Geology, Ecology, and Landscapes

ISSN: (Print) 2474-9508 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tgel20

X-ray fluorescence (XRF) in the investigation of the

composition of earth materials: a review and an
overview

Temitope D. Timothy Oyedotun

To cite this article: Temitope D. Timothy Oyedotun (2018): X-ray fluorescence (XRF) in the
investigation of the composition of earth materials: a review and an overview, Geology, Ecology,
and Landscapes, DOI: 10.1080/24749508.2018.1452459

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/24749508.2018.1452459

© 2018 The Author(s). Published by Informa

UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis
Group

Published online: 22 Mar 2018.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 29

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=tgel20
Geology, Ecology, and Landscapes, 2018
https://doi.org/10.1080/24749508.2018.1452459 INWASCON

OPEN ACCESS

X-ray fluorescence (XRF) in the investigation of the composition of earth

materials: a review and an overview
Temitope D. Timothy Oyedotuna,b 
a
Research and Concept Unit, AfriGeoServ (AGS), Ibadan, Nigeria; bCoastal and Estuarine Research Unit, Department of Geography, University
College London, London, UK

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry is a well-known, well-established and widely applied Received 24 July 2017
technique in the determination of many major elemental compositions of earth materials. XRF Accepted 30 November 2017
confers the ability to analyse solid samples non-destructively through X-radiation. The orderliness KEYWORDS
and clarity of its emission spectrum, its great accuracy and precision make this technique a Spectrometry; earth
geochemical method of choice in mineralogy and investigation of the chemical composition materials; samples; X-ray
of earth materials. There are limitations regarding the age and calibration of instruments, costs fluorescence; major element
of setting up, matrix effects to be considered and the stringent sets of standards; however, XRF
laboratory analyses remain the standard technique for providing high-quality geochemical
data analyses in the investigation of earth elemental composition. With further improvements
in XRF technology, it is expected that this technique will be of continued importance/utility in
geological and geomorphological investigations.

1. Introduction applications of XRF in geochemical investigations; and

highlight the examples of its diverse applications. This
X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy is one of the most
is intended as a simple overview of a useful technique
widely used and well-established methods of routine esti-
for geo-scientific investigations of geological formation
mation of geochemical composition of rocks, sediments
and landscapes. Its usefulness is illustrated by analysis
and earth material samples (Kramar, 1997; Ling et al.,
of coastal-estuarine sediments, a case study example.
2017; Tolosana-Delgado & McKinley, 2016; Weltje &
Tjallingii, 2008; Young, Evans, Hodges, Bleacher, & Graff,
2016). For many years, XRF spectrometry is used in the 2. XRF
determination of geochemical concentrations for a range The major elemental composition of Earth material sam-
of major and trace elements at parts per million (ppm) ples can be analysed by various instruments (Baedecker,
level. It has, also, been utilised in the successful investiga- 1987; Sabaou, Ait-Salem, & Zazoun, 2009). However,
tion of geological, archaeological and industrial samples XRF spectrometry is particularly valuable because of its
(Jenkins, Gould, & Gedcke, 1995; Young et al., 2016). ability to rapidly provide a high-resolution assessment of
One reason why this technique is widely used is because relative variations of most Earth elemental compositions
of its ability to analyse solid samples through X-ray radi- (Löwemark et al., 2011). XRF spectrometry is based on
ation (Weltje & Tjallingii, 2008). The geochemistry of the wavelength-dispersive principle, which states that
many of the Earth’s solid materials is regarded as the individual atoms emit a relative abundance of X-ray pho-
product of parent rock, climatic-environmental condi- tons of energy or wavelength feature that can be esti-
tions, and possible anthropogenic interactions with the mated (Weltje & Tjallingii, 2008). This technique has
material (Jalali & Jalali, 2016). Hence, the ability of XRF been applied in the examination of Earth materials from
to determine the major oxide/element composition of a range of settings and environments (e.g., Chalmers &
many earth materials (either in glass discs, powder pel- Bustin, 2017; Löwemark, Jakobsson, Mörth, & Backman,
lets or bulk powder samples) has made it useful in many 2008; Oyedotun, 2016; Özkul, Çiftçi, Tokel, & Savaş,
laboratory settings (Jenkins et al., 1995; Kramar, 1997; 2017; Rivera, Giráldez, & Fernádez-Caliani, 2016;
Young et al., 2016). It remains a standard method of geo- Sabaou et al., 2009). The wide range of XRF’s uses is due
chemical investigation of Earth’s mineral and chemical to its capacity to provide probable higher precision and
compositions. This paper summarises the theories and accuracy than alternative methods (Taggart, Lindsay,

