E 4844 Canada

CLT
CROSS-LAMINATED TIMBER
CLT
Addresses
319, rue Franquet

Québec, QC
Canada G1P 4R4
418 659-2647
2665 East Mall

Vancouver, BC
Canada V6T 1W5
604 224-3221
Head Office
570, boul. St-Jean
Pointe-Claire, QC
Canada H9R 3J9
514 630-4100
www.fpinnovations.ca
Special Publication SP-528E

CL
Edited by
Sylvain Gagnon
and Ciprian Pirvu
FPInnovations
Québec, QC
2011
Contents
Introduction
1
C h a p t e r
to cross-laminated timber
Cross-laminated
2
C h a p t e r
timber manufacturing
Structural design
C h a p t e r
3 of cross-laminated timber elements
Seismic performance
4
C h a p t e r
of cross-laminated timber buildings
Connections in
C h a p
ter
5 cross-laminated timber buildings
Duration of load and creep factors

C h a p t e r
6 for cross-laminated timber panels
Vibration performance
7
C h a p t e r
of cross-laminated timber floors
Fire performance
C h a p
ter
8 of cross-laminated timber assemblies
Acoustic performance
9
C h a p t e r
of cross-laminated timber assemblies
Building enclosure design

10
C h a p t e r
of cross-laminated timber construction
Environmental performance
C h a p t e r
11 of cross-laminated timber
C h a p Lifting and
ter
12 handling of CLT elements
Preface
FPInnovations’ Building Systems Research Program has been generating technical data to facilitate:
■
Platform Frame Wood Construction
■
Heavy Timber Frame Construction
■
Cross-Laminated Timber Construction
Multi-disciplinary teams working in cooperation with the design and construction community
and research alliances have contributed greatly to the application of Platform Frame and Heavy Timber
Frame systems together with hybrid systems in Canada.
Cross-laminated timber (CLT), an emerging successful system from Europe, has been identified
by the forest products industry, the research and wood design communities as a new opportunity
for increasing the use of wood in non-traditional applications.
Building on the European experience, FPInnovations has prepared this peer-reviewed CLT Handbook to:
■
Provide immediate support for the design and construction of CLT systems as alternative solutions
in building codes;
■
Provide technical information for implementation of CLT systems in building codes and standards.
This FPInnovations CLT Handbook, prepared under the Transformative Technologies Program
of Natural Resources Canada, provides technical information relating to manufacturing,
all aspects of design and construction, and environmental considerations.
Erol Karacabeyli, M.A.Sc., P.Eng., FPInnovations

Richard Desjardins, M.Sc., Eng., FPInnovations
Acknowledgements
The completion of such an exhaustive manual on this new, but very promising technology was a great
venture that would not have been possible without the contribution of many people and numerous
national and international organizations.
First and most of all, we would like to express our special thanks to all researchers and technicians
at FPInnovations who, through their work and knowledge, contributed to the writing of individual
chapters. To the same extent, special thanks go to all reviewers and collaborators from external sources
who shared their precious time and expertise in improving this manual.
We would like to express our sincerest gratitude to Natural Resources Canada for the financing and
support provided through the Transformative Technologies Program. We also wish to acknowledge the full
assistance and support provided by FPInnovations’ management: Pierre Lapointe, Jim Dangerfield,
Alan Potter, Hervé Deschênes, Richard Desjardins and Erol Karacabeyli.
Our very special thanks to Madeline Leroux, who did very well in transforming ideas and concepts into
drawings. Thanks also to Norine Young, Marie-Claude Thibault and Bill Deacon for the editing review;
to Odile Fleury for her help in bibliographic references; and to Richard Gosselin for his appreciated
experienced advices. The graphic design and layout was performed by Propage (www.propage.com).
Sylvain Gagnon
Funding for this publication
was provided by
Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication

CLT handbook : cross-laminated timber / edited by Sylvain Gagnon
and Ciprian Pirvu. -- Canadian ed.
(Special publication, ISSN 1925-0495 ; SP-528E)
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 978-0-86488-547-0
1. Laminated wood. 2. Laminated wood construction. 3. Engineered
wood construction. I. Gagnon, Sylvain, 1970- II. Pirvu, Ciprian, 1968-
III. Title: Cross-laminated timber. IV. Series: Special publication
(FPInnovations (Institute)) ; SP-528E
TA666.C57 2011 624.1’84 C2010-907793-8
©2011, FPInnovations®
ISSN 1925-0495
ISBN 978-0-86488-547-0
For additional copies and/or

further information, contact
FPInnovations
319, rue Franquet 2665 East Mall

Québec, QC Vancouver, BC
Canada G1P 4R4 Canada V6T 1W5
418 659-2647 604 224-3221
Printed in Canada
cross-laminated timber buildings
Connections in
CHAPTER
Authors
5
Mohammad Mohammad, Ph.D., P.Eng., FPInnovations
Williams Munoz, Ph.D., FPInnovations
Peer Reviewers
Pierre Quenneville, Ph.D., P.Eng., University of Auckland
David Moses, Ph.D., P.Eng., PE, LEED AP, Moses Structural Engineers
FORIN-Chapitre 5.indd 2 10-12-22 15:46

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express their special thanks to Natural Resources Canada (NRCan) for their financial
contribution to studies conducted at FPInnovations in support of the introduction of cross-laminated timber
product in Canada.
FPInnovations expresses its thanks to its industry members, NRCan (Canadian Forest Service), the Provinces
of British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, Québec, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick,
Newfoundland and Labrador, and the Yukon Territory for their continuing guidance and financial support.
©2011 FPInnovations. All rights reserved.

No part of this published Work may be reproduced, published, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, whether or not in translated form, without the prior written permission of FPInnovations, except
that members of FPInnovations in good standing shall be permitted to reproduce all or part of this Work for their own use but not for resale, rental or
otherwise for profit, and only if FPInnovations is identified in a prominent location as the source of the publication or portion thereof, and only so long
as such members remain in good standing.
This published Work is designed to provide accurate, authoritative information but it is not intended to provide professional advice. If such advice
is sought, then services of a FPInnovations professional could be retained.

Abstract
The light weight of cross-laminated timber (CLT) products combined with the high level of prefabrication
involved, in addition to the need to provide wood-based alternative products and systems to steel and concrete,
have significantly contributed to the development of CLT products and systems, especially in mid-rise buildings
(5 to 9 storeys). While this product is well-established in Europe, work on the implementation of CLT products
and systems has just begun in Canada and the USA. The structural efficiency of the floor system acting as a
diaphragm and that of walls in resisting lateral loads depends on the efficiency of the fastening systems and
connection details used to interconnect individual panels and assemblies. Long self-tapping screws are typically
recommended by CLT manufacturers and are commonly used for connecting panels to panels in floors and floor-
to-wall assemblies. However, there are other types of traditional and innovative fasteners and fastening systems
that can be used in CLT assemblies.
This chapter focuses on a few connector systems that reflect present-day practices, some being conventional, others
being proprietary. Given the recent introduction of CLT into the construction market, it is expected that new
connection types will be developed in time. Issues associated with connection design specific to CLT assemblies
are presented. The European design approach is presented and the applicability of CSA O86-09 design provisions
for traditional fasteners in CLT such as bolts, dowels, nails and wood screws are reviewed and design guidelines
are provided.
The information given in this chapter is aimed at Canadian designers, a group which has expressed a strong interest
in specifying CLT products for non-residential and multi-storey applications. However, further studies are needed
to assist designers in the development of Canadian engineering design specifications and procedures consistent
with Canadian material design standards and the National Building Code of Canada. The technical information
will also be used to facilitate code acceptance of CLT products in North America.
ChapTER 5 Connections
iii

Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ii
Abstract iii
List of Tables vii
List of Figures vii
1 Cross-Laminated Timber in Construction 1
2 Common Structural Systems in CLT 2
3 Introduction to Connections in CLT Assemblies - Overview 3
3.1 General 3
3.2 Connection Systems Commonly Used in CLT Assemblies 3
3.2.1 Wood and Self-Tapping Screws 4
3.2.2 Nails and Glulam Rivets 4
3.2.3 Bolts and Dowels 5
3.2.4 Bearing Type of Fasteners 5
3.2.5 Innovative Types of Fasteners 5
4 Connections in CLT Assemblies - Details 6
4.1 Panel-to-Panel Connections (Detail A) 7
4.1.1 Internal Spline 7
4.1.2 Single Surface Spline 7
4.1.3 Double Surface Spline 8
4.1.4 Half-Lapped Joint 9
4.1.5 Tube Connection System 9
4.1.6 Alternative Systems 10
4.2 Wall-to-Wall Connections (Detail B) 10
4.2.1 Self-Tapping Screws 10
4.2.2 Wooden Profiles 12
4.2.3 Metal Brackets 13
4.2.4 Alternative Systems 14
4.2.5 Concealed Metal Plates 15
iv

