, Nx) and (ly, A>(, A^,). Using these initial conditions c2 = 0. Thus we have
proved lxly + XxXy + NxNy = 0.
In a similar manner, we can prove
lylz + XyXz + NyNz = 0 and lzlx + XZXX + /vyv> 0
The above six conditions show that the matrix

K K N*
K Xy N,
h K Nt
is an orthogonal matrix and (I, A,, N) are mutually orthogonal unit vectros with the
above components for all values of u and v. Hence 1 = (lxi lyi lz),X= (Xx, Xy, Xz) and
N = (Nxi Nyi Nz), are mutually orthogonal unit vectors for all values of u and v.
Step 3. Having established the uniqueness and existence of a surface with the
orthogonal unit triad (1, A,, N), we shall find the equation of the surface satisfying
the requirements of the theorem.
To get the equation of the surface, let us first show that

<jE\du+y[G\dv
is an exact differential.

Hence
d
du m-im dvy

dyfG
ou du dv dv
Using 7(a) and 7(b) in the above equation, we have
8
(JB*)-!(,/»)
du dv'

= VG^^i + A^G_VI^^G A _l^ = o

VG dv du Vif du dv

Thus yfEldu + yfGXdv is an exact differential.

Hence the equation r = \{4Eldu+4GXdv) ...(10)

defines a vector r = r(u, v). ...(11)

412 Differential Geometry—A First Course

We claim that the above equation gives the required surface. To establish our
claim, we shall show that this surface has the given quadratics as the fundamental
forms of the surface (11).
From the equations of the surface, we have
rx = yfE 1 and r 2 = vG A where 1 and X are unit vectors
Now r\ = yfE\-y[E\ = Etrrr2 = y[EG\-X = Q
and rjj = y/GXy/GX = G
Hence the first fundamenal form is ds2 = Edu2 + G dv2.
To find the second fundamental form, let us find L, M, N.

For this r u = l ^ + VE^-

du ou
Using the equations 7(a), w e have

i aV^Ji L KT
r n = 1-r— + y/E «
ou JG dv JE

dy[E _ JE djEX 7XT

1—F=— +LN
3w VG 3V

Further l
12
dv dv
Using the equation (7a), we obtain

ydy[E r- 1 dyfG. ,dy[E ydyfG

I*n
r
12 = 1— + y/E - 7 = — A, = 1—z + A,-
3v Vtf du dv du

.dyfG r^dX
r„
*22 = A,—— + VG —
dv dv
Using the equation (7b), we obtain

r™
r
22 = X—— + vG
dv V/s 9« VG

aVG yfG dy/G

=X 1 + WN
9v Vfi 3w
For the surface defined by the equation (11), we have

, dyfE 4E dyfE
N-r11=N 1 -X + LN = L
du yfG du
The Fundamental Equations of Surface Theory 413

N r 1 2 = N- —^ ^ ^—^ =0
dv du

N-r 2 2 = N- =N
dv yjE du
Hence the second fundamental form of the surface is L du2 + Ndv2
Thus the surface whose position vector is given by (11) has the given quadratic
forms as fundamental forms. This completes the proof of the theorem for the
particular case
F =0 and M = 0.
Step 4. Finally let us prove the general theorem when the six functions
E ,F ,G yL , M, NT, of w , v satisfy equations of Gauss and Codazzi equations.
Since the first fundamental form is positive definite and E*t F*, G* are not
proportional to L, M, A^ the second order differential equation,
(E*M* - F*L*) du2 + ( J E V - G*L*)dudv + (F*N* - G*M*) dv2 =0
has two distinct solutions which are principal directions. Let them be
0(«*, v*) = constant and y/(u*, v*) = constant.
Now let us make a proper parametric transformation
u = <p (u\ v*), v = y/(u\v*)
such that in the domain of the new parameters w, v the given fundamental forms
become the special form for which F = 0,M = 0. Hence by the previous arguments,
there exists a unique surface possessing these as fundamental forms with w, v as
parameters. Since the parametric transformation is proper changing back to the
original parameters w*, v\ we find that there exists a unique surface with the
prescribed fundamental forms. This completes the proof of the fundamental
existence theorem of the surface theory.
The following example illustrates the method of proof of the fundamental
existence theorem of surface.
Example. Given the differential forms
I = du2 + cos2 u dv2
II = du2 + cos2 u dv2
find the surfaces for which I and II are the first and second fundamental forms.
From the above differential forms I and II, we obtain
E = 1, F = 0, G = cos2 M, L = 1, M = 0, N = cos2 u
Adopting the notations of the theorem, we shall find I, A,, N from the following
vector differential equations using the given differential forms.

|L=N !U(-sin«)A, ...(1)

ou ov
414 Differential Geometry—A First Course

dX 3A
— =0 — = (sin u)\ + (cos w)N ...(2)
ou ov

M = - l f ! = ( - cos u)X ...(3)

OU OV

With the help of 1 and A,, we find the surface r = r(w, v) by means of the integral
given in the theorem.
From the equations (1) and (3), we have

—j = — = - 1 so that —5- = - 1
du ou ou
Solving the above equation, we have
1 = a(v) cos u + b (v) sin u ...(4)
where a(v) and b(v) are vectors which are constants or functions of v to be
determined.
Differentiating (2) partially with respect to v, we get

a2*, ai 3N
—r- = sin u — + cos u ——
dv ov ov
Using (1) and (3) in the above equations,
d25L 325L
2 2
—r- = - sin w X - cos u X = - X so that — T = - X
dv2 dv2
Solving the above equations, we find
X = c(w) cos v + d(«) sin v ...(5)
where c(u) and d(u) are vectors which are constants or function of u to be
determined.

From (5), — = c'(w) cos v + d'(w) sin v

ou
dX
Since — = 0 by (2), we have c \u) cos v + d'(w) sin v = 0
ou
The above equation implies c'(w) = 0 and d'(w) = 0
Hence c(w) and d(u) are constants (say) c and d.
Thus we get X = ccos v + d sin v ...(6)
Using (1), (4) and (6), we obtain
a'(v) cos u + b'(v) sin u = - sin u (c cos v + d sin v)
Since the coefficient of cos u is zero on the right hand side of the equation
a\v) = 0 so that a(v) is a constant (say) a. Equating the coefficients of sin w, we
find
The Fundamental Equations of Surface Theory 415

b'(v ) = - (c cos v + d sin v)

Integrating the above equation with respect to v, we get
b(v) = - [c sin v - d cos v]
Thus we find 1 = a cos u + [d cos v - c sin v] sin u
Before defining r = r(w, v), let us check whether
4E\du + -JGXdv = \du + (cos u)Xdv is an exact diffemtial.
r) t) ?)
— v(y/GX) = - - ( c o s uX) = — [cos u (c cos v + d sin v)]
ou ' ou du
= - sin u [c cos v + d sin v]

— ^ \ = —-[a cos u + (d cos v - c sin v) sin u]

ov ov
= - sin u [c cos v + d sin v]

Thus — (cos uX) = —1 so that (7) is an exact differential. Using / and A, we can
ou ov
write down r(w, v) as

r(«, v) = I {a cos u + (d cos v - c sin v) sin u] du

+ cos u (c cos v + d sin v) dv

= a sin u - cos u[- c sin v + d cos v]
+ (c cos u sin v - d cos u cos v)+ e
= a sin u + 2c cos w sin v - 2d cos « cos v + e
Let us replace 2c by c and -2d by rf, the above equation is
r(«, v) = a sin w + c cos u sin v + d cos w cos v + e
We shall prove that a, c and d are mutually perpendicular unit vectors.
From the definition of the surface, we have
r\ = E = 1, r\ = G = cos2w , ^ = V/H and r 2 = VG X
Hence r 2 = cos w[c cos v + d sin v]
r ! = cos2w = cos2w[c cos v + d sin v] 2 so that
1 = c • c cos2v + d • d sin2v + 2c • d cos u sin v
which is possible if and only if c c = l , d- d = 1 a n d c d = 0
Thus c and d are unit orthogonal vectors.
To prove a is also a unit vector orthogonal to c and d,
rx = [a cos u + (d cos v - c sin v) sin u]
rj • rj = 1 = a2 COS2M + 2a cos u sin u (d cos v - c sin v)

+ sin2w (d cos v - c sin v)2

416 Differential Geometry—A First Course

= a cos u + 2 sin u cos u(a • d cos v - a • c sin v)

+ sin2w [d 2 cos 2 v-2d-c sin v cos v + c2 sin2v]
Since c • d = 0 d 2= 1 and c 2 = 1, we get from the above step,
1 = a 2 c o s 2 « - 2 sin MCOS w(ad cos v + a c s i n v) + sin2w
which is possible if and only i f a a = l , a d = 0 and a • c = 0
Hence a is a unit vector orthogonal to c and d.
Thus we have
r(w, v) = a sin u + c cos u sin v + d cos u cos v + e
If we take d = e h c = e2 and a = e3, then
r(w, v) = ^ cos u cos v + e2 cos w sin v + e3 sin w + e
which is the equation of the unit sphere.
By a proper choice of el9 e2, e3 and ey we can place it in any position of the
space by choosing orthogonal parameters «, v which form a system of parallels and
meridiams of the sphere in the new position.
Note. In the above example, we have used the differential equation of the
theorem to find I and X and then determined the surface. Instead , we can straight
away, solve the equations of Gauss and Codazzi equations and then determine the
surface. We shall illustrate this method in one of our examples.