CONTACT  Temitope D. Timothy Oyedotun  [email protected], [email protected]

© 2018 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted
use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
2   T. D. T. OYEDOTUN

Scott, Bartel, & Stewart, 1987; Weltje & Tjallingii, 2008) provision of the highest possible quality of geochemical
and to identify the detection limits for many elements data analyses of Earth materials (Janssens, 2013; Young
in the ppm range (Löwemark et al., 2011). et al., 2016).

2.1.  Strengths and weaknesses of XRF 2.2.  Theory of XRF

The advantages of the XRF technique (after Taggart The XRF procedure involves inter-linked processes
et al., 1987; Kramar, 1997; Weltje & Tjallingii, 2008) are (summarised from Sakurai et al., 2004; Weltje &
many. First is its ability to analyse the bulk chemical con- Tjallingii, 2008). The incoming X-rays from an XRF
tents of major elements (e.g., Al, Mn, Ca, Na, K, Ti, P, Si, instrument knock the electron of an atom out of the
Mg, etc.) found in Earth materials. The X-ray emission inner orbital. This results in the excitation of the atom
associated with the XRF technique is simple, system- and the production of high-energy radiation (photons,
atic, relatively independent of the chemical state, and protons, electrons, etc.). The third process involves the
with uniform excitation and absorption dependent on detection and integration of characterised emitted lines
an atomic number. Also, interference in the line of X-ray to give varying levels of intensity. The last stage in this
radiation can be easily corrected thereby enabling high process is the conversion of the detected line intensi-
accuracy and precision to be easily attained. Another ties to elemental concentrations. Earth materials (e.g.,
advantage of XRF, in a geochemical investigation, is natural rocks) consist of diverse elemental minerals
sample preparation, which is fast, simple and can be at highly variable compositions and structures which
non-destructive. affect the behaviour of light in many complex ways, the
Although XRF has many advantages, there are some identification of these elements is vitally possible using
drawbacks that should be considered before embark- X-ray methods, (e.g., XRF) through the characteristic
ing on a study using this technique. Firstly, most com- emitted-radiation of these compositions under certain
mercially available XRF instruments are very limited conditions.
in their ability to accurately and precisely measure the
abundance of geochemical elements of the natural earth 2.3.  XRF instrumentation
materials that have minimal levels of elements (generally,
fewer than eleven elements) (Taggart et al., 1987), with- Diverse advances have been made on instrumentation
out any form of modification/calibration. Secondly, most for XRF laboratory analyses and in situ field measure-
elemental variations are measured as counts instead of ments because of its abilities for geochemical analyses
as concentrations. Calibration of the XRF instruments and investigations (Marguí, Queralt, & Van Grieken,
to measure concentration requires quantitative analysis 2016; Weltje & Tjallingii, 2008; Young et al., 2016;
of bulk sediment chemistry (Löwemark et al., 2011). etc.). Two types of these instruments are in use today
Thirdly, sensitivity to low isotopes of an element is very and these are reported in literatures. Since the early
poor, and this shortcoming necessitates the use in rou- 1960s, the Wavelength Dispersive (WD) XRF instru-
tine analyses of some other instrumentation – for exam- ments have been widely adapted to geochemical inves-
ple, the surface roughness, water content, and grain size tigations/applications, and these remain common in
variations of a material can influence the sensitivity of laboratory analyses of major elemental compositions
XRF measurements (Weltje & Tjallingii, 2008). Fourthly, (Kramar, 1997). The second form of XRF instrumen-
on many occasions, XRF methods cannot distinguish the tation that is still in use is based on the energy-dis-
inter-element effect within some earth material samples. persive (ED) discrimination principle with its ability
In the past, this shortcoming has necessitated the imple- to simultaneously discriminate the X-ray spectra of
mentation of various other geochemical techniques such ten to thirty elements (Kramar, 1984). Because of
as Mossbauer spectroscopy (e.g., Günzler & Williams, the sensitivity of XRF to background ratio, various
2001; Gütlich, 2012). This limitation may be com- modifications have been made to the early ED instru-
pounded by the age of the X-ray instrument used. An ments and these have given rise to many new variants
ageing instrument may influence the counts measured, (Vincze, Janssens, Vekemans, Adams, & Lemberge,
thereby impeding the comparison of results. Fifthly, the 2004), such as the Total reflection XRF (TXRF) (Prost,
initial costs of setting up the XRF instrumentation and Wobrauschek, & Streli, 2017), Polarised XRF (PXRF)
equipment are relatively high. Lastly, strict adherence to (Sakurai et al., 2004; Zhan, Luo, & Fan, 2007) etc. In
sets of standards and principles is required with intensive laboratories, these have been used for decades with
sample preparation and analyses to meet the set stand- great success (Janssens, 2013; Young et al., 2016).
ard – although this may appear as a limitation to some, Because of the advantages inherent in mobility of XRF
it can also be regarded as essential good practice in an instrumentation, many manufacturers have developed
XRF laboratory ethic. handheld XRF (hXRF) instruments which are now
However, despite the weaknesses of this method, XRF being deployed on the field for in situ measurements
laboratory analyses remain the geochemical standard for (Coccato et al., 2017; Marguí et al., 2016; Young et al.,
 GEOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND LANDSCAPES   3