4.3 Wall-to-Floor Connections (Detail C) 16
4.3.1 Platform Construction 16
4.3.1.1 Self-Tapping Screws 16
4.3.1.2 Metal Brackets 17
4.3.1.3 Alternative Innovative Systems 18
4.3.1.4 Concealed Metal Plates 23
4.3.2 Balcony Details 24
4.3.2.1 Balcony in Cantilever 24
4.3.2.2 Supported Balcony 25
4.3.3 Balloon Construction 27
4.4 Wall-to-Roof Connections (Detail D) 29
4.5 Wall-to-Foundation Connections (Detail E) 31
4.5.1 Visible/Exposed Plates 31
4.5.2 Concealed Hardware 33
4.5.3 Metal Shafts 34
4.5.4 Threaded Rod/Screw 35
4.5.5 Wooden Profiles 36
4.5.6 Alternative System 37
5 Connections in Mixed Hybrid CLT Construction - Details 38
5.1 Mixed CLT with Other Wood-Based Materials and Systems 38
5.1.1 Platform Construction 38
5.1.2 Balloon Construction 40
6 Designing Connections in Cross-Laminated Timber 41
6.1 Why Connections in CLT are Different than Those in Solid Timber or Glulam 41
6.2 Current European Design Approach for Connections in CLT 42
6.3 Could CSA O86 Design Provisions be used for Design of Connections in CLT? 43
6.3.1 Current Design Philosophy for Dowel-Type Fasteners in CSA O86-09 43
6.4 Application of Current CSA O86-09 Design Provisions to Connections in CLT 45
6.4.1 Design for the Lateral Load Resistance of Bolts and Dowels in CLT 46
6.4.1.1 Embedment of Doweled and Bolted Connections Perpendicular
to the Plane of CLT Panel 46
6.4.1.2 Embedment of Doweled and Bolted Connections in the Narrow Side
(On Edge) 48
6.4.2 Lateral Load Resistance of Screws and Nails in CLT 48
6.4.2.1 Embedment of Nails and Screws Perpendicular to the Plane
of CLT Panel 48
6.4.2.2 Embedment of Nails and Screws in the Narrow Side of CLT Panels
(On Edge) 49

v

6.4.3 Design for the Withdrawal Resistance of Screws in CLT 49
6.4.4 Placement of Fasteners in Joints 50
6.4.5 Detailing of Connections in CLT 51
7 Conclusion 52
8 References 53
vi

List of Tables
Table 1 Recommended end and edge distances for dowel-type fasteners
(adapted from Uibel and Blass, 2007) 51
List of Figures
Figure 1 Typical CLT building with various components and connections 1
Figure 2 Different types of CLT construction systems: (a) platform construction; (b) mixed CLT walls
and light-frame roof 2
Figure 3 Self-tapping screws used in CLT connections 4
Figure 4 Power driven nails used in combination with perforated metal plates 5
Figure 5 Typical 2-storey CLT building showing various connections between floor and wall panels 6
Figure 6 Internal spline 7
Figure 7 Single surface spline 8
Figure 8 Double surface spline 8
Figure 9 Details of half-lapped joints 9
Figure 10 Details of the tube connection system 9
Figure 11 KNAPP® connection system 10
Figure 12 Self-tapping screws from the exterior 11
Figure 13 Installation of self-tapping screws from the exterior 11
Figure 14 Self-tapping screws driven at an angle (toe screwing) 12
Figure 15 Concealed wooden profile 12
Figure 16 Edge protecting wooden profile 13
Figure 17 Interior metal bracket 13
Figure 18 Details of the dovetail joint 14
Figure 19 KNAPP® system 14
Figure 20 Hook joint 15
Figure 21 Concealed metal plate 15
vii

Figure 22 Self-drilling dowel for use through steel and wood 16
Figure 23 Self-tapping screws 16
Figure 24 Metal brackets 17
Figure 25 Metal bracket and self-tapping screws 18
Figure 26 KNAPP® system 19
Figure 27 Metal shaft connection details 20
Figure 28 Threaded rod/screw connection system 21
Figure 29 Glued-in rod and edge protecting wooden profile 22
Figure 30 Metal bracket and threaded rod 23
Figure 31 Concealed metal plates 24
Figure 32 Balcony in cantilever 24
Figure 33 Metal brackets adopted for design of balcony 25
Figure 34 Self-tapping screws used in balcony design 25
Figure 35 Balcony supported by the main structure 26
Figure 36 Balcony attached to the platform construction 27
Figure 37 Examples of European CLT projects with built-in balconies 27
Figure 38 SCL components for bearing support (adapted from TRADA 2009) 28
Figure 39 Metal bracket for bearing support (adapted from TRADA 2009) 28
Figure 40 Possible roof-to-wall joints configurations 29
Figure 41 Self-tapping screws 30
Figure 42 Metal bracket 31
Figure 43 Exterior metal plate 32
Figure 44 Metal brackets 32
Figure 45 Metal brackets installed on site 33
Figure 46 Concealed metal plates 33
Figure 47 Metal shaft connection details 34
Figure 48 Threaded rod/screw connection system 35
viii

Figure 49 Concealed (a) and exposed (b) wooden profiles 36
Figure 50 KNAPP® Gigant system 37
Figure 51 CLT Wall – I-joist (adapted from TRADA 2009) 39
Figure 52 CLT Wall – Metal plated floor truss (adapted from TRADA 2009) 40
Figure 53 CLT Wall – I-joist (adapted from TRADA 2009) 40
Figure 54 CLT panel section with gaps and grooves sawn in the timber to relieve shrinkage stresses 41
Figure 55 Ductile failure modes experienced during testing of self-tapping screws

in CLT half-lapped connections 42
Figure 56 Possible failure modes in traditional solid timber or glued laminated timber 44
Figure 57 Possible brittle failure mode in CLT connections with glulam rivets 46
Figure 58 Opened connection with dowels in cross-laminated timber

(courtesy of Uibel and Blass, 2007) 48
Figure 59 Recommended end and edge distances and spacing for dowel-type fasteners
(adapted from Uibel and Blass, 2007) 50
Figure 60 Acoustic membrane inserted between walls and floors to provide air tightness
(in exterior walls) and improve sound insulation 51
ix

1
Cross-Laminated
Timber in
Construction
Use of cross-laminated timber (CLT) panels in building construction has increased over the last few years.
Several buildings have already been erected around the world using CLT panels, which is a good testimony
to the many advantages that this product offers to the construction industry. The light weight and high quality
of prefabrication of CLT result in quick erection times, especially in mid-rise construction (5 to 9 storeys). While
this product is well-established in Europe, work on the implementation of CLT products and systems has just
begun in Canada and the USA.
The structural efficiency of the floor system acting as a diaphragm and that of walls in resisting lateral loads
depends on the efficiency of the fastening systems and connection details used to connect individual panels and
assemblies. This chapter focuses on the design of connections for CLT construction based on current practices.
Figure 1
Typical CLT building with various components and connections
1

2
Common
Structural
Systems in CLT
There are several ways to design and construct CLT buildings. They all differ in the way the load-carrying
panels/elements are arranged, the way the panels are connected and the type of wood and non wood-based
materials used (such as the use of hybrid systems of construction).
The most common forms of construction systems in CLT are:
1. Platform construction, where the floor panels rest directly on top of wall panels, forming a platform for
subsequent floors (Figure 2a). This is a typical North American light frame form of construction, except
that CLT panels are used instead of stud wall systems with top and bottom plates. This is probably the most
commonly used type of structural system in Europe for CLT assemblies, especially for multi-storey buildings.
This includes buildings constructed exclusively with CLT or mixing CLT with other types of wood-based
products (e.g., CLT and glulam), or CLT with non wood-based systems. There are several advantages
to this system:
• it simplifies the erection of upper storeys;

• simple connection systems can be used; and
• the load path is usually well-defined.
2. Balloon construction, a type of structural system where the walls continue for a few storeys with intermediate
floor assemblies attached to those walls. Due to the limitations in the length of the CLT panels and other
design and construction issues, this system is often used in low-rise, commercial or industrial buildings.
Connections are usually more complex in this form of construction. Balloon construction is generally less
common compared to platform construction. As with platform construction, mixed CLT and other types
of wood-based and non wood-based products could also be used in the balloon type of systems.
(a) (b)
Figure 2
Different types of CLT construction systems: (a) platform construction; (b) mixed CLT walls
and light-frame roof
2

3
Introduction
to Connections
in CLT Assemblies –
Overview
3.1 General
Connections in heavy timber construction, including those built with CLT, play an essential role in providing
strength, stiffness, stability and ductility to the structure; consequently, they require careful attention by designers.
Post-disaster surveys following strong earthquakes and hurricanes have shown that among other reasons, structural
failures often occur due to inadequately designed or improperly fabricated connections. The interruption of
continuity in the timber structure caused by the presence of connections may result in a decrease in the overall
strength and stiffness of the structure (i.e. if not properly designed) which in turn implies an increase in the cross-
section of the assembled timber elements.
When structural members are attached with fasteners or some other types of metal hardware, such joints are
referred to as “mechanical connections”. Typically, large fastener spacing and end and edge distances are required
in most mechanical connections to avoid splitting and shear failures that are brittle in nature. The efficient design
and fabrication of connections often determines the level of success of timber buildings when competing with
other types of structural applications such as steel or concrete. This is particularly important for multi-storey
heavy timber structures and hybrid buildings, where CLT is used alone or could be used in combination with
steel or concrete.
The use of CLT panels enables a high degree of prefabrication at the plant. This facilitates the use of CNC
technology to profile the panel for installation, at the plant, of conventional and sophisticated connection systems
with a high degree of accuracy and efficiency. The dimensional stability of CLT products due to the use of kiln
dried (KD) source material is better for connection ‘stability’ prior to installation and ensures good accuracy
at installation.
In this section, a very brief overview of connection types is provided. More detailed information is provided
in Section 4.
3.2 Connection Systems Commonly Used in CLT Assemblies

Currently, there is a wide variety of fasteners and many different types of joint details that can be used to establish
roof/wall, wall/floor, and inter-storey connections in CLT assemblies or to connect CLT panels to other wood-
based elements, or to concrete or steel in hybrid construction. While long self-tapping screws are typically
recommended by CLT manufacturers and are commonly used for connecting panels to panels in floors and
3

floor-to-wall assemblies, traditional dowel-type fasteners such as wood screws, nails, lag screws, rivets, bolts and
dowels can also be effectively used in connecting panel elements. Other types of traditional fasteners, including
bearing type fasteners such as split rings and shear plates, and tooth plates, may have some potential; however,
their use is expected to be limited to applications where high loads are involved. Some interesting innovative
connection systems are finding their way to the CLT construction market. These include glued-in rods, Geka
connectors, the KNAPP® system and other systems that adopt similar concepts. Such systems have good
potential for use in CLT applications, especially those that employ a high degree of prefabrication using CNC
machining technology. Fortunately, major CLT panel and glulam manufacturing facilities are equipped with
CNC technology which could facilitate the rapid adoption of such connection systems. The choice of the type
of connection to use depends largely on the type of assemblies to be connected (i.e. panel-to-panel, floor-to-wall,
etc.), panel configurations, and the type of structural system used in the building.
The following sections provide some basic information on the most commonly used types of mechanical fasteners
in CLT assemblies. Detailed applications of these fasteners are presented in Section 4.
3.2.1 Wood and Self-Tapping Screws