5.8 EXAMPLES V
1. Using the normal N to a surface, obtain r2 and r 2 as
(i) (LN - M2)rx = (FM - EN)N{ + (FM - FL)N2
(ii) (LN - M2)r2 = (GM - FN)N{ + (FM - GL)N2
We shall obtain the first equation, since the second equation can be obtained in
a similar manner.
Since N 2 = L we have N • Nt = 0 and N • N2 = 0. So both the vectors Nj and N2
lie in the tangent plane at P. Since rx and r 2 also lie in the tangent plane at P, we can
express rx and r 2 as
r^aNj + ftNj ...(1)
r2=cN,+dN2 ...(2)
for some suitable scalars a, b, c, d.
Taking dot product with vx on both sides of (1),
i Y ^ =aN,- rx + £N2- rx
rl-r2=aNrr2 + bNrr2
Using the fundamental coefficient, the above equations become
aL + bM + E = 0 ...(3)
aM + bN + F = 0 ...(4)
The Fundamental Equations of Surface Theory 417

Solving (3) and (4) as simultaneous equations, we have

a _ b _ 1
FM - EN " EM - FL " LN - M2
Using these values of a and b, in (1), we get
(LN-M2)rx = (FM-EN)NX + (EM- FL)N2 which proves (i).
In a similar manner taking dot product with r 2 on both sides of (2), we can find
c and d.
2. From the Weingarten equations, obtain
(i) //[N, N lf rx] =EM-FL andtffN, N b r2]=FM-GL
(ii) ff [N, N2, rx] =EN-FM and //[N, N2, r2] =FN-GM
Proof. From the Weingarten equations, we have
// 2 Nj = (FM-GL)rl + (FL-EM)v2 ...(1)
H2N2 = (FN - GM)rx + (FM - EN)r2 ...(2)
Now taking cross product with r{ on both sides of (1)
H2N{ x rx = (FL - FM) (r 2 x rj), since rx x rx = 0

Hence Nlxr1=-—(FL-EM)N ...(3)

H
Taking dot product with N on both sides of (3), we have

[N, Nlf r j = - ]-(FL-EM) = UEM-FL) ...(4)

In a similar manner taking cross product with r 2 on both sides (1), we find

N , x r 2 = ^-[FM-GL]N ...(5)
H
Taking dot product with N on both sides of (5)

[N, N l f rJ = -i-[FAf-GI] ...(6)

H
(4) and (6) prove (i). In a similar manner, we can prove (ii).
3. Derive the second of Codazzi equations given by

ov ou
We derive the above second of Codazzi equations using the relation
(rnh = (r22)i
Using Gauss equations, let us substitute for r 12 and r 22 in the above relation,
then

T"[ri2"-i + r i V 2 + MN] = | - [T^r, + r 2 2 2 r 2 + ^ N ] (A)

ov ou
418 Differential Geometry—A First Course

First let us find each term on the left hand side of (A)
d_
-[r!2r1] = ^-(r112)r1 + r! 2 r 12
dv' dv

= |"(ri 2 ) ri + r! 2 (r! 2 r, + r V 2 + MN)

dv

| 4 r 2 2 r 2 ] = |-(r22)r2 + r22r22
OV OV

=3-(^ 2 )r 2 + r^ 2 (r 22 r 1+ r 2 2 2 r 2 + m )
OV
d _____ 3M KT . . 3 N
—[MN] = — N + M —
dv dv ov
Using Weingarten equation in the above
dM, M
—[MN] = — N + - ~ r [{FN - GM)ri + (FM - EN )r 2 ]
dv ov H
Now let us gather the coefficients of rv r 2 and N.

^7(^2) + i M + r,22r2'2 + ———1— r

i +
dv

—.r2 Ur 1 r2 +r 2 r 2 M(FM - EN)

r, +
dv
~i V 12j + 1
* 12 12 + 1
12*22 (EG-H2)

N
dv
To complete the proof, let us simplify each term on the right hand of (A).

^ [ r 2 2 r i ] = | ; ( r 2 2 ) r 1 + r22r11

= T ( r ^ r » + "Idlir, + T2, r2 + IN)

dw
(/ 9 ^ 2 2
T ~ [^22 r 2l = T ~ (r22) r 2 + ^22 r 21
OU OU

= ^- (r222)r2 + r L a W r* 2 r 2 +MN)
dw
9 9N 3N
— (iVN) = - ^ N + A T ^
dw dw dw
Using Weingarten equation, we have

(NN) = -£- N + - ^ - [(FM - GL)rI + (FL - FM)r2]

OU OU H
The Fundamental Equations of Surface Theory 419

Now gathering the coefficients of rt, r2 and N in the above equation,

r, +
Hl

|-(r 2 2 ) + r 22 r 2 + r22r22 + A ( F L _ EM) r, +

1 2 2 J N
du
To obtain the codazzi equations, let us equate the coefficient of N. Then

r|2Af + r 2 2 N + ^- = T22L + r| 2 M + ^ which gives

dv au

ov ou
Note. We can derive equations similar to (E) and (F) of Theorem 1 of 5.5 by
equating the coefficients of rx and r2 used in Example 16.
4. Illustrate the fundamental theorem of the surface theory for the differential
forms
I = du2 + cos2u dv2
II = du2 + cos2w dv2
using the equations of Gauss and Weingarten equations.
From the fundamental forms, we have
E = 1, F = 0, G = cos2w, H = cos u
and also L = l,Af = 0 , N = cos2w.
For these fundamental coefficients, we can find
r!,=o. r| 2 = o. r 2 2 = sin u cos u
2
r ,=o, 2
r 2 = - tan w, r 2 22 = o
Let us write down the equations of Gauss and Weingarten equations.
rn=N ...(1)
r12 = -tanM r2 ...(2)
r22 = sin u cos url + cos2u N ...(3)
N{ = - rx and N2 = - r2 ...(4)
We have to solve the above equations for r(w, v)
From (1), we have (rn){ = Nj = - r^

Thus we have —r- + —- = 0 whose characteristic equation is D 3 + D = 0 having

du ou
the roots D = 0 on D = ± /.
Hence the solution is r(w, v) = a(v) cos u + b(v) sin u + c(v) ...(5)
where the constants are function of v, since we integrate the equation with respect
to u.
420 Differential Geometry—A First Course

To determine the constants, we proceed as follows. From (5), we have

r2 = a'(v) cos u + b'(v) sin u + c'(v)
and r12 = - a'(v) sin u + b'(v) cos u.
Using the above r2 and r12 in equation (2), we get
- a'(v) sin u + b'(v) cos u = - tan u [a'(v) cos u + b'(v) sin u + c'(v)]
which simplifies to
b'(v) cos2w + b'(v) sin2w + c'(v) sin u = 0
which is true if and only if b'(v) = 0 and c'(v) = 0. Thus b(v) and c(v) are constant
vectors (say) b and c. Thus we have
r = a(v) cos u + b sin u + c ...(6)
Hence we shall determine a(v) with the help of the other conditions.
From (6), we have (r22)2 = a'"(v) cos u ...(7)
Using equation (3), we obtain
(r22)2 = sin u cos u r12 + cos2« N2
Substituting for r12 and N2 from (2) and (4), we get.
(r22)2 = sin u cos u (- tan u r2) + cos2w (- r2).
Finding r2 from (6) and using in the above equation.
(r22)2 = - sin2« cos u a'(v) - COS3M ar(v) = - cos u a'(v)

Thus we have (r22)2 = - a7(v) cos u ...(8)

Equating (7) and (8), we obtain
a'"(v) cos u + a'(v) cos u = 0 ...(9)
Since a is a function of v only, we have the solution of (9) as
a(v) = p cos v + q sin v + r ...(10)
We shall prove that r = 0.
Finding N = r n , r22 and rx from the equation (6) and using them in equation
(3), we get,
a"(v) cos u = sin u cos u[- a{v) sin u + b cos u]
+ COS2M[- a(v) cos u - b sin u]
= - a(v) sin2« cos u - a(v) COS3M = - a(v) cos u.
Substituting for a(v) and a"(v) in the above step
- p cos v - q sin v = - p cos v - q sin v - r so that r = 0. Hence the equation of
the surface is
r(«, v) = p cos v cos u + q sin v cos u + b sin u + c
Now we choose the constants b, c, p, q to satisfy the orthogonality conditions.
We do this using the properties of the fundamental forms.
The Fundamental Equations of Surface Theory 421

E = i y r 1 = 1,F = r 1 r 2 = 0, G = r 2 r 2 = cos2w.
rx = - p cos v sin u - q sin v sin u + b cos u
r 2 = - p sin v cos u + q cos v cos w
Now r2- r 2 = cos2w = p • p sin2v cos2w + q • q cos2v cos2w - 2p q sin v cos v cosV
The above equation is satisfied if and only if
p p = l,q q = l , p q = 0
Now rt • r 2 = - p • b cos2w sin v + b • q cos v cos2w, since p • q = 0
Thus 1-j • r 2 = 0 implies p b = 0 q b = 0
Since p q = 0 , p b = 0 and q • b == 0, we have
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
r1r1 = l =p cos v sin u + q sin v sin u + b cos u
Since p 2 = 1, q2 = 1, we get sin2w + b 2 COS2M = 1 which can happen if and only
if b b = 1. Thus p, q, b form a unit orthogonal triad at any point on the surface.
Taking p = elt q = e2 and b = e3, we write r as
r = ex cos v cos u + e2 sin v cos u + e3 sin u + c
which is the equation of the sphere which can be placed in a position in space for
which u = constant and v = constant are parallels and meridians.
5. Obtain the equations of Gauss and Weingarten equation for the right
helicoid
r = (u cos v, u sin v, cv)
For the right helicoid we have already noted
E = 1, F = 0, G = u2 + c2, H2 = u2 + c2 ...(1)

L = 0 , M = - — ,W = 0 ...(2)
H
Using (1), let us find the six Christoffel symbols of the second kind
ZX-2FF^FE2 _ _ 1
ri. = G\llFx ll El 2

2
5 =U,o.1 itH.— = ^ r PBF. - **2 - *E.1 =0
—
2(EG-F ) 2H
,1 _ 1 _ . ~ „9. 1

T22 = ^ y (2GF2 - GG, - FG2) = - «,

I22 = -^T (EG2 - 2FF2 + FG,) = 0

422 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Using the above expressions, we can write down the equation of Gauss as
i,n = r{1r1 + r11r2 + LN = 0
cN
ri2 = ri2ri + r?2r2 + MN = ur2
u2+c2 fu 2
+ c 2

r
22 = r 2 2 r l + F 22 r 2 + ^ N
= " "rl
Hence the equations of Gauss are
UT-, cN
r
n - 0» r i 2 - 2 , 2
u +c , r22 = - t/r,
7^77
Weingarten equations are
„ MF -LG LF- ME
N,il == —rf~
• Tl+
~lP~r2= (u2 +c2)%T2
NF-MG MF- NE
N,= •r, + r2 = 2
•y/M +c2
Hence the Weingarten equations are
N r and N
i = ~i—nr 2 2=
(u2 + c2y> •y/w + c
2 2

6. Obtain the expressions for Kin the following form

-•2£22 +f
1 2 ~T G 11 2E\ f
l~T£2 0 l£2 iG,
K= ^2-TGI F JE2
H*
}G 2 F F G
G id
We obtain the formula for fC by substituting the scalar triple product for
L, M,N in K.