2016). However, in geological sciences, these hXRFs each element occurs at a fixed position. XRF can be
are still seldom used (Young et al., 2016) but currently readily utilised as a quantitative method of elemen-
growing with much success. tal composition analysis since the peak height of an
element is often related to the concentration in the
2.4.  XRF applications sample. Quantitative XRF analysis generally uses two
main techniques, the Fundamental Parameters Method
The versatility and rapidity of the XRF technique have (FPM) and the calibration with standards method.
given it a wide application in many industrial and sci- These two techniques are always incorporated in the
entific fields (Table 1). XRF instrument software (Horiba, URL). The FPM is
used to calculate the element concentration based on
2.5.  XRF method the peak intensities, while the Calibration Standard is
used to relate peak intensities to element concentra-
2.5.1.  Sample collection and preparation tion by deriving calibration curves from materials of
The Earth material samples (liquid or solid) must be known/certified composition.
collected carefully to prevent contamination of the
natural concentrations of the elements in the mate- 2.5.3.  Precision and accuracy in XRF
rial. Also, the sample collection and preparation must Two basic quality principles with XRF analysis are
follow the established standards for the type of investi- precision and accuracy. These are necessary for unbi-
gation being undertaken. Indeed, sample preparation is ased analysis. The ability of a method to give the same
highly variable and is mostly dependent on the materi- result on a repeated analysis of the same sample is
als being analysed and the goals of the analysis. For the stated to be precise. Precision is the deviation of a set
XRF analysis of solid components of the Earth materi- of determinations from their random error (mean),
als, samples must be larger than the largest particle or while accuracy is the level of conformity with the
grain size in the materials (typically larger than 10× the elimination of systematic and random error (Taggart
largest particle). This is imperative since, depending et al., 1987). Although a highly precise technique can
on the XRF technique involved, the sampled material yield unbiased results, these results may be inaccurate
may be subjected to a series of preparatory processes, especially if impurities have been introduced during
including crushing and grinding to grains of a few sample preparation or because of calibration errors.
millimetres in size or to a fine powder. Full details of To achieve high-quality and acceptable XRF results,
sample collection and preparation can be found in attention must be given to achieving both precision and
Marguí et al. (2016). accuracy. In addressing the drift (imprecision, whether
short-term or long-term), multiple variables must be
2.5.2. Analysis taken into consideration. These include stability of the
XRF results can be reported both qualitatively and XRF instrument, precision in sample preparation, cali-
quantitatively. Although the energy-dispersive (ED) bration of the instrument to the most appropriate and
XRF can be used to generate quantitative data if appro- acceptable reference standard, monitoring and man-
priate standard-controlled calibration exists, often it is agement of room temperature, monitoring of voltage
ideally suited for qualitative elemental analysis since changes because of fluctuating power supply, and giv-
band assignment for the XRF spectrum is easy and ing attention to barometric pressure and other external
factors.
Table 1. Recent applications of XRF spectrometry.
Field of application Examples 3.  Case study: identifying patterns of major
Ecology/ecosystem Rodríguez-Zorro, Enters, Hermanowski, Lima elemental composition using XRF
da Coasta, and Behling (2015)
Metallurgy Mighall, Timberlake, Martínez-Cortizas, The Hayle, the Gannel and the Camel estuaries, within
Silva-Sánchez, and Foster (2017); Turner St Ives, Crantock, and Padstow bays, respectively (Figure
and Filella (2017)
Forensics Castillo-Peinado and Luque de Castro (2017); 1), have received considerable attention in terms of the
Rim et al. (2017) impacts of mining on estuarine sedimentation (e.g.,
Polymers Bull, Brown, and Turner (2017); Guo, Ye, Li,
Han, and Loh (2017); Turner and Filella Oyedotun, 2016; Pirrie, Power, Payne, & Wheeler, 2000;
(2017) Pirrie, Power, Wheeler, & Ball, 2000). The effects of min-
Archaeology Hunt and Speakman (2015); Turco, Davit,
Cossio, Agostino, and Operti (2017)
ing on sediment supply, sedimentology and mineralogy
Environmental analysis Tolosana-Delgado and McKinley (2016); were explored extensively in those studies. Here, XRF is
Rivera et al. (2016) used to compare the composition of major elements in
Geology Jalali and Jalali (2016); Ling et al. (2017);
Özkul et al. (2017) the sediments of these three coastal-estuarine systems
Mining Chalmers and Bustin (2017); Pavilonis, Grass- with the aim of identifying the anthropogenic influences
man, Johnson, Diaz, and Caravanos (2017)
Soils/landscapes Hartemink and Minasny (2014); Kitchel on the geological landscapes; and explore the sedimen-
(2016) tary connectivity of the individual systems.
4   T. D. T. OYEDOTUN