Wood and self-tapping screws are extensively used in Europe for the assembly of CLT panels (Figure 3). The
ease of installation and the high lateral and withdrawal capacity of such screws make them quite popular among
designers and builders as they can take combined axial and lateral loads. Wood and self-tapping screws come in a
variety of sizes and specific features. Self-tapping screws come in diameters that range from 4 mm to 12 mm and
are available in lengths up to 600 mm (TEMTIS 2008). They do not require predrilling in most cases, unlike
traditional wood or lag screws which require predrilled holes, the size of which depend on the density of the
wood-based materials they are driven into and the diameter of the screws. The design capacity of screws in CLT
must account for gaps in unglued cross-plies and other artificially sawn grooves common in CLT fabrication.
Figure 3
Self-tapping screws used in CLT connections
3.2.2 Nails and Glulam Rivets

Nails and glulam rivets are not as commonly used in the assembly of CLT panels as wood screws. Nails with
specific surface features such as grooves, helically threaded nails and glulam rivets are mostly used with perforated
metal plates and brackets and installed on the surface/plane of the panel (Figure 4). Most timber design standards
4

do not allow the design of nailed connections in the end grain of wood-based products for withdrawal forces.
Therefore, surface types of fasteners such as nails should not be driven in the edge of CLT panels (i.e. in end grain)
to resist withdrawal forces. For lateral resistance, however, an end grain factor is usually applied to account for
the reduction in the lateral resistance of nails driven in the end grain in most timber design standards, including
CSA O86-09 (CSA 2009).
Figure 4
Power driven nails used in combination with perforated metal plates
3.2.3 Bolts and Dowels

Bolts and dowels are very common in heavy timber construction. They can also be used in the assembly of CLT
panels, especially for lateral loading. If installed in the narrow face (on edge), care must be taken during the design,
especially in CLT panels with unglued edges between the individual planks in a layer. This could eventually
compromise the lateral resistance since there is a potential that such fasteners are driven in the gaps.
3.2.4 Bearing Type of Fasteners

While bearing-type fasteners such as split rings and shear plates are commonly used in connections of glulam,
heavy sawn timber and structural composite lumber (SCL) such as parallel strand lumber (PSL), they are not
widely used for the assembly of CLT panels. Bearing-type connections can be used in certain locations depending
on the position of the fasteners with respect to the CLT layers and the type of service load. One drawback would
be that panels require profiling at the plant prior to delivery.
3.2.5 Innovative Types of Fasteners

A new generation of fasteners such as glued-in rods, Geka connectors, the KNAPP® system and others are
becoming increasingly popular in the assembly of mainstream heavy timber construction. This is driven by recent
developments in CNC technology, wood materials and the desire for a high level of prefabrication to reduce
assembly time and cost.
With respect to CLT, glued-in rods in particular can be used for connections subjected to high longitudinal and
transverse loads and to reduce the splitting potential (TEMTIS 2008). More details on these next generation
connection systems and their suitability for connecting CLT panels and assemblies are discussed in Section 4.
5

4
Connections in
CLT Assemblies –
Details
This section is focused on providing detailed information and schematics on traditional and innovative types of
connection systems typically used in establishing connections between CLT panels, and those between walls and
foundations and walls and floors. Figure 5 shows details of the various locations of such connections in a multi-
storey CLT building. While most of the commonly used types of fasteners and those with some potential for
use in CLT assemblies are described below, the list is not comprehensive. Other types of innovative [alternative,
proprietary, modern, privately-developed] fasteners, not mentioned under this section, could also be used
if found suitable.
B C
A
E
B
Figure 5
Typical 2-storey CLT building showing various connections between floor and wall panels
6

4.1 Panel-to-Panel Connections (Detail A)
This is the fundamental form of connection that is typically used to form wall and floor assemblies. It is used
to connect panels along their longitudinal edges. Due to production and transport limitations related to the
size of the panel that can be delivered to building sites, panel-to-panel connections are established mostly on
site. Connection details must be easy to assemble and should facilitate quick fabrication. The panel-to-panel
connection facilitates the transfer of forces through the wall or floor assembly. For example, when panel-to-panel
connections are used in wall assembly, the connection must be designed to resist in-plane shear and out-of-plane
bending. When the connection is used in floor assemblies acting as diaphragms, however, the connection must be
capable of transferring in-plane diaphragm forces in principle, and maintain the integrity of the diaphragms and
the overall, lateral load resisting system. Several possible panel-to-panel connection details are described below.
4.1.1 Internal Spline

A single wooden spline/strip made of lumber or SCL such as LVL could be used to form this connection. Profiling
of the panel at the plant is necessary prior to delivery. Connection between the spline and the two panel edges
could be established using self-tapping screws, wood screws or nails. One advantage of this detail is that it provides
double-shear connection; however, it requires more accurate profiling and could be challenging in terms of fitting
the different parts together on site. There are also other advantages regarding resistance to normal or out-of-plane
loading. Structural adhesive could also be applied to the different parts in addition to the mechanical fasteners
to provide more rigidity to the connection, if needed.
Screws
CLT Floor CLT Floor
Plywood or LVL
Figure 6
Internal spline
4.1.2 Single Surface Spline

This is a rather simple connection detail that can be established quickly on site. Panel edges are profiled to take
a strip/spline of lumber or SCL such as LVL or X-ply LVL. Self-tapping screws, long wood screws or nails could
be used for making the connection on site. Due to the single-shear connection involved, this connection detail
is typically inferior to the internal spline described above. Structural adhesive could also be used in this type
of connection detail.
7

Screws
Plywood or LVL
CLT Floor CLT Floor
Figure 7
Single surface spline
4.1.3 Double Surface Spline

This connection detail is similar to that of the single surface spline described above, except that a double spline
is used here to increase the connection strength and stiffness. Since two sets of screws are used which results
in doubling the number of shear planes resisting the load, a better resistance can be achieved using this detail.
However, this connection requires more machining and more time could be needed for erection since there is
a need to attach the two splines from both sides of the panels during the insertion of fasteners, doubling the time
needed for driving screws or nails. According to TEMTIS (2008), if SCL is used as the splines, then the joint
could be designed to resist moment for out-of-plane loading. Structural adhesives could be used to enhance
the strength and stiffness.
Screws
Plywood or LVL
CLT Floor CLT Floor
Plywood or LVL
Screws
Figure 8
Double surface spline
8

4.1.4 Half-Lapped Joint
This connection detail involves milling a half-lapped joint at the plant and is commonly used for panel-to-panel
connections in wall and floor assemblies (Figure 9). Long self-tapping screws are usually used to connect the panel
edges. The joint can carry normal and transverse loads but is not considered to be a moment resisting connection
(TEMTIS 2008). While this is a very simple connection detail that facilitates quick assembly of CLT elements,
there is a risk of splitting of the cross-section due to concentration of tension perpendicular to grain stresses in
the notched area. This is particularly pronounced for cases where uneven loading on the floor elements occur
(TEMTIS 2008).
Self-tapping
screws
CLT Floor CLT Floor
Figure 9
Details of half-lapped joints
4.1.5 Tube Connection System

This is an innovative type of connection system that has been developed and studied in Austria by G. Traetta
(2007). This system incorporates a profiled steel tube with holes (Figure 10). Panel elements arrive on site with
glued-in or screwed rods driven in the plane of the two panels to be connected and with holes machined in the
panels at certain locations along the edges where the metal tubes could be placed. The tube connector is inserted
at those locations along the panel elements and the system is tightened on site using metal nuts.
Tests have been carried out at the Building Research Center in Graz, Austria to evaluate the capacity of this
innovative system (Traetta 2007). Usually no edge profiling along the panel is needed if this connection system
as it principally relies on the pullout resistance of the screwed or glued-in rods.
Tube *
Glued or
screwed rods
Nuts
CLT Floor CLT Floor
Figure 10
Details of the tube connection system
9

4.1.6 Alternative Systems
Certain innovative connection systems have good potential for use in CLT panel assemblies. One example of
those is a German connection system called KNAPP®, which is used in prefabricated closed wood-based panels.
The system facilitates quick erection as it involves a male/female type of attachment (Figure 11). It is mainly used
for panel-to-panel connections along the panel longitudinal edges. KNAPP® brackets are usually attached to
CLT panel elements using wood screws. They provide resistance in the plane and out of the plane of the panel, in
addition to uplift resistance. The system provides resistance to in-plane and out-of-plane forces, including uplift.
The KNAPP® system is equipped with a self locking mechanism that enables the wall to be tightly locked to the
adjacent wall. While it might be relatively complicated to install or dismantle this system in complex plans with
several intersecting wall segments, it does facilitate an easy and quick installation process.
KNAPP®
CLT Floor CLT Floor

Screws
Figure 11
KNAPP® connection system
4.2 Wall-to-Wall Connections (Detail B)

This section covers connection details for connecting walls to walls positioned at right angles (wall junction in the
transverse direction). Such connection details include interior partitions to exterior walls or simple exterior corner
walls. Walls connected in the same plane of the panels were covered previously under panel-to-panel connections
(Detail A). Most of the connection details described below are commonly used in the assembly of CLT walls.
However, a few of these involve the use of innovative types of connection systems or details with some potential
for use in such applications. The same connection systems adopted for connecting exterior walls in the transverse
direction could be used for establishing connection between internal walls.
4.2.1 Self-Tapping Screws