Now LN-M2= — — - 2 - {[ru, rlt r2] [r22, r^ r2] - [ri2, r„ r2]2}

hU — t
Using the determinant formula for the scalar triple product,

*11 yu * l l | |*22 ?22 *22

[rn, rlf r2] [r22, r^ r2] = *1 h Zl
x
\ y\ *l
x2 yi ^|i *2 ^2 *2

where we take r = (x, yy z). Multiply the two determinants on the left hand side of
the above equation, we have
r
nr22 r
nri r
nr2
fru. ri» ri\ [122. rlf r2] = (I)
r r r r r r
22* 2 l 2 2' 2
The Fundamental Equations of Surface Theory 423

where r n • r22 = x{ {x22 + y\1 y22 + ^11 ^22 anc* similar expressions for the other terms
of the product of two determinants.

•*12 Jl2 Z12 F12 yn Zl2

Further [r^rj, r2] = x
i y\ zi \ i x
y\ Zi
x2 y2 z2 \ 1*2 yi z2

r
12' r 12 r
12rl r
12' r 2
r r r r
r i2 V i rr2 (ID
r r r r r r
2 12 l' 2 2' 2

L N - M2
Since if = j - , using I and II, we have
EG — F
r
'11 *22 '11*1 »*ir r 2 l2'rl2 r
l2*rl r
l2'r2
1
K= '22
r
r r 2 -- I r r r i 2 ri-r, r
ir2 (III)
(EG-F*) 2 X 2
'22 r, r2 "Vr2 r
2r12 r, r7 r,-r.
We shall express the different terms of the above determinant expressions using the
fundamental coefficients and their partial derivatives. For doing this let us rewrite
(III) as follows.
r
11 *22 M2 M2
r
n'ri r
i2'ri nr2 -r
i2'r;
1
K= l
22 M r
lr12
r
rri-rrri r
rr2-rrr2 (IV)
(EG-F2)2
*22 1*2
% - i 2v rM2
, r,-i%
M *2 - r 1, -* r2 r<j
' 2 '•2i \ r2<* *2
• r»

Now E = rl,El = 2rj • rn , E2 = 2 ^ • r12

F = r, r2,Fl = rt r12 + r2 r u , F 2 = rj• r22 + ri 2 r2
0 = 1^,0] = 2r2- rn, G2 = 2iy r22
Now let us find the different terms of IV.
Now Fn = r12 • r12 + rx • r122+ r22 • r u + r2 • r112 ..(1)

—£22 = r12- r I2 + r-j • r122 ••(2)

; G n =r 21 -r 12 + r v r'121 •••(3)

Hence ( 1 ) - ( 2 ) - ( 3 ) gives

r
i r r 2 2 _ r 1 2 ' r 1 2 - ' P ' l 2 _ ^^22 ~ T ^ l •••(4)

Further r u r2 - r12- r2 = Ft - -E2 - - G , •••(5)

424 Differential Geometry—A First Course

r
l
22 i-rrri2 = ^ 2 - - G
z ..(6)
2 ' 2
Hence using (1) to (6) in IV and the fundamental coefficients,

-\E22 + F12 -\Gn 2E\ ~\E1 -±E2+FX-±GX

l_
K= -\E2 + F2 -\GX E-E F-F (V)
\G2 -\GX F-F G-G

Equation V can be rewritten as the difference of two determinants in the

following manner.

\~1E22 +
F\2 ~ TG11 2E\ 1 - R 0 2E2 \GX
1
K= F2-\GX E F - 1^2 E F
H*
J TG2 F G id F G

Note. The above fromula for K shows that at any point P of the surface K
depends only on the values of E, F, G and their derivatives at the point P.
7. Verify the following expressions for the Gaussian curvature.

E F G
Fx Gx
4(FG-F2)2 2^EG - F2
E2 F2

d (Gx-F2) d (Fx-E2)
du 2 dv
I yJEG - F yjEG-F2
Proof. The method of verification is to write down the different terms of the
above expressions and arrange them so as to get the formula in the previous
example. For this let us expand the determinant and carry out the partial
differentiation in the following three steps.
Expanding the determinant and absorbing the sign, we get

, * p 2 x 2 [E(GXF2-FXG2) + F(EXG2-GXE2) + G(FXE2-EXF2] (I)

4{EG — F )
Let us carry out the partial differentiation with respect to v,

1 [2(EG - F2) (F12 - E22) - (E2G + EG2 - 2FF2) (F, - E2)

2yJEG - F2 2yJEG-F2 (EG-F2)

1
EG F (F
*,™
A{EG- FJwiM
) ~ > > 2 " E ^ ~(£2G + EG
*"2FFJ (F
i " £ 2>] (")
The Fundamental Equations of Surface Theory 425

In a similar manner, partial differentiation with respect to u gives

—J-^[-2(EG-

(III)
Now (I) + (II) + (III) give all the terms in the given expression. We shall
arrange them so as to get the formula for K of the previous problem.
First let us consider the second order partial derivatives.

1
Then + F\2 " " ^ G H \{EG-F2) (IV)
(EG-F2)2 L" •2^ 2 2
Let us collect the terms involving Ex
1
-F2G + -F22G- -GXG - -G2 2F
{EG-F2)2 !
4 2 4 4 l 4

1
{EG-F2)^2 2 2 ~E\
lE
M GX\G--G2F

As (IV) and (V) give the first two terms in the expansion of the first
(V)

determinant of the formula for K in Problem 6, we collect the remaining terms in

(I) + (II) + (III) and arrange them to get the third term of the first determinant and
the second determinant in the formula for K. Hence the left out term in (I) + (II) +
(III) are.

1
-FFF2 + -FFF1 2 2 - -GXFXF - -EG2F2 1- -E2F2F
{EG-F2)2 2 2 2 2 2

H—E1G7E E<yG}F H—E>)G\F —EryG\F

4 2 2 4 2 1
4 2 1 4 2 1

+ -EIG + ^EG!
4

where we have added and subtracted the extra terms —E2G,F. First let us collect
4
the terms contaning F{ and E2 and simplify as follows,
F.IFF.-^F-^EGX^EJFF.-U.F-^E
(EG-F12)2

F 1 -±U 2 YF^-±G I F-±I?G 2 (VI)

(EG-F2)2
426 Differential Geometry—A First Course

The left out terms can be simplified as

1 1
— E>) \ — E^G — G\ F FE2--GlE (VII)
(EG-F2)2 2 \2
The different terms of the expressions (IV), (V), (VI) and (VII) give all terms
in (I), (II), and (III). Hence (I), (II) and (III) can be combined with the later
equivalent equations and can be written in the following determinant form.
Expressions (IV), (V) and (VI) can be written in the form of a determinant as

1
E22 + Fl2 — G i iii
2
— E,i
2
E,
2
2 2
F2--G, E F
(EG- F ) 2
2 '
F

and the expressions (VII) can be written as

0 -E.

E F
(EG-F2)2 2E'
F G

Hence the given expression is the same as the sum of the above two
determinants. But by the previous example, the sum of the above two determinants
is K. Hence the Gaussian curvature is given by the formula in the problem.
8. Verify the following expression for the Gaussian curvature
d(D 2) d(D 2
n i2
D ME r^{E
where D = yJEG-F2
The method of verification is to show that the expression after simplification
reduces to the expression K given in the previous example. Let I and II denote the
two terms in the above expression, we shall simplify each separately.
o 2EF< - EE
2 0 - FE,
We know that 1^ = ' ^2 L
2(EG-F')

r2 = EGX - FE2
and 12
2(EG-F2)
The Fundamental Equations of Surface Theory 427

Let us write down different terms of I and II separatly

JEG~- • F2 2EF, - EEi - FE,

DdvKE "J Ddv 2(EG^Fl)

Eo 1 F E,
Ddv VEG - F2 2
yJEG - F 2 2 E
-JEG - F2
Spilitting the first term into two halves and rewriting,

1A 1 Fx-E2 i a i a( F E,
2 •••(I)
Ddv 2
yJEG - F 2 Ddv2y]EG-F Ddv[2E^EG.p
We shall manipulate with the second term above so as to get
( - \
J__9_
needed in the simplification of II
Ddv 2yJEG - F2

1 3 r
12
...(2)
D 9v 2 D
2yJEG - F 2^EG - F2 2D dv
J EG - F2
Since F12=F21, we can rewrite thefirstterm on the right hand side of the above
equations as follows.

'12 1 1
• ••(3)
2 2D 9M 2 du
2DyJEG - F JEG - F yJEG - F2

Using (3) in (2) and then substituting (2) in (1), we get

Ddv
°r2 Ddv
1 F,
2 2
2
i a
DduyjEG_F2
J EG - F

1 „ d i a
...(4)
2D dUyjEG_F2 2D dv JEG _ F2 Ddv 2
EylEG-F2 j
Using Christoffel symbols, let us simplify II.
428 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Now (4) and (5) give

±JL 1 F | - g 2 ^2-Gi
Ddv 2
J EG - F 2 IDdu V^G - F2

1 „ d 1 1 , 3 1
2
2D ' a v ^ G _ F 2 2D dUyjEG_F2

\ (
_LA J_JL £.
..(6)
2 2D3v
2D 3M (EJEG^F ) V^G - F2
Let us simplify the last two terms in (6)

_LA i a
2D 3w EJEG^F2) 2D3v [EJEG-F2

1 F 1
£•2] E + E.
2D yJEG-F2 2
du(E ^EG-F2

•- £ "
2 dv E
E JEG^F { JEG-F2 j
Since E 12 = E21, we get fr°m t n e above step

1
-E,l •(7)
2D| du {EJEG^F>) •JEG - F2

Using (7) in (6), we obtain

i a 1 F,-£2 I a 1 F2-G,
D3v 2 7^G - F 2 D3w 2
JEG~^F
1 ~ a i 1 1
X — F,
2D dvJEG_F2 2D -duJEG_F2

/
±E± l ••(8)
2D "3M [EJECTF2) 2D dv •JEG - F2
Since the first two terms of (8) appear in the formula for Gaussian curvature of
the previous problem, we shall simplify third, fourth, fifth and sixth terms in the
The Fundamental Equations of Surface Theory 429

above equation in a particular manner and show that these four terms reduce to the
determinant

E F G
Ex Fx Gx
4(EG-F2)2
\E2 ^2 ^*2

Let us simplify the fifth and sixth terms of (8)

F 1 (EXG + EGX -2FF{)

2 2 E2 2 YI
2D yJEG-F E JEG-F 2
(EG-F )>

F2 1 F E2 F 1 (E2G + EG2 - 2FF2)

2 2 2
2D E JEG-F " E JEG-F E2 (EG-F2/2

We have to simplify the above two steps in such a manner thatZ? appearing in
the denominator gets cancelled with/? 2 in the numerator so as to get different terms
of the determinant.