Figure 1.  Southwest England showing three estuarine systems (Hayle, Gannel, and Camel) where sediments were
sampled. Source: Contains OS data © Crown copyright and database right (2015).

Figure 2. Major element composition (%) of intertidal sediments of three estuaries determined by X-ray fluorescence of 21 samples.

3.1. Method
major elements in their oxidised state were determined
X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry (XRF) was used to as a percentage of composition (Oyedotun, 2015, 2016).
determine the major elemental composition of 21 sedi- The samples used in the XRF analyses were obtained
ment samples from the estuarine and coastal systems. The from 0 to 5 cm sediment depth randomly collected from
 GEOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND LANDSCAPES   5

the intertidal locations around the Hayle, Gannel, and non-destructive manner – the qualities which are vital in
Camel systems of southwest England between 24 and 27 the understanding the composition of the earth’s mate-
October 2011 (Figure 1). rial and landscapes. With the continuous developments
Samples were prepared at the Coastal and Estuarine and improvements in XRF equipment, this technique
Research Unit of the Department of Geography, will continue to flourish in the future.
University College London (Oyedotun, 2015). The
sediments were freeze-dried at ~60 °C in a Modulo 4 k Acknowledgement
Freeze Drier for 5 days. The dried samples were pulver-
I sincerely appreciate the supervisory assistance and sup-
ised into a fine powder with an agate mortar and pestle.
port of Dr. Helene Burningham and Professor Jon French
To avoid contamination and the mixture of samples dur- when XRF analysis was undertaken as part of my Ph.D.
ing preparation, both faces of the compression die for Geography programme at University College London, UK.
each of the samples were well covered. Each pulverised I also appreciate the guidance and assistance of Janet Hope
ground sample (powder pellet) was then weighed prior with the laboratory analyses; Dan Shuman and Ann Grant
with reading through and commenting on the drafts of this
to analysis; weights of samples ranged from 4 to 6 grams.
article.
These samples were analysed with a Spectro XLab Pro
2000 which produces high X-ray intensity and permits
quantitative analysis of elements in the ng range (after Disclosure statement
Jenkins et al., 1995). No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

3.2.  Comparison of major element (XRF) ORCID

composition (%) of intertidal sediments Temitope D. Timothy Oyedotun   http://orcid.org/0000-0002-
The elements analysed were Ca, Si, Al, Fe, Cl, Mg, Na, 3926-0358
K, Ti, S, P, Mn, V, and Cr. The total base cation per-
centages (Si, Mn, P, CI and Fe) of the Hayle estuary was References
high compared to total content for the other estuaries;
Baedecker, P.A. (Ed.). (1987). Methods for geochemical
whereas Mg, Al, S, and K were higher in the Camel analysis. US Geological Survey Bulletin 1770.
Estuary (Figure 2). The total base cation content (Na, Bull, A., Brown, M.T., & Turner, A. (2017). Novel use of field-