Several systems have been adopted to establish connection between walls at right angles (wall junction).
The simplest form of connection relies mainly on self-tapping screws to connect the walls together (Figure 12
and 14). There are some concerns however related to this direct form of connection due to the fact that the screws
are driven in the narrow side of panels, in particular, if screws are installed in the end grain of the cross layers.
While this may not be critical for small loads, it may not be suitable for walls subjected to high wind and seismic
loads. Self-tapping screws could also be driven at an angle to avoid direct installation of screws in the narrow side
of the panel (on edge) which would optimize the performance of the connection (i.e. toe screwing).
10

CLT Wall
CLT Wall
Self -tapping
screws
Figure 12
Self-tapping screws from the exterior
Figure 13
Installation of self-tapping screws from the exterior
11

CLT Wall
Self-tapping
screws
CLT Wall
Figure 14
Self-tapping screws driven at an angle (toe screwing)
4.2.2 Wooden Profiles

Concealed wooden profiles (keys) could also be used in a similar way, with self-tapping screws or traditional wood
screws. The advantage of this system over the direct use of self-tapping screws is the possibility of enhancing the
connection resistance by driving more wood screws to connect the profiled panel to the central wood profile/key
which is in turn, screwed to the transverse wall (Figure 15).
CLT Wall
Wooden profile
(hardwood, LVL or plywood)
CLT Wall
Self-tapping
screws
Figure 15
Concealed wooden profile
12

CLT Wall
Wooden profile
CLT Wall
Self-tapping
screws
Figure 16
Edge protecting wooden profile
Other types of wooden profiles such as the one shown in Figure 16 could also be used to provide some form
of reinforcement to the panel connected edges. Those are mainly made of hardwood or SCL. They are glued
and screwed to the panel edge as mentioned earlier.
4.2.3 Metal Brackets

Another simple form of connecting walls in the transverse direction is the use of metal brackets with self-tapping
screws, nails or even glulam rivets (Figure 17). While this connection is one of the simplest and most efficient types
of connection in terms of strength resulting from fastening in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the panels,
architects normally do not prefer this system as the metal plates are exposed and have less fire resistance compared to
concealed connection systems. Some designers may choose to hide plates by profiling the wall panel at the locations
of those brackets (recessing) then cover the metal hardware with finishing materials or simply, wood caps.
CLT Wall
Screws
Metal
bracket
Screws
CLT Wall
Figure 17 ChapTER 5 Connections

Interior metal bracket 13

4.2.4 Alternative Systems
Several alternative connection systems could be used for connecting CLT wall to wall. One interesting system
involves the use of a dovetail type metal bracket to establish the connection between the wall panels (Figure 18).
Several forms of a male/female type of connection can be designed to resist in-plane and out-of-plane loads. The
metal brackets are attached to the wood using regular wood screws or self-tapping screws. They can be continuous
along the edge of the panel/wall or a few of short length brackets can be installed along the panel/wall edge. The
panel simply slides into place, which speeds the erection of the walls on site. Alternative systems such as hook
joint and KNAPP® systems are based on the same principle (Figures 18 to 20). Wood screws are typically used to
connect the metal components to CLT wall panels. It should be noted that dovetail systems require clearance/
tolerance to facilitate the site installation. Measures should be taken to ensure that wall panels are firmly tied up.
CLT Wall
Screws
Dovetail joint
with wooden or
steel profiles
Screws
CLT Wall
Figure 18
Details of dovetail joint
CLT Wall
KNAPP
female
Screws
KNAPP
male
CLT Wall
Figure 19
KNAPP® system ChapTER 5 Connections
14

CLT Wall
Hook joint
male
Screws
Hook joint
female
CLT Wall
Figure 20
Hook joint
4.2.5 Concealed Metal Plates

Concealed metal plates can also be used to establish wall-to-wall connection in the transverse direction. Metal
plate thickness could range from 6 mm up to 12 mm. As discussed above, while this system has considerable
advantages over exposed plates and brackets, especially when it comes to fire performance, the system requires
precise profiling at the plant using CNC technology (Figure 21). Proprietary self-drilling dowels that can
penetrate through wood and steel such as those produced by SFS Intec (shown in Figure 22) can be used.
CLT Wall
Tight fit
dowels, SFS
dowels or
bolts
Metal plate
Screws
CLT Wall
Figure 21
Concealed metal plate
15

Figure 22
Self-drilling dowel for use through steel and wood
4.3 Wall-to-Floor Connections (Detail C)

Several possibilities exist when it comes to connecting walls to the floors above or connecting walls on the upper
storeys to floors, depending on the form of structural systems (i.e. platform vs. balloon), availability of fasteners
and the degree of prefabrication.
4.3.1 Platform Construction

4.3.1.1 Self-Tapping Screws
For connecting a floor or a roof to walls below, the simplest method is to use long self-tapping screws driven from
the CLT floor directly into the narrow side of the wall edge, as shown in Figure 23. Self-tapping screws could also
be driven at an angle to maximize the fastening capacity in the panel edge. The same principle could be applied
for connecting walls above to floors below, where self-tapping screws are driven at an angle in the wall near the
junction with the floor. Depending on the angle and the length of the screws, the self-tapping screws could reach
the bottom walls, further reinforcing the connection between the upper and lower walls and the floor.
CLT Wall
Self-tapping
screws
CLT Floor
CLT Wall
Figure 23
Self-tapping screws
16

4.3.1.2 Metal Brackets
Metal brackets are commonly used to connect floors to walls above and below. They are also used for connecting
roofs to walls. Nails, glulam rivets and wood screws could be used to attach the metal brackets to the CLT panels
(Figures 24 and 25).
CLT Wall
Screws
Metal
bracket
Screws
CLT Floor
Screws
Metal
bracket
Screws
CLT Wall
Figure 24
Metal brackets
17

CLT Wall
Screws
Metal
bracket
Screws
Self-tapping
screws
CLT Floor
CLT Wall
Figure 25
Metal bracket and self-tapping screws
4.3.1.3 Alternative Innovative Systems
This section covers the whole family of innovative fastening systems described above which includes: KNAPP®
system, metal shaft connection system with dowels, threaded rod/screw connection system, glued-in rod, wooden
profiles and dovetail connection system (Figures 26 to 30). Some of those systems, such as KNAPP®, have a self-
locking mechanism to resist against uplift.
18

CLT Wall
Knapp
female
Screws
Knapp
male
CLT Floor
Knapp
male
Screws
Knapp
female
CLT Wall
Figure 26
KNAPP® system
19

CLT Wall
Tight fit
dowels or bolts
Wood
cap
Tube with holes
Adaptor
Threaded
rod
CLT Floor
Adaptor
Tube with holes
Wood
cap
Tight fit
dowels or bolts
CLT Wall
Figure 27
Metal shaft connection details
20

CLT Wall
Wood
Threaded cap
rod
Adaptor
Threaded
rod
CLT Floor
Adaptor
Threaded
rod
Wood
cap
CLT Wall
Figure 28
Threaded rod/screw connection system
21

CLT Wall
Wood
Threaded cap
rod
Adaptor
Threaded
rod
CLT Floor
Adaptor
Threaded
rod
Wood
cap
CLT Wall
Figure 29
Glued-in rod and edge protecting wooden profile
22

CLT Wall
Screws
Metal
bracket
Screws
Nut
Threaded
rod
CLT Floor
CLT Wall
Figure 30
Metal bracket and threaded rod
4.3.1.4 Concealed Metal Plates
Concealed metal plates could also be used to establish wall-to-floor connections (Figure 31). As previously
discussed, while this system has considerable advantages over exposed plates and brackets, especially when it comes
to fire performance, the system requires precise profiling at the plant using CNC technology.
23

CLT Wall
Tight fit
dowels, SFS
dowels or
bolts
Metal plate
Screws
CLT Floor
Screws
Metal plate
Tight fit
dowels, SFS
dowels or
bolts
CLT Wall
Figure 31
Concealed metal plates
4.3.2 Balcony Details

4.3.2.1 Balcony in Cantilever
For situations where a balcony is designed by extending the floor/roof panel to form a cantilever (Figure 32),
the connection between the wall supporting the balcony below and the floor panel can be established using self-
tapping screws or metal brackets. In this case, the panels should be installed with the principal axis (parallel to
the grain of the outer layers) extending outward and forming the balcony. Self-tapping screws driven at an angle
are preferred for improved performance compared to driving screws perpendicular to the plane of one panel into
the edge of the other (i.e. the wall panel) (Figure 34b). If a parapet wall on top of the balcony is built, a typical
connection detail using self-tapping screws or metal brackets could also be used (Figures 33 and 34). However,
caution should be exercised when adopting this system in design as a cantilever due to potential issues related
to water infiltration.
Figure 32
Balcony in cantilever ChapTER 5 Connections
24

Figure 33
Metal brackets adopted for design of balcony
(a) (b)
Figure 34
Self-tapping screws used in balcony design
4.3.2.2 Supported Balcony
In some cases, the balcony can be designed to be attached to the main CLT structure using simple fastening
systems that allow for easy installation and dismantling (i.e. in case of any potential modification to the
configuration of the building in the future) (Figure 35). Several buildings in Europe have been constructed
with this type of balcony system. A combination of metal plates and hinges are usually employed to secure the
balcony structure/box to the main structure as can be seen in Figure 36. Usually, the balcony is attached to the
main building at four (4) points. The connection system is equipped with metal brackets which are attached to
the CLT floors (top and bottom floors as can be seen in Figure 36) using self-tapping screws or lag screws. The
balcony could be totally prefabricated as a box on the ground, at the construction site, lifted up and then secured
to the building at each location/level. Other types of metal attachments could also be used if found proper. The
gap between the building and the balcony needs to be closed with cladding materials either as part of the whole
building envelope or separately, depending on the end use. Flashing should be installed to divert rain water away
from the wall to avoid water accumulation.
For design of the balcony itself, different types of fastening systems could be used. Self-tapping screws alone or
a combination of self-tapping screws and metal brackets could be used to attach the floor and roof to the walls.
25