2FXE(EG -F2)- 2FEX(EG -F2)- FE(EXG + EGX - 2FFX)

2 2 2
.(9)
2D 2E (EG-F /

Ex 2F2E(EG -F2)- 2FE2 (EG -F2)- FE(E2G + EG2 - 2FF2)

2 2 2
.(10)
2D 2E (EG-F /
(9) - (10) gives the following

2E2FXE2G - 2F2E2GE{ - FE2GXE2 + FE2G2EX

...(H)
2^EG - F2 2-E2(EG - F2/2

Note the elegant cancellation of E2 in the above step. Let us simplify the
remaining two terms in (8) in the following manner. Differentiating, we get

1 „ (E2G + G2E - 2FF2) 1 F2 (EXG + EGX - 2FFX)

" Ft ^~T7 + •
2D 2(EG - F2 f2 2D 2
2(EG - F2\%
)

— T ^ [ F 2 ( E X G + EGX-2FFX)-FX(E2G + EG2-2FF2)] ...(12)

A(EG-F2)2 1 1 2

Using (11) and (12), the four terms in (8) after simplification give,

—=-^5- [F,E2G - F2EXG + FG2EX - FGXE2 + F2EGX - EFXG2]

4(EG - F ) i z / i i z
430 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Alvn g2,2 WpiG2"G,F2) -F(E X G 2 -G,E 2 ) + G(F2F, - E 2 F , ) ]

F F G
1
F, .(13)
4 ( F G - F 22x2
)
F9 G9
Using (13) in (8) we obtain

E F G
1 1 \d (G,-F 2 3 (F,-F 2 )
F, Fx G,
4(FG-F 2 ) 2 20|3«7£G_F 2 dv
yJEG-F2
E2 F2 G 2

which is the expression verified for K in the previous problem. So the given
expression in the problem represents K.
9. Using Codazzi equations, prove that the sphere is the only surface all points
of which are umbilics.
To provQ this, we first estabilish that the Gaussian curvature K is a constant.

For this it is enough if we show that —— = 0 and —— = 0.

ou ov
Let us suppose that every point on the surface is an umbilic.
L M N
Then — = — = —. Hence the normal curvature at all umbilic points are all
E F G
equal. Let us choose the parametric curves as lines of curvature. Then we have
L N
ka = — and Kb = — which implies by hypothesis Ka = Kb. Hence by Euler's
E G
Theorem K= Ka= Kb = constant.
From Theorem 5 of 5.5, the Codazzi equations in terms of prinicipal curvatures
are
dKa _\ E2 dKb _ 1 G,

Since K*lf = Kb = Ky we conclude from the above equations

—— = 0 and —— = 0 ...(1)
ou ov
Hence under the given conditions, K is a constant.
Since the lines of curvature are parametric curves, the Weingarten equations
are
L N
..(2)
N1 = - - r 1 = -/cr 1 N 2 = - — r 2 = -jcr 2
The Fundamental Equations of Surface Theory 431

Let r be a point on the surface. With this r, associate a point R with the position
vector

R = r + pN where p = — ...(3)
K

From (3), R{ = rx + p N h R2 = r2 + pN2

Using Weingarten equations (2), we get

«-* •!(-£>»-
R r!+ r =0
- f(-£) '
Hence the vector R is constant which means R is fixed. So all the vectors
going out from the points r on the surface meet at a fixed point R. Hence from (3),
we have
(r - R) • (r - R) = pN • pN = p 2 which is the equation of the sphere with centre
having the position vector R and radius p.
When K = 0 , we find N{ = 0 and N2 = 0 so that N is a constant vectort. Since
N is the surface normal dx • N = 0. Integrating this equation, we get r • N = constant
which is the equation of a plane. Note that a plane can be considered as a sphere of
infinite radius.
10. In a region R of a surface of constant positive curvature without umbilics,
show that their principal curvatures take their extreme values at the boundary.
Let the curvature K of the surface be a positive constant.Since the surface has
no umbilics, Ka * Kb. Since the Gaussian curvature K= KaKbi K being constant, we
If
conclude that Ka and Kb are inversely related as Ka = — .
K
b
Let Ka assume maximum value at an interior point P inside, the surface. Then Kb
is minimum at P. Since P is not an umbilic and is a regular point of the surface, the
neighbourhood of P is covered by lines of curvature.
Let us choose the lines of curvature as parametric curves. Since Ka is maximum
at P and Kb is minimum at P, we have the conditions,

^ = 0 a n d ^ = 0 ...(1)
ov ou
When the lines of curvature are parametric curves, by Theorem 5 of 5.5, the
Codazzi equations are

-dt = ^ - ^ ^ - = ^-Kb) -(2)

432 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Since Ka * Kb, using (1) in (2), we obtain E2 = 0, G{ = 0 -.(3)

Since Kn is maximum at P ^<0atP ...(4)

dv2
d2Kh
and since KV is minimum at P — 2£ - > 0 at P ...(5)
du
From (2), we have

"—(*i-*•„) + £ 2 ~
3V 2E 3v 2£

d2K
Since E2 = 0 , we get —-f- = - £ ( K J - Ka)
3v 2£

Using (4) we have —^-(Kb - Ka) < 0

2£
Since £ > 0 and Kb-Ka< 0, the above inequality implies, E22 > 0
In a similar manner, we have

d2Kh d (K-Kh
du2
• %*-"»+"•£[ 2G
32r
Since
^-"•if-^-"^0
Since G > 0 and ^a - KJ, > 0, the above step implies Gu>0
Since we have chosen the lines of curvature as parametric curves F = 0. Using
(3) and F = 0 , the deteminant formula for K of Example 6 at any point P becomes

— E^ — G\\ — E\ 0
2 22 2 2
K = (EG)2 0 £ 0
2 0 G
2

(E22 + Gn) ...(6)

2EG
Since is, G, £ 2 2 and G H are all positive, the right hand side of (6) is negative
whereas the left hand side is positive which is impossible. Hence at no point inside

the surface — - = 0 and — - = 0. This proves that the principal curvature takes
dv du
the extreme values at the boundary points only.
The Fundamental Equations of Surface Theory 433

11. Show that only closed surface of constant positive curvature without
singularities is a sphere.
When the surface of constant curvature is not closed and not a sphere, it is a
region of a surface without umbilics. Hence from the previous example, the
maximum of all principal curvatures lie on the boundary. But a closed surface has
no boundary so that the maximum principal curvature must be equal at all points on
the surface. TI is implies that Ka and Kb are constants on the surface which can
happen if all the points on the surface are umbilics. Therefore by Example 9, it can
only be a sphere.
12. At a point on a surface where the Gaussian curvature is negative and equal
to K, show that the torsion of the asymptotic line is ± *J-K .
From Example 12 of 4.13 of Chapter 4, the formula for the torsion of an
asymptotic line is r = [N, N', r'] where the differentiation is with respect to the arc
length s.
_dN _ dNdu dNdv
Now N' = = N, u' + N2v'
~ ds' du ds dv ds

r' =.
dr
. 9r du dr dv
r,«' + r 2 v'
' ds ' du ds dv ds
Hence N' x r ' = (Ny + N 2 v') x (i^w' + r 2 v')
= (N, x rx)u'2 + {(N, x r2) + (N2 x r,)} u'v' + (N 2 x r 2 )v /2
Taking dot product with N on both sides and using Example 2,
r = [N, N', r'] = [N, Nlf r j w ' 2 + {[N, N,,r 2 ] + [N, N 2 , r{]}uV
+ [N, N2, r 2 ]v' 2

EM-FL ,2 EN-GL ,, FN-GM /2

H U H
Having obtained the expression for torsion, let us obtain them along the
asymptotic lines.
Choosing the asymptotic lines as parametric curves, we haveL = 0 , N = 0 and
M & 0. Using these condition,

we obtain r= — (Eu'2-Gv'2)
H
For the line u = constant, u' = 0 and from the first fundamental form Gv'2 = 1

or v' 2 = —.
1
Using this condition in the above formula,
G

we obtain r = ...(0
H
434 Differential Geometry—A First Course

In a similar manner, for the asymptotic lines v = constant, v' = 0 and u'2 = —.

M
Hence the above formula for torsion reduces to r = — ...(2)

TI, A r ' r LN-M2 M2

Thus the Gaussian K = x = T ...(3)
H2 H2
From (1), (2), (3) T2 = - K or T = ± 4 ^ •
Note. The above formula for r is known as theorem of Beltrami and Enneper.
13. Derive Rodrique's formula for the lines of curvature from the Weingarten
equations.
The Weingarten equations are

N, = - ^ [(FM - GL)YX + (FL - EM) r2]

H

N2 = -^j [(FN - GM)r, + (FM - EN)r2]

H
Choosing the lines of curvature as parametric curves,
L N
We get N, = - - i ^ and N2 = - — r 2 ...(1)

But we know that Ka = and Kb = — ...(2)

E G
Thus we have from (1) ,(2) N{du + N2dv = - Kar{du - Kbr2dv ...(3)
Hence N^du + N2^v + Kar{du + Kbr2dv = 0
If Kris the normal curvature in the direction dr of the line of curvature, it will
coincide with Ka and Kb along the principal direction. Hence we have from (3).
N^du + N2dv + K(r{du + r2dv) = 0 which is equivalent to dN + Kdr = 0.
14. Establish a correspondence between the points of a catenoid and a right
helicoid such that at the corresponding points (i) the first fundamental forms and
(ii) the Gaussian curvatures are the same.
(i) The parametric represention of a catenoid is

r = (u cos v, u sin v,f{u)) where f(u) = c cosh — ...(1)

and that of a right helicoid is

r = (wj cos v h «, sin v,, av{) ...(2)
The Fundamental Equations of Surface Theory 435

Let us find the first fundamental form of (1)

f \
£ = r1r1 = l+[//(w)]2=l + c 2 2
yju2 -i W - C

F = r, • r2 = 0 , G = r2- r2 = u2

So ^2 = 2 2
dw2 + M,2^.2
2
JV: •(3)

In the case of (2) F, = 1, F, = 0 , G, = (u \ + a2)