Mg and K) was low (<5% in total) in all the sites but portable-XRF for the direct analysis of trace elements in
Ca was much higher (~20%) compared to all the other marine macroalgae. Environmental Pollution, 220, 228–
233. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2016.09.049
elements investigated. Patterns in Ca distribution were
Castillo-Peinado, L.S., & Luque de Castro, M.D. (2017).
broadly similar across the sites. Shell material was clearly An overview of forensic analysis devoted to analytical
present in the sediments, and shell fragments contrib- chemists. Talanta, 167, 181–192.
uted to the medium and coarse sand sizes. In all the Chalmers, G.R.L., & Bustin, M.R. (2017). A multidisciplinary
estuaries, Na, Mg, Si, S, and K had a relatively low per- approach in determining the maceral (kerogen type) and
mineralogical composition of Upper Cretaceous Eagle
centage (0.1–6%). XRF examination has enabled the easy
Ford Formation: Impact on pore development and pore
identification of differences in the chemical composition size distribution. International Journal of Coal Geology,
and comparative examination of these systems. These 171, 93–110.
have enabled the identification of the different anthro- Coccato, A., Costa, M., Rousaki, A., Clist, B.-O., Karklins,
pogenic mining activities whose impacts have affected K., Bostoen, K., … Vandenabeele, P. (2017). Micro-Raman
spectroscopy and complementary techniques (hXRF, VP-
the landscape of each system, even beyond their years
SEM-EDS, μ-FTIR and Py-GC/MS) applied to the study
of cessation. Detailed results of these differences and of beads from the Kongo Kingdom (The Democratic
investigations of sediment sources at the study sites are Republic of the Congo). Journal of Raman Spectroscopy,
reported in Oyedotun (2016). 48(11), 1468–1478. doi:10.1002/jrs.5106
Günzler, H. & Williams, A. (Eds.). (2001). Handbook of
analytical techniques. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH Verlag
4. Conclusion GmbH.
Guo, H.C., Ye, E., Li, Z., Han, M.-Y., & Loh, X.H. (2017).
Analysis of Earth materials for multivariate purposes Recent progress of atomic layer deposition on polymeric
will continue as humans seek to understand the Earth’s materials. Materials Science and Engineering: C, 70(Part 2,
composition and search for new uses for such compo- 1), 1182–1191.
sitions. Certainly, XRF spectroscopy will continue to Gütlich, P. (2012). Fifty years of Mössbauer spectroscopy in
hold an important position in geochemical analyses of solid state research – Remarkable achievements, future
perspectives. Zeitschrift für anorganische und allgemeine
the earth’s multifarious components. Despite its limita- Chemie, 638, 15–43.
tions, the technique remains relevant in the field of Earth Hartemink, A.E., & Minasny, B. (2014). Towards digital
and environmental sciences because it provides highly soil morphometrics. Geoderma, 230–231, 305–317.
accurate and quality data analyses in quick and often doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2014.03.008
6   T. D. T. OYEDOTUN