A variety of other balcony designs could be adopted. One simple concept involves designing the balcony as part
of the CLT structure (i.e. built-in). This concept has been used in the design of the Murray Grove building
in London, UK, where several corner balconies were introduced as part of the main structure floor plan
(Figure 37, left side). This is perhaps the simplest form of creating balconies. Other concepts involve designing
and constructing an external structural system (e.g. posts) to support the extremity of the balcony, while the other
side of the balcony is supported by the structure itself. This is also common in certain low-rise projects that have
been built recently in Europe.
Figure 35
Balcony supported by the main structure
26

Figure 36
Balcony attached to the platform construction
Figure 37
Examples of European CLT projects with built-in balconies
4.3.3 Balloon Construction

The dominant type of structural form in CLT construction in Europe is the platform type of system due to
its simplicity in design and erection. However, in non-residential construction, including farm and industrial
buildings, it is common to use tall walls with a mezzanine, which is an intermediate floor between the main floors
of a building. Mezzanine floors are often located between the ground floor and the first floor but it is not unusual
to have a mezzanine in the upper floors of a building.
To connect a typical CLT floor to a continuous CLT tall wall for such applications, several attachment options
exist. The simplest attachment detail includes the use of a wooden ledger to provide a continuous bearing support
to the CLT floor panels (Figure 38). The ledger is usually made of SCL such as LVL, LSL or PSL.
27

CLT ledger could also be used. Another type of attachment is established with the use of metal brackets similar
to the one shown in Figure 39 (a and b). Attachment of SCL ledger or metal brackets to the CLT wall and floor
panels is established through the use of self-tapping screws, lag screws, nails or glulam rivets.
Self-tapping
screws
SCL
Figure 38
SCL components for bearing support (adapted from TRADA 2009)
CLT Wall
Metal bracket
Screws CLT Floor
CLT Wall
(a)
CLT Wall
Metal bracket
CLT Floor
Screws
(b)
Figure 39
Metal bracket for bearing support (adapted from TRADA 2009)
28

4.4 Wall-to-Roof Connections (Detail D)
For walls to sloping or flat roof connections, the same type of connection as for attaching floors to walls
is used (Figure 40). Self-tapping screws and metal brackets are the most commonly used fastening systems
in this application (Figures 41 and 42).
Figure 40
Possible roof-to-wall joints configurations
29

Self-tapping
screws
Self-tapping
screws
CLT Roof
CLT Roof
CLT Wall
CLT Wall
(a)
CLT Roof
Self-tapping
CLT Roof
screws
Self-tapping
screws
CLT Wall
CLT Wall
(b)
Figure 41
Self-tapping screws
30

Metal bracket
CLT Roof
Screws
CLT Wall
Figure 42
Metal bracket
4.5 Wall-to-Foundation Connections (Detail E)

4.5.1 Visible/Exposed Plates
In connecting CLT wall panels to concrete foundations (common for the first storey in a CLT building, with
concrete footing or with multi-storey CLT building with the first storey made of concrete) or to steel beams,
several fastening systems are available to establish such a connection. Exterior metal plates and brackets are
commonly used in such applications as there is a variety of such metal hardware readily available on the market.
Exposed steel plates, similar to those shown in Figure 43, are probably the most commonly used in Europe due to
their simplicity in terms of installation. When connections are established from outside, then a typical metal plate
is used (Figure 43). However, when access is provided from inside the building and where a concrete slab exists,
metal brackets such as those shown in Figures 44 and 45 are used. Lag screws or powder-actuated fasteners can
be used to connect the metal plate to the concrete footing/slab, while lag screws or self-drilling screws are used
to connect the plate to the CLT panel.
Typically, metal plates or brackets are placed at a 1219 mm interval. But that all depends on the level of load the
connection is supposed to resist and its ductility. Different types of metal plates or brackets can be used as shown
in Figures 43 and 44, depending on whether the CLT panel is attached to a concrete wall/footing or a slab and
whether the plate is attached from the outside or the inside of the wall panel.
To protect wood and improve the durability of CLT panels, a SCL sill plate [or bottom plate] such as that
shown in Figures 43b and 44b is installed between the concrete foundation and the CLT panels. This also
simplifies assembly.
31

CLT Wall
CLT Wall
Metal plate
SCL
Metal plate
Lag
screws
Lag
screws
Concrete footing
Concrete footing
(a) (b)
Figure 43
Exterior metal plate
CLT Wall CLT Wall
SCL
Screws
Metal Screws
bracket
Metal
Anchor bolt bracket
Anchor bolt
Concrete footing
Concrete footing
(a) (b)
Figure 44
Metal brackets
32

Figure 45
Metal brackets installed on site
4.5.2 Concealed Hardware

To achieve better fire performance and improve aesthetics, designers prefer to conceal connection systems.
Hidden metal plates similar to those shown in Figure 46 can be used, but they require some machining to produce
the grooves in the CLT panel to conceal the metal plates. Tight dowels or bolts could be used to attach the plates
to the CLT panel. However, precise CNC machining is required in some cases. Some innovative types of fasteners
that can be drilled through metal and wood (e.g. WF series of dowels from SFSIntec do not require any predrilling
or CNC machining) or other types of screws that can penetrate through both materials can also be used
for this purpose.
CLT Wall
Tight fit
dowels, SFS
dowels or
bolts
Metal plate
Anchor
bolts
Concrete footing
Figure 46
Concealed metal plates
33

4.5.3 Metal Shafts
Another option for connecting CLT wall panels to concrete foundations is to use a hollow small diameter metal
tube/shaft with threaded ends (Figure 47). Holes are predrilled in the edge (narrow side) of the panel element to
accommodate the metal shaft, which is fixed inside the panel using small diameter dowels or bolts. Epoxy could
also be used to attach the metal shafts to the panel in the plant. The panels arrive at the construction site already
equipped with the shafts to minimize work on site. Threaded anchor bolts cast in the concrete foundations are
connected to the shaft’s threaded end using a nut adaptor. Usually, a small access hole in the panel is drilled to
enable connection between the adaptor and the threaded anchor bolt. A wooden cap is used to cover the access
hole and the shafts, making this a completely concealed, fire protected connection. The actual detail depends on
the magnitude of design service loads that the wall panel will resist and the panel configurations (such as window
and door openings).
CLT Wall
Tight fit
dowels or bolts
Wood
cap
Tube with holes
Adaptor
Anchor
bolt
Concrete footing
Figure 47
Metal shaft connection details
34

4.5.4 Threaded Rod/Screw
Like the metal shaft connection system, this system utilizes long threaded rods/screws similar to what is being
used for transverse reinforcement of large glulam beams/arches against tension stresses perpendicular to
the grain. One particular threaded rod/screw produced by SFSIntec, called “Wood Bar”, is suitable for this
application (Figure 48). The long threaded rod is screwed in the end grain of the panel element. The panels
arrive on site equipped with an adaptor. The installation process is similar to that described for the metal shaft
connection system.
CLT Wall
Threaded Wood
rod cap
Adaptor
Anchor
bolt
Concrete footing
Figure 48
Threaded rod/screw connection system
35

4.5.5 Wooden Profiles
Wooden profiles are commonly used in connecting structural insulated panels (SIP) and other types of
prefabricated wood-framed walls. It is important that such wooden profiles are fabricated from high density
and stable materials. Engineered wood products or hardwood can generally be used for this purpose. The major
advantage of this system is the ease of assembly. The wooden profiles are typically attached to CLT panels with
wood screws or self-tapping screws. Structural adhesives are also used, sometimes in combination with mechanical
fasteners since the wooden profile is installed in the plant. They are often used in combination with metal plates or
brackets to improve the lateral load resistance as can be seen in Figure 49. CNC machining is needed at the CLT
plant to produce the profiles in the panels. The use of wooden profiles is not limited only to wall to foundation
applications. They can also be used for wall-to-wall or floor-to-wall connections. The wooden profiles could take
several forms, as shown in Figure 49, to provide additional protection and reinforcement to the bottom edge
of the panel.
CLT Wall CLT Wall
Wooden profile
Wooden profile (hardwood, LVL
or plywood)
Screws
Screws
Metal
Metal
bracket
bracket
Anchor bolt
Anchor bolt
Concrete footing
Concrete footing
(a) (b)
Figure 49
Concealed (a) and exposed (b) wooden profiles
36

4.5.6 Alternative System
While this system is more suited for use in wall-to-wall connections, it may also be suitable for wall-to-foundation
connections. The connection between the concrete foundation and KNAPP® bracket could be established through
lag screws or powder-actuated nails (Figure 50). It would be preferable to use galvanized components to prevent
corrosion as a result of water condensation at the interface with concrete.
CLT Wall
Knapp
female
Screws
Knapp
male
Concrete footing
Figure 50
KNAPP® Gigant system
37

5
Connections in
Mixed Hybrid CLT
Construction –
Details
Mixed systems using CLT with other types of wood-based materials such as glued-laminated timber (glulam)
are common. Those mixed systems are becoming increasingly popular in Europe as a way to optimize the
overall design by capitalizing on the positive attributes of the various products. Mixing CLT with other types of
construction materials such as concrete and masonry or mixing different types of structural forms is also common.
5.1 Mixed CLT with Other Wood-Based Materials and Systems

In CLT assemblies, mixing different wood-based materials and structural systems is done in such a way to optimize
the design and to meet certain performance requirements. Therefore, it is not unusual to combine CLT wall
assemblies with joisted floor systems using glulam, wood I-joists, metal plated wood trusses or other types of
engineered wood elements as the main floor support system, with either wood-based decking such as wood boards
or structural panels. The following provides a brief summary of potential structural forms where CLT and other
types of wood-based materials could be combined. Connection systems between those different materials
are described.
5.1.1 Platform Construction

For platform-type construction, the main structural supporting elements of the floor system rest on top of
the walls below. In mixed construction where walls are made of CLT panels, typical joisted floor system is placed
on top of those walls as can be seen in Figures 51 and 52.
38