To estabilish the correspondence, let us consider the transformation

u = yjuf + a2 or Wj = ^u2 - a2 yv = v{ ya = c

Then dv = dvj and dw = rdU] ..(4)

yju2 + a:
Using (4) in (3) we obtain
ds2 = du2 + {u] + a2)dv] = ds2
which proves (i) for 0 < v < 2n and - a < u < a.
(ii) Let us find the Gaussian curvatures for both the surfaces. Since the
parametric curves are orthogonal, we use the formula

1 a( i dJo\ t d( i d ^
K=
^/£G du^jE du ) dv\jG dv

(
du d(l d
K=- + dv
—\ U--.
V(1 + / ' V du yjl + f'2 du
j [dv
V" 2 -C
Since the second term is zero, we have

K=--- u rr rr
JuT^lv+f'2)*} «a+/'2)
Since /'(«) = -j=^ •,wehavel+/'2 = - 2T
^-,/" = "C
V7^ U ~C
2
(u2-c2)*
Hence making these substitutions

1 C (-HC) (M2-C2)2
K=
436 Differential Geometry—A First Course

For the helicoid, F, = 1 , Gx = ux +a , F = 0. Using these values the formula for K

becomes

1
3w,•ft + a
K=-
2 3K,
ft +a

2
4uf+a 9«i 4u2
+ a2

-a
2 (u2 +a2)2
yjufT? JJ77 («?+« )*
I 2 2~ C
Making the substitutions # = c, and w = ^/MJ + a , we find if = j which is the
w
same as the curvature for the catenoid.
15. Show that when we substitute F, F, G forL, A/, N into Codazzi equations,
they are identically satisfied.
Substituting F, F, G forL, M, Nin the Codazzi equation, we obtain
F.-F^FrJ. + Fcr^-r^-Gr 2 ...(1)

F 2 - GX =EV22 + F(r22 - r12) - G r 1 2 ...(2)

We shall verify the first equation, since the second equation can be verified
similarly.
Substituting for the Christoffel symbols on the right hand side of (1), we have
E(GE2-FGX) F[EGX - FE2 - (GEX - 2FF t + FE2)]
2
2(FG-F ) 2(FG-F 2 )
G[2EFX -EE2-FEl]
2(FG-F2)

_ 2F2(FG-F2)-2F1(FG-F2)
2(FG-F2)
= E2-FX asFG-F2*0
Thus we have F 2 - Fx = ET[X2 + F ^ - r / j - G r j \
16. Show that the only surfaces which can be geodesically mapped upon the
plane are those of constant curvature.
We establish the problem by showing that if there exists a coordinate system
(w, v) on the surface for which the geodesies are aw + bv + c = 0 where <z, b, c are
constants, then it can be mapped upon the plane.
The Fundamental Equations of Surface Theory 437

The geodesies are au + bv + c = 0 ...(1)

Differentiating (1) with respect to u twice, we get

b^r = 0. Since b * 0, ^ - J = ° »-(2)

But the differential equation of a geodesic on a surface from the note under
Theorem 1 of 3.7 is

d
^= rig) 3 + (2r^ - n,) g j + (r/, - 2r 2 ) £ - r 2 ...(3)
Identifying (2) and (3), we get
T\2 = rj\ = o, rj, = 2r?2> r22 = 2r}2 ...(4)
But we know that the formula for Gaussian curvature is

0 2 Cf 9 1 9 1 9 99 99

~EK = — r 1 2 - —r M + r 1 2 r n - r n r 1 2 + r 1 2 r 1 2 - r n r 2 2 ...(5)
dw dv

FK = — r/2 - — r/, + r,22 r/2 - r^ r^ ...(6)

dw dv
Using the condition (4) in equation (5) and (6), we get

KE = r?2r?2 - 1 - r,22, KF = r , 1 ^ - A (r22) ...(7)

dw dv
In a similar manner, we can obtain the equations for G and F,

KG = r/ 2 r/ 2 - A T ^ X F = r;2r22 - i - (r,1,) ...(8)

dv dw
Using (7) and (8), we prove that K is a constant.
Differentiating the equation (7) with respect to v and w respectively

K2E+E2K= r22 A (r22) + r22 A (r22) - - 2 L (r,22) ...(9)

dv dv dvdw

KXF + KFX= r22 A ( r ; 2 ) + r,'2 A ( r 2 2 ) _ J— ( r 2 2 ) ...(io>

dw dw dv dw
d2 d2
Since — — ( 1 * ^ ) = — — ( 1 ^ ) , we have from (9) and (10),
dvdu dudv

K2E - KXF+K(M2-FX) = 2 r 2 2 |-(r, 2 2 ) - r,' 2 A(r 2 2 ) - r22 |-(r,' 2 )

438 Differential Geometry—A First Course

Substituting for the partial derivatives in the above equations from (7), we
obtain
K2E-KXF = - K(E2 -Fx) + 2V22 [VlX2T22 - KF]
- r/ 2 [r?2 rf2 - KE\ - r22 \r\2 r22 - KF\
= - K(E2 - Fx) + r/ 2 KE - V22KF
= -K(E2-F{) + K(Tl2E-r?2F) ...(11)
By the previous problem on Codazzi equations,
E2 - Fx =ETl2 + F(T22 - Txxx) -GT2XX
Using the condition (4) in the above equation,
E2-Fl=Er}2-Frf2 ...(12)
Using (12) in (11) we obtain,
K2E-KlF = -K(E2-Fl) + K(E2-Fl) =0
Hence we obtain K2E - KXF = 0 ...(13)
Differentiating the equation (8) and simpliying as in the case of (7), we obtain.
FK2-GKx=0 ...(14)
Solving (13) and (14), we find Kx = K2 = 0 so that K is a constant. Hence if the
mapping is a geodesic mapping upon plane, the surface is of constant curvature.
Conversely if the Gaussian curvature K is a constant on a surface, then there is
a geodesic mapping of the surface upon the plane. Since any surface of constant
curvature is isometric to a sphere, it is enough if we show that there is a geodesic
mapping of the sphere upon the plane.
Let us consider the surface of a sphere with the representation
KM, v) = (a cos u cos v, a cos u sin v, a sin u) ...(1)
where u is the latitude and v is the longitude of a point on the sphere.
Now let us consider the transformation
* = cotMCOSv, y = cotMsinv ...(2)
The equation of the plane passing through the two given points (0, 0, 0) and
(a cos u cos v, a cos u sin v, a sin u) is
A cos u cos v + B cos u sin v + c sin u = 0 ...(3)
Since the geodesies on the sphere are great circles, they lie on a plane through
the centre of the sphere. Hence the geodesies lie on the plane given by (3).
Rewriting (3) in the following form, we obtain
A cot u cos v + B cot u sin v + c = 0
Using the transformation (2), the above equation becomes Ax + By + c = 0
which is a straight line in the plane. Hence the only surfaces which can be
The Fundamental Equations of Surface Theory 439

geodesically mapped upon the plane are those o f constant curvature. This property
of a surface is an important theorem due to Beltrami.
Note. From the transformation given in ( 2 ) , We find y = x tan v s o that the
meridian v = constant are mapped into the line y = x tan v. Further eliminating v in
( 2 ) , w e g e t * 2 + y 2 = c o s 2 u which s h o w s that the parallels u = constant are mapped
into circles.
17. S h o w that when the surface is given by z = / ( * , y)

TM _ Pr r2 - qr
n
""IW ~i + P2+q2
r> _ Ps r2 - qs
12 I2 -
A 10 —
~iW o T A n
~iW
-i _ P' r2 - qt

22 22
"iW ~iW
2
rf-s , 9z 9z
and K= - 12 1 where /7 = — , q =
r where/? = —,<? = —
1 + /? + g 9* d};
d2z d2z ., d2z
r = —o-»s= andf = —~-
9x 2 9*9? 9 /
Taking x, y as parameters, any point on the surface can be taken as
r = (*> yj(*> y))- Using this representation, let us find the fundamental coefficients
Zs, F, G and their partial derivatives for calculating the Christoffel symbols.

r1=|^=(l,0,p),r2 = ^=(0,l,^)
ox oy
Hence E = 1 +p2 , G = 1 + q2, F = pq, EG -F2 = 1 +p2 + q2

— =2/?r,
F , = 2/7 — = 2/7r, ^
G! -=°2<?
~ • —- = 2 ^
OJC
OJC a*

9/7 9<?
^ i = ^ - < 7 + / > ^ - = "? + /?*
OJC o*

£ 2 = 2 / 7 - - ^ = 2/75, G 2 = 2q^- = 2<?f

a}' oy

9^
F 2 = —q + p—
3i -sq+pt
9;y 9^

With the help of the above quantities, w e find all the Christoffel symbols of the
second kind.
440 Differential Geometry—A First Course

T , GEl-2FFl+FE2
(i) 11
2(EG-F2)

(l + q2 )2pr - 2pq(rq + ps) + 2pqps 2pr

2(1 + p2+q2) ~ 2(1 +p2+q2)

r , _ GE2-FGX _(l + q2) (2ps) - pq2qs ,_ ps

(ii) 12
2(EG-F2) 2(1 +p2+q2) l + p2+q2

i 2GF2 — GGi — FG2

(iii) 22
" 2(EG-F2)

_ 2(1 + # 2 )(qs + pt)-(l + q2)2qs-pq2qt _ pt

2(1 + p2+q2) ~(l + p2+q2)

p2 _2EFl-EE2-FEl
(iv) 11
2(EG-F2)

_ 2(1 + p2) (r? + /w) - (1 + p2 )2ps - 2pqpr _ qr

2 2
2(1 +p +q ) ~(l + p2+q2)

2 EG{- FE2 _ (1 + p2)2qs - pq2ps _ qs

(v) 12
~ 2(EG-F2)~ 2(1 +p2+q2) ~(l + p2+q2)

2 _ EG2 - 2FF2 + FG{

(vi) 22
" 2(EG-F2)

_ (1 + p 2 ) 2 # - 2p<7(#s + pt) + qp-2qs _ qt

2 2
2(1+p +q ) "(l + p2+q2)
Having found out the Christoffel symbols of the second kind, we use Gauss
formula for finding K.