CLT Wall
Self-tapping
screws
Blocking
between
Structural panel CLT Wall screwed
joists
through the
structural panel into
Continuous blocking
rimboard
Screws
Joist
Self-tapping
screws
CLT Wall
Figure 51
CLT Wall – I-joist (adapted from TRADA, 2009)
A combination of rimboard and blocking elements made of SCL such as PSL, LVL or LSL between joists is
generally used to ensure transfer of vertical loads from storeys above to the CLT wall below. Differential shrinkage
is not an issue here as next storey CLT walls are resting completely on the rimboard and the blocking elements.
Typical solid sawn lumber or SCL such as wood I-joists could be used as the main structural systems supporting
the subfloor. In the case of wood floor trusses, it is necessary to provide wood-based blocking to prevent localized
crushing of truss top chords and to have a uniform stress distribution along the wall perimeter (Figure 52).
The wood blocking should be made of SCL for better deformation properties and for dimensional stability.
Connection between walls above and below can be established using self-tapping screws driven at an angle
or through one of the alternative methods of fastening described above.
39

CLT Wall
Self-tapping
screws
Structural panel CLT Wall screwed

through the
structural panel into
blocking
Nails
Blocking
between joists
top members
Joist
CLT Wall
Figure 52
CLT Wall – Metal plated floor truss (adapted from TRADA 2009)
5.1.2 Balloon Construction

Mixed CLT construction could also be used in buildings with a balloon structural form. In this type of
construction, the joisted floor system which incorporates a variety of joist products such as sawn lumber, wood
I-joists, and SCL can be attached to the CLT walls using traditional metal hangers commonly used in light-frame
and heavy post-and-beam timber construction (Figures 53). The wall panels are continuous at the connection
between the floor system and the wall and it provides support to the floor system.
CLT Wall
Structural panel
Hanger Joist
Figure 53
CLT Wall – I-joist (adapted from TRADA 2009)
40

6
Designing
Connections in
Cross-Laminated
Timber
6.1 Why Connections in CLT are Different
than Those in Solid Timber or Glulam
CLT is usually made of laminated lumber boards along the strong axis of the panel and crosswise. The cross
lamination and the built-up nature of the panel, in addition to certain unique panel features such as edge-gluing
(or lack of it) and the presence of grooves sawn into the boards to relieve drying stresses, further complicate
the determination of the fastening capacity in CLT compared to traditional sawn solid lumber or SCL. Panels
from some manufacturers are produced with gaps between the longitudinal boards as big as 6 mm.
Figure 54
CLT panel section with gaps and grooves sawn in the timber to relieve shrinkage stresses
It is well established that the loading direction relative to the grain direction of wood affects the fastening capacity
when relatively large diameter fasteners (> 6 mm diameter) such as bolts, lag screws and large diameter long self-
drilling screws are used. The embedment strength of slender fasteners in wood such as nails and small wood screws
is less sensitive to grain direction. Timber design standards such as CSA O86-09 (CSA 2009) specifies different
embedment formulae for connections in timber loaded, either in the direction parallel or perpendicular to grain
for bolts and dowels exceeding 6 mm diameter. CLT manufacturers in Europe are well aware of the fastening issues
and rigorous testing programs were established to develop the fastening capacity in their products for different
dowel-type fasteners. Ultimately, embedment formulae specific to CLT panels need to be developed in order to
establish the lateral load resistance for fasteners such as screws, bolts and lag screws, taking into account the nature
of lamination, lay-up, species, edge-gluing or lack of it, and other panel specific features. Similarly, the withdrawal
resistance of fasteners such as screws and nails from the face and edges of the panel needs to be developed.
41

While yielding failure modes in accordance with European Yield Model (EYM) are the dominant type of failure
for slender type of fasteners in CLT (Figure 55), there is a potential for developing brittle failure modes in CLT
such as row shear, group tear-out, tension or splitting (Figure 56). However, it is less likely that such brittle failure
modes will develop with fasteners driven perpendicular to the plane of the panel. But with fasteners driven in
end grain, it is possible to trigger splitting due to tension stresses perpendicular to the grain in small thickness
panels when fasteners are loaded in shear. Therefore, there is a need to establish the conditions where brittle
failure modes may occur with large diameter fasteners used with CLT. According to tests conducted by Uibel
and Blass (2006) in Europe with dowels and screws loaded perpendicular to the plane of the panel, the
connections exhibited considerable ductility. Even when plug shear or splitting occurred in the outer layers, the
load remained at the same level or showed a localized marginal drop. This could be attributed to the reinforcement
effect provided by cross lamination in CLT. However, this finding is limited to the tested configurations.
Figure 55
Ductile failure modes experienced during testing of self-tapping screws
in CLT half-lapped connections
6.2 Current European Design Approach for Connections in CLT

Extensive research has been conducted in Europe to evaluate the fastening capacity of different types of fasteners
in CLT. Comprehensive research on the fastening capacity of CLT connections was conducted by Uibel and
Blass (2006, 2007). The shear capacity of traditional fasteners in CLT was studied by the authors with the intent
of developing a calculation methodology to establish the load carrying capacity of connections with dowel-type
fasteners in the direction perpendicular to the CLT panel and on their narrow side (i.e. edge joints). Embedment
tests were conducted using different types of CLT products and dowel-type fasteners. Empirical models expressed
as a function of the fastener diameter, wood density and loading angle relative to the grain direction of the surface
lamina were developed based on test results to establish the embedment strength under lateral loading. Different
models were developed for each of the different types of dowel-type fasteners (i.e. nails, screws and dowels). Once
the embedment strength properties were established, the load carrying capacity in accordance to Johansen’s yield
model (EYM) could be determined. However, the validity of these models was limited to a maximum thickness
of lamina and thickness ratio of the longitudinal and cross layers (Uibel and Blass, 2006).
Withdrawal strength of self-tapping screws, typically used in connecting CLT panels perpendicular to the plane
of the panel or in the panel edges, was also investigated by Uibel and Blass (2007). The withdrawal resistance
was derived from tests using self-tapping screws with diameters ranging from 6 mm to 12 mm. The location of
the screws was selected in such a way to have them installed at the joint between two boards within a lamina,
or between one lamina and another. The derived withdrawal resistance was expressed as a function of the screw
diameter, wood density and the screw point side length of penetration. It is important to note that when the
withdrawal capacity of a fastener is determined in the narrow side of panel, the input characteristic density value
should be that of the lamina/ply in which the fastener is driven, not that of the whole panel. Validation tests were
performed and a reasonable correlation was found between tests and predictions. The tests were also used to
42

rationalize the required spacing and end and edge distances. However, a more generalized and simplified approach
using the overall panel density would be recommended. Long-term lateral and withdrawal tests using self-tapping
screws in end joints are being conducted by the authors to determine the long-term behaviour under changing
environmental conditions. However, no results have been published yet.
6.3 Could CSA O86 Design Provisions be used for Design

of Connections in CLT?
6.3.1 Current Design Philosophy for Dowel-Type Fasteners in CSA O86-09
The design methods for timber connections should be able to capture all potential failure mechanisms that can
occur and be able to assign strength and deformation capacities to any of these failure modes. Fortunately, recent
editions of the Canadian timber design code “Engineering Design in Wood” (CSA O86-09) provides a design
methodology for bolted and dowelled connections that gives designers control over the type of failure mode the
connections will experience at the design stage. The designer needs to verify both the yielding (ductile) and the
brittle capacities of the connection, and the minimum of the two controls the design value. The yielding failure
modes are based on Johansen’s Yield Equation Model (sometimes referred to as the European Yield Model,
EYM), where ductile failure modes could occur due to the crushing of the wood in bearing and/or yielding
of the fastener. Typical brittle failure modes in heavy timber construction include: row shear, group tear-out,
tension at the reduced section (i.e. where bolt holes are drilled), and splitting for loading perpendicular to grain
(Figure 56). Detailed information on these types of brittle failure in bolted and dowel-type timber connections
can be found in Quenneville and Mohammad (2000).
43

Pf Pf
Pf
Row Shear Group Tear-out Net Tension
Nf
Qf
Splitting Bearing
Figure 56
Possible failure modes in traditional solid timber or glued laminated timber
Generally, the type of failure mode that a timber connection with a dowel-type fastener could experience
depends on several parameters including:
• c onnection geometry (loaded and unloaded end and edge distances, row and bolt spacing,
type of connection);
• wood member thicknesses;
• fastener diameter and yield strength;
• wood basic mechanical and physical properties; and
• loading direction relative to grain orientation.
Ductile failure modes in CSA O86-09 are expressed as a function of the embedment strength of the mechanical
fastener or dowel in the side or main wood-based member and in the steel side plates, the yielding strength of
the fastener, members thicknesses and fastener diameter. Embedment formulae based on extensive research by
European and North American researchers were developed for the different types of wood-based materials and
loading directions relative to grain. Embedment strength formulae for wood-based connection members in
CSA O86-09 are usually given as a function of wood-based material density and fastener diameter. Most of design
44

provisions in timber design standards such as the National Design Specification (NDS) (AF&PA 2006) for timber
construction in the USA and Eurocode 5 (EN 2004) adopt the European Yield Model concept for the design of
dowel-type connections in timber. One set of embedment equations are typically given for slender fasteners such
as nails and wood screws for both loading directions (i.e. parallel and perpendicular to grain). However, for large
diameter fasteners, two sets of embedment equations are provided.
Transition from one failure mode to another at the design stage could be achieved through the choice that the
designer makes regarding one or a combination of the above parameters. For example, smaller loaded end and edge
distances and spacing between fasteners in a row and between rows will most likely trigger brittle failure modes.
Therefore, if designers would like to maximize the connection ductility, it is important to maximize loaded end
and edge distances and fasteners spacing and/or to use a large slenderness ratio if possible. The type of brittle
failure mode (such as row shear or group tear-out) for a connection with multiple rows is mostly determined by
the row spacing and the spacing of fasteners in a row. Smaller row spacing will result in a situation where group
tear-out capacity will govern. However, larger row spacing will increase the group tear-out capacity and trigger
a row shear failure mode. The designers can modify their connection configuration to give the desired balance
between ductility, and capacity.
6.4 Application of Current CSA O86-09 Design Provisions

to Connections in CLT
Similar to some modern SCL products such as LSL, PSL and LVL with cross layers, which have fully or partially
cross-aligned wafers or strands that can overcome the traditional problems associated with splitting of the wood,
CLT has a more favourable ability to resist splitting in simple lap joint applications due to the cross lamination.
Therefore, it is generally expected that higher capacity for splitting could be achieved in CLT compared to
solid timber.
Within the context of CSA O86, if the embedment strength properties of dowel-type fasteners are established
in CLT in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the panel and in the narrow side (edge), then it would
be possible to evaluate the ductile lateral capacity in this product following current design provisions in
CSA O86-09. Yield model equations as given in CSA O86-09 would be applicable. However, due to the grain
orientation relative to the load, it would be necessary to incorporate the proper embedment strength properties/
equations for parallel and perpendicular layers in those equations. While a single set of embedment equations will
suffice for slender type dowel fasteners (≤ 6 mm) for both parallel and cross layers, separate embedment equations
will be needed for large diameter dowel type fasteners. In CSA O86-09, two sets of embedment equations are
given for large fasteners loaded parallel or perpendicular to the loading direction. The modified yield equations
will take care of the layer orientation and the relative thickness of the layers. A calculation procedure/model has
been proposed by Uibel and Blass (2006) to determine the load carrying capacity of dowels in a steel-to-solid-
wood-panel connection with an inner steel plate. While direct substitution for embedment properties equations
derived for the parallel and cross layers can be made for ductile failure modes (i.e. failure modes a, b and c in
CSA O86-09) that involve crushing of wood, the failure modes where plastic hinges are developed require further
analysis (e.g. failure modes d, e, f and g).
Connection configuration and geometry that governs the ductile capacities of connections in CLT for dowel-
type fasteners need to be established as well. This includes end and edge distances, fastener type, row spacing
and slenderness ratio. Depending on the type of dowel fasteners, it is expected that, as a minimum, the current
minimum requirements for end and edge distances and for fasteners and row spacing in solid sawn lumber and
glulam, as given in CSA O86-09, could be applicable to CLT for the relevant dowel-type fasteners such as nails,
wood screws, lag bolts and lag screws. Attention should be given, however, to specific CLT panel features that
could affect the connection capacity such as gaps and grooves, which may reduce the embedment strength due
to localized weaknesses consecutive to those fabrication features, as discussed above.
45

Currently, long self-tapping screws (commonly used in Europe for the assembly of CLT panels) with diameters
greater than 6 mm are not covered under the current design provisions in CSA O86-09. However, the ductile
lateral resistance of bolts, lag screws, wood screws (up to 6 mm diameter), nails and rivets in CLT can be designed
following the existing provisions, provided the appropriate embedment strength properties of such fasteners
in CLT are established. Laterally loaded fasteners that do not bear on the full cross-section of the CLT have a
potential for brittle failure. For example, a group of connectors at the end of a face ply that is not edge-glued will
need to rely on transferring the tension force into the CLT panel by rolling shear (Figure 57). As discussed above,
design provisions for brittle failure modes in CLT are beyond the scope of this chapter. Until recently, no studies
that focus on the brittle behaviour of fasteners in CLT have been conducted. This is a potential research topic
in the future.
Figure 57
Possible brittle failure mode in CLT connections with glulam rivets
6.4.1 Design for the Lateral Load Resistance of Bolts and Dowels in CLT
Although bolts and dowels are not as commonly used in CLT assemblies compared to assemblies made with
glulam or other wood-based products, there is still a need to provide some guidance to designers who may choose
these types of fasteners for connections in CLT. This section is focused mainly on the design for the ductile lateral
resistance of bolts and dowels in the current Canadian timber design standard (CSA O86-09).
6.4.1.1 Embedment of Doweled and Bolted Connections Perpendicular to the Plane of CLT Panel
Two embedment models were developed by Uibel and Blass using a multiple regression analysis on 438 test
results for dowels installed perpendicular to the plane of the panel and loaded at different directions with
respect to the panel strong axis and at different positions of the fastener in the plane of the CLT panel.
The first model shown in equation [1] is quite general and is independent of the type of lay-up of the panel. The
model is expressed as a function of the fastener diameter, overall wood density of the panel and loading direction
with respect to the strong axis of the panel (i.e. grain direction of the surface layers of the CLT panel).
46

[1]

where,
fh,pred = predicted embedment strength (N/mm²)

d = fastener diameter (mm)
ρ = average density of main member, based on dry weight and volume basis (kg/m³)
α = angle between load and grain direction of the outer layer
The second model shown in equation [2], however, is panel build-up specific and has the following form:

[2]
where,
fh,pred = predicted embedment strength (N/mm²)

ρ = average density of main member, based on dry weight and volume basis (kg/m³)
t0,i ; t90,i = thickness of each layer (i.e. with t0 being the thickness of individual layers orientated parallel
to the outer layers and t90 the thickness of transverse layers) (mm)
t = panel thickness (mm)
The validity of the two models, however, is limited to the maximum thickness of a single layer not exceeding
40 mm and the ratio of the thicknesses of the longitudinal and cross laminate being between 0.95 and 2.1.
Designers should be cautious when using these models.
The proposed equation by Uibel and Blass (2006) to establish the characteristic embedment strength of dowels
in CLT on the basis of equation [1] is given below in equation [3]:
[3]

where,
fh,k = characteristic embedment strength (N/mm²)

d = dowel diameter (mm)
ρk = characteristic density of cross laminated timber panels, based on dry weight and volume basis (kg/m³)
47

This embedment equation is approximately equivalent to the embedment equations given in CSA O86-09,
except that a duration of load factor of 0.8 needs to be applied to convert from short-term to standard-term
duration to be in line with the CSA O86 design procedure. The 0.8 factor is typically applied for all wood-based
products in CSA O86-09, including glulam. There could be a need to validate this factor for connections in
CLT. Current service conditions factor, duration of load factor and treatment factors (KSF, KD and KT) as given
in clauses 4.3.2, 10.2.1.5 and 10.2.1.7 of CSA O86-09, may be used provided that some conservatism is taken
into account due to the lack of research to support the adoption of those factors for CLT. Once the specified
embedment equations are established for bolts and dowels in CLT, then the unit lateral yielding resistance
of each type of fastener can be calculated as per CSA O86-09.
6.4.1.2 Embedment of Doweled and Bolted Connections in the Narrow Side (On Edge)
For situations where bolts or dowels are installed in the narrow side of the CLT panel (e.g., corner connection
between wall panels at right angles as shown in Figure 58), the equation proposed by Uibel and Blass (2007) for
calculating the characteristic embedment strength of dowels and bolts can be used. As with equations [1] to [3],
the new expression is empirical and was developed based on a large number of tests using multiple regression
analysis. Over 100 embedment tests for dowels installed in different positions and loaded either parallel or
perpendicular to the grain of the lamina were used in deriving the proposed equation. The equation is expressed
as a function of the dowel diameter and density of the relevant layer(s) in which the dowel is driven, as shown
in equation [4]:
[4]

where,

ρply,k = characteristic density of relevant layers, based on dry weight and volume basis (kg/m³)
It should be noted that, if the panel is made from materials of uniform density, then the overall density
of the panel in the vicinity of the dowel could be used in equation [4] for simplicity.
Figure 58
Opened connection with dowels in cross-laminated timber (courtesy of Uibel and Blass, 2007)
6.4.2 Lateral Load Resistance of Screws and Nails in CLT

6.4.2.1 Embedment of Nails and Screws Perpendicular to the Plane of CLT Panel
The new design provisions for nails and wood screws in CSA O86-09 provide a methodology to calculate the
lateral resistance based on the specified embedment properties of nails and wood screws in wood-based products.
Once the specified embedment strength is known, then the unit lateral capacity of the connections in CLT can
be calculated.
48

Characteristic embedment equations for nails of 4.2 mm and screws up to 12 mm in diameter were developed
by Uibel and Blass (2006) with fasteners installed in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the panel.
The equation is specific to the panel lay-up as it is expressed as a function of the density of the layer in which
the fastener is placed, as shown in equation [5]:
[5]

where,

ρk = characteristic density of cross-laminated timber panels, based on dry weight and volume basis (kg/m³)
A simplified form could be used as a substitute for equation [5] if a uniform density is used in the analysis.
The validity of this equation, however, is limited to CLT panels with layers of 7 mm thickness or less (Uibel and
Blass, 2006). More work is needed to develop a more generalized expression for the determination of embedment
properties for CLT panels made of thicker lamina. Note that the proposed characteristic embedment equation
is independent of the loading direction with respect to the grain orientation of the layers.
6.4.2.2 Embedment of Nails and Screws in the Narrow Side of CLT Panels (On Edge)
Embedment equations to calculate the embedment strength of screws and nails on the narrow side of CLT panels
were also developed in Europe. Equation [6] below has been proposed by Uibel and Blass (2007):
[6]

where,

ρply,k = characteristic density of relevant layers, based on dry weight and volume basis (kg/m³)
6.4.3 Design for the Withdrawal Resistance of Screws in CLT

Withdrawal resistance tests of self-tapping screws in CLT driven perpendicular to the plane of the panel and
on edge (in the narrow side) were conducted in Europe, with screws driven at different locations (Uibel and Blass,
2007). Screws were placed at different positions to capture the effect of gaps (i.e. screws driven in gaps or away
from gaps). Based on tests results, equations were developed and proposed for the calculation of the characteristic
withdrawal resistance of self-tapping screws in CLT, which has the following form:
[7]

where:
Rax,s,k = characteristic withdrawal capacity (N)

lef = effective point-side penetration length (i.e. length of the threaded part minus one screw diameter) (mm)
ρk = characteristic density of CLT panel (whole cross-section) for fasteners driven perpendicular to the plane
of the panel or density of relevant layers for fasteners driven on edge (kg/m³)
ε = angle between screw axis and CLT grain direction (equals to 90° in the plane of the panel or 0° in joints
on the narrow side–i.e. edge joints) ChapTER 5 Connections
49