LN-M2 d -»1 r->2 y>l T->2 , T->2 T-»2 T>2 r-> 2

-E 2 - ipT^-—
EG-F 3vr , , + r 12 r 11 -r 11 r i2 + r 1 2 r,2-r n r 2 2 ...(i)
First we find

Substituting for the Christoffel symbols, we have

v2 ps-qt qs
(l + 2 2
p +q ) l + p +q
2
\ + p2+q2 l + p2+q2
The Fundamental Equations of Surface Theory 441

qrjps - qi) + qsjqs - pr) q2s2-q2rt

...(2)
(l + p2+q2)2 (l + p2+q2)2
Next let us evaluate the other two symbols in (1)

dq ds_
(l + p2+q2)\ -qs\ *p—ox + 2q ox
—
qs dx dx
•0)
dx \ + p2+q2 (l + p2+q2)2

dq dr
(l + p2+q2)\ — r + — q -qr\ 2p— + 2q —
_3_ qr dy dy J dy dy
•(4)
dy l + p2+q2 (l + p2+q2)2
To check the easy cancellation of the terms, let us rewrite the numerator of (3)
and (4) using z and its partial derivatives

d2z d2z dz d\ dz d2z 2dz dzz 2dz d2z

d+p2 + q2)
dx dy dx dy dy dx dy dy dx dy dx dx dy dx dy
...(5)

d2z d2z { dz d\ dzd2z 2dz d'z 2d\dz

d+p2 + q2) ...(6)
dy2 dx2 2
dy dx dy dydx2 dx dx dy dy dy
Now (5)-(6)

d2z d2z d2zd2z dz d z dz d z

d+p2 + q2)
dx dy dx dy dx dy dy dx dy dy dy dx

dz dz d2z d2z
dy dy dy2 dx2
Hence the formula for the curvature becomes
(1 + p2) (s2 -rt) + q2(s2 - rt) - 2q2s2 + 2q2rt + q2s2 - q2rt
(l + p2+q2)2

(l + p2)(s2-rt)
(l + p2+q2)2

(l + p2)(s2-rt)
Hence -EK =
(l + p2+q2)2

t J
Using the value of^E, Kv-= ^ ^
d + p +V) 2
2
442 Differential Geometry—A First Course

The above formula can be derived by using the determinant formula for K
given in Example 6.
Note. We have characterised a developable surface as one for which K= 0. If
the equation of a surface is given in the Monge's form this characterisaction is
equivalent to r t - s2 = 0.

5.9 EXERCISES V
1. Prove the following formula,
(i) / / N x N ^ A / i ^ - L i ^ a n d
(ii) HNxN2 = Nrx-Mr2.
2. Obtain the formula of Exercise 1 for the helicoid
r = (w cos v, u sin v, cv)

3. If D = yjEG - F2 , prove the following relations

3 i 7
(i) — l o g D = r , + n 2 a n d
du

(ii) ! " i o g D = r } 2 + r222

av
4. Show that when the parametric curves are orthogonal, then
( v \
-2jEGK =
•JEG). [yfEG

5. For a surface with the metric ds2=du2+ \2dv2, where A is a function of u,

v, prove that

1 d2X
K= -
Xdu2
Deduce K for the sphere
r = (a sin 6 cos <j>, a sin 6 sin 0, a cos 0)

6. Show that K= —
D ^"HN*"'-^
7. If the equation of the surface is given in the Monge's form, find the
formula for fusing the determinant form of /tin Example 6.
8. Verify the integrability conditions of the Theorem of 5.7.

(1)
^~
ov
3M\^ dv
The Fundamental Equations of Surface Theory 443

dN*] dfdN*
(ii)
dv du du{ dv
9. Check the following orthogonal relations of the Theorem of 5.7.
(i) l) + X\ + N2y = 1, l\ + X\ + N2z=l
(ii) ly lz+XyXz + NyNz=0, lz lx + XzXx + NzNx=0
 Hints and Answers to Exercises

1.20 EXERCISES I

1. (i) JC2 = — i^d*4 + a2 + I) - 3 , r = 0

(ii) KT = ± T = - ( 1 + 2M2)2

(5 + 3 cos2 u)*
(in) K=- _ _ T=
2(1 + cos 2 uf1 ' (5 sec u + 3 cos u)
a C
/• x
1V Kzz
( ) 6(a + c )sin2w' = 6(a + c 2 )sin2w
TT^ 2 2
7TT-Z-** 2

2. tan a(x sin u-y cos w - au) + z = 0.

3. 3u2x - 3w;y + z - w3 = 0. Three planes corresponding to ux, w2» w3 of w
passing through (x0> y0, z0) given by u3 - 3w2*0 + 3uy0 - ^ = 0 (1).
Determine the plane Ix + my + nz + p = 0 identifying (1) with
/w + mu2 + n«3 + p = 0. Then the plane is 3 ^ - 3x^y + z - ZQ = 0 satisfied
by (*o» ?o» Zo)-
4. r' = t. Find r" and r"' and use Serret-Frenet formulae with
t n = n b = b t = 0.
5. n • K = 0 gives (j> (u) = au + b,a and b constants.
6. Take two consecutive points r, r + dx and their normals n, n + dN. Use
[dx, n, n + dn] = r [t, n, b].

7. t = ± tj gives K*n = Kxnx ...(1)

Hence n and n,1 are vparallel and — = —

dsi K
Hints and Answers to Exercises 445

ds ds
t x K:n-7— = K{t{ xn{. Sobx: = K{b{
dsx dsx

ds}( ds} . d ( ds
! K"-:— II -Tn—— + b — \ K — = -• K^Il! + K\b{ ...(2)
ds* i ds[ dsy

Dot product of (1) and (2) leads to answer.

8. Takerx = r + cn,bj = n ...(1)
2 2
, «, ^ d
•in,
1 — + t l, — 2~ = - cK't + (K- CK* - a?)n + cifb ...(2)
\dsj ds

a
Use dot product of (1) and (2) and c = —.
b
9. Let the principal normals at r, r + dv be n, n + dn.
cos 6 = n ( n + dn) 1 1 , ds = s.
|n + dn| dn ,
n +—as U+ S V + J V / 2
ds

6 s
Use cos 0 = 1 and (1 + s2r2 + s2*:2)^ = 1 - — ( T 2 + K2)
10. The osculating sphere with centre c = (a, /J, y) and radius R is
(r - c) 2 = R2. When u = 0, r = (1, 2, 3). The conditions of four point
contact give

a=l,/J=|fy = 3,R=|.

The osculating sphere is 3*2 + 3y2 + 3z2 - 6x - I6y - 18z + 50 = 0.

The osculating circle is the intersection of the osculating plane
[R - r, r, r] = z - 3 = 0, and the osculating sphere.
11. p' = 0. Osculating sphere is (R - c)2 = p2, c = r + p n.

12. Verify the condition — + — (crpO = 0.

a ds
ds ds
13. r ^ r + pn, t{ = (p'n + prb) — .Find — and cos 0 = 1 1 ^
dsx dsx

14. From (13) above — (p/2 + p V ) = l .

\dsx

15. r, = r + pn. p' = 0. —- = — and t ^ = — b so that t{ = b giving

ds K K
K{n{ = - Kn. If n{ = - n,Kx = K. Use b t = tt x nt = b x (- n) = t, and find
446 Differential Geometry—A First Course

16. r = jd + yj + zK (r'")2 = x'"2 + / " 2 + z'"2

Use r" = /en and obtain r"'2 = „ „+

2 2
^
•*
2 2
P CT p"
^ • KT'-K'T -. .. d ffO _
17. T, = 0 gives . =- = 0 implies — — = 0.
18. The result follows from Theorem 2 of 1.13.
19. The Betrand associate of a circle in a plane is a circle.
20. For the spherical indicatrices of the tangent to C and binormal to C, we
have

t j — - = fen, t j — - = - rn so that they have parallel tangent lines.

ds ds

K_ 1 (36fr 2 cV + 3 6 a 2 c V + 4 a V ) *
T Ylabc (a2+4b2u2 +9c2u4/2
When 3ac = ± fc2,
(36b2c2u4 + 36a2c2u2 + 4a2 b2)* = 8b\a2 + 4fr V + 9c V ) H

^ K 2b2 u. u.
so that — = which is a constant.
T 3flC

22. K, = - O r 2 + T 2 ) * , ! , = ( ) .

2^
23. KT K VI K
ds T dsyK
?-T>- , + 7
4£ r ^ = £l n _f£:_£i:\ and p r "==—fen
i
ds\x ) x \x x' ) a K

2.17 EXERCISES II
2 2
x y
(ii) — + 7T = z
a b

»®-£H
(v) x + ;y-2z = 0
(iv)x2 + y2 = z2

2. (i) The matrix A# has atleast one determinant minor of order two different
from zero. So every point on the surface is a regular point,
(ii) Every minor of order two of M vanishes at the origin. So the origin is
a singular point.
Hints and Answers to Exercises 447

(iii) The rank of M is two. Hence each point on the surface is a regular
point.

3. u = constant is a straight line jr = a c + — , y = ft c —

v = constant is a straight line JC = a c + - , y = ft — c

4. The parametric curves u = constant are circles lying in the plane parallel to
XOY plane. The parametric curves v = constant are sections of the surface
by planes passing through the z-axis.
5. F = i y r 2 = 0
6. (i) [N,r 1 ,r 2 ] = N-(r 1 xr 2 ) = N-N// = //

(ii) r 1 x N = r 1 x ^ ^ = ^{(r 1 .r 2 )r 1 -(r 1 .r 1 )r 2 } = l ( F r 1 - E r 2 )

ti tl M
(iii) Similar to (ii)
7. rx = (- a sin w, a cos w, 0), r2 = (0, 0, 1)
(JC -a cos u) cos u + (y - a sin u) sin u = 0
8. rf/^l+^V + wV
9. £ = a2 cot2w, F = 0, G = a2 sin2w
N = (cos u cos v, cos u sin v, sin u)
10. £ = 1 + (ax + /ry)2, F = (ax + /ry) (/u + by\ G = 1 + (hx + fty)2

N = — [-(ax + hy\-(by + hx\ 1], H2 = 1 + (a* +fty)2+ (to + ftv)2

K
11. The direction ratios of curves (1, 1), (0, 1), tan 0 = 1,0= —
4
12. F = 0 , # = VFG, If (rfii,rfv)and (0,1) are directions then tan j3 = J -.
\G dv
13. Differenital equation of the orthogonal trajectory is

uv du + (2 + u2)dv = 0.vy]2 + u2 = constant.

14. E = 1, F = 0, G = u2 + f 2(v), P = 1, Q = 0, R = - (w2 + c2)
- (w2 + c2) + [u2 + 0 ,2 (v)] = 0 gives 0(v) = ± cv + a.

15. uv = constant, £/' = - , V = wv, F' = - -^5-, F ' = 0

v 2 w'2

G'=I,^ 2 = I ^2M 2 + Irfv'2

2 2 w' 2
448 Differential Geometry—A First Course

3.17 EXERCISES III

1. Letu = t, v = c-t. T= - { ( 1 + u2)u2 -2uuv +(1 + v 2 )v 2 }

Verify £/ = 0,V=0.