It should be mentioned, however, that the expression given in equation [7] is limited to self-tapping screws and
valid only when the characteristic withdrawal strength in solid wood exceeds the following:
[8]

where:
fax,k = characteristic withdrawal strength (N/mm²)

ρk = characteristic density of solid wood, based on dry weight and volume basis (kg/m³)
This requirement needs to be verified and modifications are expected in order to develop a more
generalized expression.
6.4.4 Placement of Fasteners in Joints

Minimum requirements are given in CSA O86-09 for loaded end and edge distances, fastener spacing in a row and
spacing between rows of fasteners for a variety of traditional fasteners such as bolts, lag screws, nails, wood screws
and glulam rivets in solid sawn timber and glulam. While these requirements could be applied conservatively to
fasteners driven or placed in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the CLT panel (as discussed above), they
may not necessarily be applicable to fasteners placed in the narrow side (on edge) of the panel. Generally, spacing
and end distances are less critical for fasteners placed perpendicular to the plane of the CLT panel due to cross
laminations which tend to reinforce the section (as discussed above).
a4 c
,c
,c
,c
,
a4
a4
a4
a3,t
a3,c
a1
a3,t
F a3,c
F
ti ti
tCLT tCLT
Figure 59
Recommended end and edge distances and spacing for dowel-type fasteners
(adapted from Uibel and Blass, 2007)
50

Table 1
Recommended end and edge distances for dowel-type fasteners (adapted from Uibel and Blass, 2007)
Type of fastener
Spacings
Self-tapping screws Dowels
a1 10 d 4d
a2 3d 4d
a3,t 12 d 5d
a3,c 7d 3d
a4,c 5d 3d
Realizing the importance of investigating the required end distances and spacing for fasteners driven or placed
on edge, European researchers have developed some minimum requirements for placement of mainly self-tapping
screws and dowels in CLT panels. This was done to avoid premature splitting and ensure that full bearing capacity
of the dowels in the CLT is achieved. This is critical for CLT panels when they are connected at right angles
(e.g. floor-to-wall or wall-to-wall corner connections) and fasteners are driven in the narrow side (on edge) of
one panel. In such situations, the fastener may tend to force fibres or plies apart across the panel thickness due
to excessive tension perpendicular to grain stresses. This could trigger premature splitting in the vicinity of the
fastener, thereby weakening the connection. Recommended end and edge distances and spacing for self-tapping
screws and dowels placed on edge in wall panels are given in Figure 59, based on European research.
6.4.5 Detailing of Connections in CLT

In detailing and optimizing connections in CLT, it is important to consider not only the strength and stiffness
performance of the connection system, but other performance attributes such as fire, sound insulation, air
tightness, durability and vibration. Typically, sealant and other types of membranes are used to provide air
tightness and improve sound insulation at the interfaces between the floor and wall plates (Figure 60). Shrinkage
and swelling in CLT due to seasonal changes in the ambient environmental conditions need to be taken into
account when designing connections. This is particularly important when other sealant products and membranes
are incorporated as that might compromise the effectiveness of such products. Differential movement between
CLT and other wood-based products or materials (in case of mixed materials and systems) need to be taken into
account at the design and detailing stages due to potential shrinkage-induced stress that could undermine the
connection capacity in CLT. Future versions of this chapter will provide more details and guidelines related
to detailing.
Figure 60
Acoustic membrane inserted between walls and floors to provide air tightness (in exterior walls)
and improve sound insulation
51

7
Conclusion
Connections in timber construction, including those built with CLT, play an important role in maintaining
the integrity of the timber structure and in providing strength, stiffness, stability and ductility. Consequently,
they require detailed attention by designers.
Traditional and innovative connection systems have been used in CLT assemblies in Europe. Several types
of such connection systems for connecting CLT panels to panels, walls to walls and walls to floors are described
in detail in this chapter. They are mostly based on the European experience since there is currently no CLT
production in Canada or North America at the time of writing this chapter.
Researchers in Europe have developed design procedures for traditional connections in CLT, including dowels,
wood screws and nails which are commonly used in Europe for designing CLT assemblies. The proposed design
procedure deals only with ductile failure modes to determine the lateral load resistance of such connections.
Expressions were developed for the calculation of characteristic embedment properties of each type of fastener,
depending on its location with respect to the plane of the panel (perpendicular to or on edge). The expressions
were verified and results seem to correspond well with predictions. European Yield Model (EYM) equations for
ductile failure modes as given in Eurocode 5 were adopted for design using CLT fastener embedment equations.
Information on the applicability of the proposed design approach from Europe to traditional connection systems
in CLT are presented in this chapter. It is believed that once the embedment properties of such fasteners in CLT
are established, it will be possible to apply the current ductile design provisions in CSA O86-09. Due to the
reinforcing effect of cross lamination in CLT, it is speculated that current minimum geometric requirements given
in CSA O86-09 for dowels, screws and nails in solid timber or glulam are applicable to CLT. However, designers
need to be cautious about this as further verification is required, considering the specific features of each panel
(no generic CLT panels have been produced yet in Canada). Brittle failure modes also need to be taken into
account and have not been investigated yet. Further work is needed to verify possible brittle failure modes
associated with each type of fasteners in CLT connections.
52

8
References
American Forest & Paper Association (AF&PA). 2006. National design specification (NDS) for wood construction
with commentary and supplement, 2005 edition. Washington, DC: AF&PA. 174 p.
Augustin, M., ed. 2008. Timber structures. Handbook 1 of Educational materials for designing and testing of
timber structures: TEMTIS. Leonardo da Vinci Pilot Project No. CZ/06/B/F/PP/168007. Ostrava, Czech
Republic: VSB - Technical University of Ostrava. 250 p.
Canadian Standard Association (CSA). 2009. Engineering design in wood (limit states design). CSA O86-09.
Rexdale, ON: CSA. 222 p.
European Committee for Standardization. 2004. Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures. Part 1-1: General –
Common rules and rules for buildings. EN 1995-1-1. Brussels: CEN. 124 p.
Quenneville, J.H.P., and M. Mohammad. 2000. On the failure modes and strength of steel-wood-steel bolted
timber connections loaded parallel-to-grain. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering 27:761-773.
TRADA. 2009. Cross laminated timber: Structural principles. High Wycombe, UK: TRADA. 8 p.
Traetta, G. 2007. Connection techniques for CLT elements. Paper presented at the TEMTIS Austrian Country
Seminar: Cross Laminated Timber, Graz, Austria.
Uibel, T., and H. J. Blass. 2006. Load carrying capacity of joints with dowel type fasteners in solid wood panels.
Paper presented at the 39th meeting of the Working Commission W18–Timber Structures, International Council
for Research and Innovation in Building and Construction, Florence, Italy, August 2006.
_________. 2007. Edge joints with dowel type fasteners in cross laminated timber. Paper presented at
the 40th meeting of the Working Commission W18–Timber Structures, International Council for Research
and Innovation in Building and Construction, Bled, Slovenia, August 2007.
53

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Special Publication SP-528E

Duration of load and creep factors

Building enclosure design

Erol Karacabeyli, M.A.Sc., P.Eng., FPInnovations

Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication

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FORIN-Chapitre 5.indd 2 10-12-22 15:46

©2011 FPInnovations. All rights reserved.

FORIN-Chapitre 5.indd 2 10-12-22 15:46

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Figure 3 Self-tapping screws used in CLT connections 4

Figure 6 Internal spline 7

Figure 7 Single surface spline 8

Figure 8 Double surface spline 8

Figure 9 Details of half-lapped joints 9

Figure 10 Details of the tube connection system 9

Figure 11 KNAPP® connection system 10

Figure 12 Self-tapping screws from the exterior 11

Figure 13 Installation of self-tapping screws from the exterior 11

Figure 14 Self-tapping screws driven at an angle (toe screwing) 12

Figure 15 Concealed wooden profile 12

Figure 16 Edge protecting wooden profile 13

Figure 17 Interior metal bracket 13

Figure 18 Details of the dovetail joint 14

Figure 19 KNAPP® system 14

Figure 20 Hook joint 15

Figure 21 Concealed metal plate 15

FORIN-Chapitre 5.indd 7 10-12-22 15:46

Figure 23 Self-tapping screws 16

Figure 24 Metal brackets 17

Figure 25 Metal bracket and self-tapping screws 18

Figure 26 KNAPP® system 19

Figure 27 Metal shaft connection details 20

Figure 28 Threaded rod/screw connection system 21

Figure 29 Glued-in rod and edge protecting wooden profile 22

Figure 30 Metal bracket and threaded rod 23

Figure 31 Concealed metal plates 24

Figure 32 Balcony in cantilever 24

Figure 33 Metal brackets adopted for design of balcony 25

Figure 34 Self-tapping screws used in balcony design 25

Figure 35 Balcony supported by the main structure 26

Figure 36 Balcony attached to the platform construction 27

Figure 37 Examples of European CLT projects with built-in balconies 27

Figure 40 Possible roof-to-wall joints configurations 29

Figure 41 Self-tapping screws 30

Figure 42 Metal bracket 31

Figure 43 Exterior metal plate 32

Figure 44 Metal brackets 32

Figure 45 Metal brackets installed on site 33

Figure 46 Concealed metal plates 33

Figure 47 Metal shaft connection details 34

Figure 48 Threaded rod/screw connection system 35

FORIN-Chapitre 5.indd 8 10-12-22 15:46

Figure 50 KNAPP® Gigant system 37

Figure 51 CLT Wall – I-joist (adapted from TRADA 2009) 39

Figure 53 CLT Wall – I-joist (adapted from TRADA 2009) 40

Figure 55 Ductile failure modes experienced during testing of self-tapping screws

Figure 58 Opened connection with dowels in cross-laminated timber