2. Let u = ci2, v = ct3, T= - {2v2ii2 -luvuv + u2v2 }

2
Verify U = 0,V=0.
3. Use Note 1 under Example 2 of 3.16.
2
4. r= i[(i +/l)V + u\'\ | £ = «V, ^ = o, ^ V ) = o.
2 ov dv dls

5. (i) T=-[a2u2+(b +a cos u)2v2]

— = a2uii + (b + acos u)2vv - v2(b + acos u) a sin uu]

dt
U=a2u +(b + a cos u) a sin w v2
V=(b + a cos w)2v - 2 (b + a cos u) a sin u wv
(ii) r m = 0, r l l 2 = T121 = 0, r 122 = a sin w (fc + a cos w)
r211 = 0, F212 = T221 = - a sin u (b + a cos w), T222 = 0
a2u" + a sin u (b + a cos w) v/2 = 0
(b + a cos M)2V" - a sin w (b + a cos M)MV = 0

(iii) T= -[a2 u'2 + (b + a cos w)V2], — = (fc + a cos w)V, — = 0

2 ov av
d 2
— [(& + a cos u)V] = 0 gives
dv a
rfM
(fc + a cos w) ^/(fc + a cos u)2 - 1

dv c /1 + 4w
6. The differential equation of the geodesic is — = —- J =-
du 2u\u-c2
7. If R(w, V) = r(^) + vb, R! x R2 = HN = - n - v t T. Since v = 0 for a point on
the curve, conclude by normal property.
8. Since the only force is along the surface normal, the acceleration r is along
the normal N to the surface. Since r is tangential to the path, it is tangential
1 2
to the surface. Hence rxr = 0 which implies — r = 0 or | r| = constant.

Consequently s = constant. Note that r= r'i

Hints and Answers to Exercises 449

r = — (x's) = — (r's) — = Kiis1 + r's = Kns1

dt ds dt
Hence conclude by normal property.

9. */'- w v ' 2 = 0andv" + ^ ^ = 0 .

10. The geodesic curvature when u is constant is

J L A i 0 7 G = - —lo =— ^
-J~E du X du X\X du
11. Solution follows from Corollary 1 of Theorem 9 of 3.10.
12. Application of Liuoville's formula.

8 e
du dv\
Let — , — be the direction coefficient of the line making an angle 6
ds* ds)

with v is a constant. Since -,o

(?•) is
- the direction coefficient of

* * u dv sind du cos 0 ,
v = constant, we have — = ,— = . Using these, Liouville s
ds g ds e
formula becomes K' = Q' + — (g{ sin 0- e2 cos 0)
eg
13. Apply the formula (n - 2)n when n = 5 for total curvature.

14. If A + B + C = 2;r, K = , A being the geodesic triangle.

A
15. Take r (s9 v) = a + v t (s) as the equation of the cone with vertex r = a. Then
L = - V V T , M = 0, iV = 0, So K = 0. For the cylinder r(^, v) = r(s) + va,
with the generator parallel to a. Then L = fc, N = 0, M = 0. So K = 0.

16. For thefirstsurface L = ,M = 0,N= — , K = ^ r . For the

uH H (1 + H2)2

second surface L = 0, Af= , N = 0, K = =-?- where

# (1 + w2)2
H= y]l + u2 for both the surfaces.
17. /(w + iv) = e(M + /v). Ref(u + iv) = eu cos v, Imf (II + iv) = eu sin v.
Hence u' = e" cos v, v' = e" sin v is the required isothermic system.
450 Differential Geometry—A First Course

4.14 EXERCISES IV
1. E = 1 +/, 2 , F = c/„ G = u2 + c2, H2 = c2 + u\\ +/i 2 )

H H H

N = —(c sin v - ufi cos v, - c cos v-ufi sin v, w)

2. R = r(i) + A n ( i ) , £ = l , F = 0,G = (l-AK') 2 + A2T2

W=A/(l-A/:)2+A2T2,L = 0 , A f = - — , # = — [ A V T ' - K ' ^ - A T ' ]

N= R,xR2 = l[ATt_(1_Ay)b]

3. (i) E=l+f2,F = 0,G = u2,H2 = u\l+f2)

H H
/i /n
' , « * = •

Since F = 0, M = 0, the principal directions are parametric curves

(ii) Apply Euler's theorem KK = /i /n

2MA/T7tf" 2(1+ /, 2 )^

4. R = r (s) + v t (s). K*lf = 0, Kb = — . The principal directions are s = constant

and v + s = constant.

5. F = l , F = 0,G = w2 + sin22v, L = 0, M = ™ ^
H
- 2w cos 2v
N= , H = yju2 + sin2 2v , and
H
- sin2 2v
K=
(w2 + sin2 2v)2
6. F, F, G, if and L, M, N are as in Exercise 1.
" 2 / i d + /i 2 ) + 2 c 2 / 1 + ( M 2 + c 2 ) W / 1 1
K.+ Kh =
2H5

K K
"V./n-c2
K~ a b~ r, 2
[«'(l + /, 2 ) + c 2 ] 2
Hints and Answers to Exercises 451

u = constant is a helix on the surface. When u = constant, Ka + Kb = 0.

Hence the mean curvature vanishes for points on the helix. Since K is
independent of v, it is a constant along the helix u = constant.

7. E = 2 + v2, F = IIV, G = 2 + v2, // = ^4 + 2u2 + 2v2

L = 0, tf = 0, M = - —. At (2, 0, 1), u = 1, v = 1.
H

K= T and a = -—r-. Find K and a at w = 1, v = 1

H4 ^ H3
2 -2 ? - 4
8. (i) L = —, M = 0, N = . Since LN - M = —j\ every point is
H H H
hyperbolic on the surface,
(ii) L = 2, M = 0, N = 6v. Since LN - M2 = 12v, the surface is elliptic,
hyperbolic or parabolic accoding as v > 0, v < 0 or v = 0.
9. For a tangent surface,L = 0, M = 0, N = v/cr. Conclude fromLN -M2 = 0.
10. For the paraboloid, LN - M2 = 2u2. So every point on the surface is
elliptic. Every point on the helicoid is hyperbolic for
LN-MZ=- 1
2 2
ul +cz
11. (i) For a surface generated by binormals, R = r(s) + Xb(s). E = 1, F = 0,
G = AV + 1, L = 0, MH = - r, M / = ( * - A*0 + A2!2*- using the
above, the equation of the lines of curvature is
rdX2 - (JC+ KT^A2 - t'XtfMs - (1 + A 2 T 2 ) T ^ 2 = 0
(ii) Using Exercise 2, the differential equation of the lines of curvature is
rdX2 - [X\KT' - T O - M}dMs - T{(1 - AK)2 + X^ds2 = 0.
12. Using Rodrique's formula, any curve in the plane is a line of curvature.
13. Since the principal directions at any point of a sphere are undetermined,
any curve on a sphere is a line of curvature.
14. Since any curve on the plane or on a sphere is a line of curvature, the result
follows by Joahimsthal's Theorem.
15. At the origin E = l , f = 0,G= 1,//= 1,L = 0,M= l,N = 0.Theequation
of the principal curvatures gives K 2 - l = 0 o r K : = ± l . Taking Ka= 1 and
Kb = - 1 or vice-versa, the Dupin's indicatrix is x2 -y2 = ± 1.
16. For the sphere, the equation of the principal curvatures is

K*a2 - 2m + 1 = 0 or {Ka - l) 2 = 0 giving Ka = Kb = - . So the Dupin's

a
indicatrix is x2 + v2 = a2
17. (i) and (ii) follow from the fact M = 0
452 Differential Geometry—A First Course

18. Using Exercise (3), apply the condition of conjugacy to the

directions (0, 1) and (/, m). Then m = 0 so that any direction — , 0 is

conjugate to (0, 1).

19. Using Exercise (3), the asymptotic lines are given by
fndu2 + ufldv2 = 0
20. In the previous exercise, take/(w) = u cot a. Then u = 0 or v = constant is
an asymptotic line on the cone.
21. The given paraboloid of revolution in the Monge's form can be
represented parametrically as r = (u cos 0, u sin 0, w2). Then
2 2w2
L= . M = 0, N = —/ and the asymptotic lines are given
VI + 4M 2 V1 + 4 " 2
by du2 + u2d02 = 0.
22. Since N = 0 for a ruled surface, its asymptotic lines are given by
du[Ldu + 2Mdv] = 0. Hence the generators u = constant is one set of

asymptotes and the other set of asymptotes is given by — = .

du M
23. Applying the condition of orthogonality, EN - 2FM + GL = 0 is the
condition for the asymptotic lines to be orthogonal.
24. Let the asymptotic line make an angle y/ with the principal direction Ka.
Since the normal curvature along the asymptotic line is zero, by Euler's
theorem we have
K^cosV + K^sin2^ = 0 ...(1)
If KX is the curvature of the line perpendicular to the asymptotic line, then
K
this line makes an angle — + y/ with Ka. Hence applying Euler's Theorem
once again.
KX = Ka sin 2 v+ Kb cosV •••(2)
Using (1) and (2) obtain the result.

25. K= [N, r', r"] = —(rl x r2) • (r'-x r") which gives the result on expansion
H
of the vector product.
LN - M2
26. Using Exercise (4), K = j - = 0 so that it is a developable.
EG — F

27. For the given surface t = , r = (w, w2, w3). Hence the
Vl + 4w2 + 9w4
tangential developable surface is R = r(w) + At.
Hints and Answers to Exercises 453

28. Any point on the edge of regression of the polar developable is

R = r(s)'+ pn + op'b. Use p' = 0 and obtain the result.
29. The curvature and torsion of the edge of regression of the osculating
developable are the same as the given curve.
^ „ 1 + sinh2 v „ 1 + sinh2 x
30. E= 1 - sinh=2 x sinh
^ r 2-};'
, G = 1 - sihh x sinh y

„ yj cosh
sinh x sinh „„ x„ cosh};
„w„ y sinh A: sinh y cosh2 y
r = ——«2 x sinh
(1 - sinh —~2 , LH = (1 - sinh2 x sinh2 ;y)/2
y)

M// = cosh x cosh y ^ = sinh * sinh y cosh2 *

(1 - sinh2 x sinh2 y)^ ' (1 - sinh2 x sinh2 y)%
Using the above, show that EN - 2FM + GL = 0
31. Similar to the Example 13 of 4.13.
32. Taking the given curve as the base, the equation of the ruled surface
generated by the normals is R($, v) = r(^) + vn(s).
33. Write down the equation of the given helicoid as
r(w, v) = (0, 0, av) + w(cos v, sin v, 0)
which is a ruled surface having the z-axis as the base curve and the unit
vector g(u) = (cos v, sin v, 0) as the generator. The parameter of
distribution p = a. Since g • r = 0, the z-axis is the line of striction.
34. Same as Theorem 1 of 4.11 with r(w) = a(w), and g(u) = /J(M).
35. (i) E = G = (l+w 2 + v 2 ) 2 ,F = 0,L = 2,M = 0,W = - 2 .
H= (1 + u2 + v2)2, N = (1 + u2 + v2) (- 2K, 2V, 1 - u2- v2)
4
Using the above, K- ~ «-r- and find KX and K7.
(l + W -fv 2 ) 4
2

Note KX + K2 = 0
(ii) Since F = 0, M = 0, the lines of curvature are parametric curves,
(iii) Ldu2 + IMdudv + Ndv2 = 0 implies dw2 - dv2 = 0 which gives the
asymptotic lines as u ± v = constant.

36. (i) N = , l (- c cos v, - c sin v, 1), N 1 = (0, 0, 0)

VI + c 2

N7 = , (c sin v, - c cos v, 0 )

c2
IH = </N-dN = ^dv2.

{$**)
454 Differential Geometry—A First Course

(ii) N = (- cos u cos v, - cos u sin v, sin u)

Nj = (sin u cos v, sin u sin v, cos u)
N2 = (cos u sin v, - cos u cos v, 0), N{ • N2 = 0
III = dN • dN = du2 + cos2u dv2.

5.9 EXERCISES V
1. Since HN = rt x r2, we have on differentiation
Hx1i + #N, = r n x r 2 + ^ x r 21
# 2 N + HN2 = r12 x r 2 + r 1 x r 22
Get the result by taking cross product with N on both sides and using
L, M, N.
1 -c
2. N = , (c sin v, - c cos v, w), L = 0, Af = , N = 0.
J^7 H
l o g D = l £ l G + Gl£-2FF1=r,+ri
3. (i) ii
du (EG-F<)
,..x 9 i r. 1 E2G + G2E-2FF2 • .
(n) — log D = — ^ ^—^—^- = r 12 + rl22
&
dv 2 EG-F2 n 22

9 T I aVG^i a ( I aV^
4. Use the formula K = -
VEG
5. Apply the formula in Exercise 4 using E = 1, G = A2(w, V).
For the sphere ds =a du +a sin u dv
Let £/ = au, V=av. Then ds2 = dU2 + s'm2u dv2

m i i• . , 13A 1
Take A(M, V), = sin w, then - — -—^=- = -^-.
A 3t/ 2 a 2
6. Find — — r 2 2 and — — r/ 2 separately and proceed as in
du \G J av\G J
Example 8 of 5.8.
7. Substitute E = 1+p2y F = pq, G= 1 + <?2, J?! = 2pr, E 2 = 2ps
G{ = 2#s, G2 = 2qt, F{ = rq+ps, F2 = sq+pt
E22 = 2s2+ 2/?52, G!! = 2s2 + 2qs, Fl2 = F2l = r2q +rt + s2 + ps2.
o ,-s ,,.., u . ,3A* 3A* 3N* JN* ,
8. (I) and (n) use the expressions of ——, — - , —— and —— and proceed
ou dv du dv
as in the theorem.
9. (i) and (ii) use the component equations of 7(a), 7(b) and 7(c) and prove
as in the theorem of 5.7.
 References

1. W.C. Graustein, Differential Geometry, Mac Millan, New York, 1935.

2. Dirk J. Struik, Classical Differential Geometry, Addison Wesley
Publishing Company, INC., Massachusetts, 1961.
3. C.E Weatherburn, Differential Geometry of Three dimensions, University
Press, Cambridge, 1930.
4. T.Willmore, An Introduction to Differential Geometry, Clarendon Press,
Oxford, 1959.
 Index

Analytic function, 4, 241 Clairaut's theorem, 176

Anchor ring, 115 Codazzi- Mainardi equations, 390
Angle between parametric curves, 122, 129 Conoid, 379
Applicable surface, 139 Conformal mapping, 237
Arc-length, 7 Conjugate directions, 305
Area, 122 Constant curvature, 232
Artificial singularity, 105 Constraint equation, 102
Asymptotic direction, 308 Contact between curves and surfaces, 35
Asymptotic line, 309 Contact n point, 36
Atases, 241 Convex region, 194
Cross ratio, 60, 350
Base curve, 336 Cubic curve, 3, 24, 94
Beltrami-Enneper, 355 Curvature of
Beltrami Formula, 263 Betrand curves, 58
Beltrami theorem, 439 evolute, 97
Betrand curves, 57 involute, 51
Binormal, 16 intersection of
Bonnet, 262, 402 two surfaces, 31
space curves, 18
Catenoid, 141,255,434
spherical indicatrices
Cauchy-Riemann equations, 240
tangent, 62
Central plane, 343
normal, 65
Central point, 341
binormal, 63
Centre of curvature, 38
Curvature vector, 18
Centre of spherical curvature, 39
Curves-definition, 6
Change of parameter, 5
congruent, 67
Characteristic point, 314
Curvilinear coordinates, 102, 109
Characteristic line, 314
Cylinderical helix, 76
Christofell symbols of
first kind, 186 Developables, 313
second kind, 188 Differential homeomorphism, 237
Circular helix, 77 Dini's theorem, 245
Index 457

Direction coefficients, 125 Geodesic disc, 194

Direction ratios, 126 Geodesic existence theorem, 192
Directrix, 336 Geodesic normal property, 178
Double family of curves, 136 Geodesic triangle, 225
Dupin indicatrix, 302
Dupin's theorem, 300 Helicoids, 117
Helix, 76
Edge of regression, 315 Hyperbolic paraboloid, 102
Elliptic point, 285 Hyperbolic point, 286
Enneper's surface, 380
Envelope of normals, 313 Inflexion point, 11
Epicycloid, 80 Intrinsic equation, 67
Equations of Gauss, 386 Intrinsic properties, 142
Equivalence class of regular parametric Involutes, 49
representation, 6 Integrability conditions, 407
Essential singularity, 105 Integral curvature, 225
Euler's formula, 299 Isometric correspondence, 138
Evolute, 52 Isothermic system, 240
Excess, 221 Isothermal net, 332
Existence theorem, 192 Isotropic curves, 239
Existence theorem of linear
Jacobian, 2, 103, 286
differential equations, 69,405
Joahimsthal theorem, 363
Family of curves, 131
First fundamental form, 119 Lines of curvature, 296
Four point contact, 39 Lines of striction, 341
Functions cm, c~, cw, 4 Liouville formula, 215
Functions of class m, 4 Locus of centres of curvature, 44
Fundamental existence theorem for spherical curvature, 43
curves, 69
surfaces, 404 Mainardi-Codazzi equations, 390
Fundamental equations of surface Manheim theorem, 60
theory, 382 Mean curvature, 292
Gauss-Bonnet theorem, 220 Metric, 119
Gauss equations, 383, 395 Mercator's projection, 241
Gaussian curvature, 225, 227, 292 Meridians, 112
Gauss theorema egregium, 393 Meusiner's theorem, 283
General surface of revolution, 114 Minding's theorem, 232
General helicoids, 117 Minimal surface, 331
Geodesies, 161 Monge's form of surface equations, 373
Geodesies canonical equations, 173
Non-intrinsic properties, 142
Geodesic circle, 230
Normal component, 202
Geodesic curvature, 202, 208, 220
Normal curavuture, 202
Geodesic curvature vector, 203
Normal plane, 15
458 Index

Normal to surface, 124 Ruling, 336

Ordinary point on a surface, 104 Scroll, 336

Orthogonal direction, 132 Second Fundamental form, 281
Orthogonal matrix, 71, 411 Serret-Frenet approximation, 27
Orthogonal trajectories, 133 Serret-Frenet formule, 19
Osculating circle, 38 Simple region, 194
Osculating developable, 321 Simple connected region, 220
Osculating plane, 11 Singular point on a surface, 103
Osculating sphere, 39 Spherical indicatrix of
binormal, 63
Parabolic point, 285 normal, 64
Parallels, 201 tangent, 62
Parallel surfaces, 399 Surface-definition, 101
Parametric curves, 108 Surface of revolution, 114
Parametric equations of surfaces, 102
Parameter of distribution, 339 Tangent, 10
Parametric transformation, 102 Tangent vector to a curve, 10
Path-representation of a curve, 5 Tangent plane, 109
Pitch of the helicoid, 118 Tangential developable, 318
Pitch of a helix, 79 Tangent surface, 49
Polar axis, 39 Tangential component, 124
Polar developable, 322 Three point contact, 38
Principal curvature, 291 Third fundamental form, 353
Principal direction, 293 Tissot theorem, 244
Principal normal, 15 Torsion of
Proper parametric transformation, 103 Betrand curves, 58
Pseudo sphere, 232 evolute, 97
involute, 51
Quadratic differential forms, 404 intersection of two surfaces, 31
space curves, 18
r-equivalence class, 107
spherical indicatrix
Radius of curvature, 19
tangent, 62
Radius of spherical curvature, 39
normal, 96
Radius of torsion, 19
binormal, 63
Rectifying developable, 323
Torus, 115
Rectifying plane, 16
Total curvature, 223
Riccati equation, 76, 338
Right helicoid, 117 Umbilics, 294
Rodrique's formula, 297
Rotation surfaces, 268 Weingarten equations, 388
Ruled surfaces, 336 Whitehead, 194
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Differential Geometry
A First Course
D Somasundaram
Differential Geometry: A First Course is an introduction to the
classical theory of space curves and surfaces offered at the under
Graduate and Post- Graduate courses in Mathematics. Based on Serret-
Frenet formulae, the theory of space curves is developed and concluded
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of surfaces includes the first fundamental form with local intrinsic
properties, geodesies on surfaces, the second fundamental form with
local non-intrinsic properties and the fundamental equations of the
surface theory with several applications.
Key Features:
• Motivation of different concepts
• Outline of the methods of proofs before giving details
• Simple but interesting immediate illustrations in each section
after the theory
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• Illustrations of the methods of proofs of the fundamental
theorems of space curves and surfaces
• Exercises with hints

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