Horiba (URL) Quantitative Analysis. Retrieved February 16, Andes. Environmental Research, 154, 1–9. doi:10.1016/j.
2017, from http://www.horiba.com/scientific/products/x- envres.2016.12.010
ray-fluorescence-analysis/tutorial/quantitative-analysis/ Pirrie, D., Power, M.R., Payne, G.S., & Wheeler, P.D. (2000).
Hunt, A.M.W., & Speakman, R.J. (2015). Portable XRF Impact of mining on sedimentation: The Camel and
analysis of archaeological sediments and ceramics. Journal Gannel estuaries, Cornwall. Geoscience in South-West
of Archaeological Science, 53, 636–638. England, 10, 021–028.
Jalali, M., & Jalali, M. (2016). Geochemistry and background Pirrie, D., Power, M.R., Wheeler, P.D., & Ball, A.S. (2000).
concentration of major ions in spring waters in a high- A new occurrence of diagenetic simonkolleite from the
mountain area of the Hamedan (Iran). Journal of Gannel Estuary, Cornwall. Geoscience in South-West
Geochemical Exploration, 165, 49–61. England, 10, 018–020.
Janssens, K. (2013). X-ray based methods of analysis. Prost, J., Wobrauschek, P., & Streli, C. (2017). Quantitative
In K. Janssens (Ed.), Modern methods for analysing total reflection X-ray fluorescence analysis of directly
archaeological and historical glass (Vol. 1). Oxford: Wiley. collected aerosol samples. X-ray Spectrometry, 46, 454–
doi:10.1002/9781118314234.ch5 460. doi:10.1002/xrs.2752
Jenkins, R., Gould, R.W., & Gedcke, D. (1995). Quantitative Rim, J.H., Kuhn, K.J., Tandon, L., Xu, N., Porterfield, D.R.,
X-ray spectrometry (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Marcel Worley, C.G., … Trellue, H.R. (2017). Determination of
Dekker Inc. QD96.X2 J46 ISBN 0-8247-9554-7. origin and intended use of plutonium metal using nuclear
Kitchel, N.R. (2016). Questioning the visibility of the forensic techniques. Forensic Science International, 273,
landscape learning process during the Paleoindian e1–e9. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2017.01.014
colonization of northeastern North America. Journal of Rivera, M.B., Giráldez, M.I., & Fernádez-Caliani, J.C. (2016).
Archaeological Science: Reports, 17, 871–878. doi:10.1016/j. Assessing the environmental availability of heavy metals in
jasrep.2016.10.009 geochemically contaminated soils of the Sierra de Aracena
Kramar, U. (1984). First experience with a tube excited Natural Park (SW Spain). Is there a health risk? Science of
energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence in Field laboratories. the Total Environment, 560–561, 254–265.
Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 21, 373–383. Rodríguez-Zorro, P.A., Enters, D., Hermanowski, B., Lima
Kramar, U. (1997). Advances in energy-dispersive X-ray da Coasta, M., & Behling, H. (2015). Vegetation changes
fluorescence. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 58, 73– and human impact inferred from an oxbow lake in
80. southwestern Amazonia, Brazil since the 19th century.
Ling, Y.-Y., Zhang, J.-J., Liu, K., Ge, M.-H., Wang, M., & Journal of South American Earth Sciences, 62, 186–194.
Wang, J.-M. (2017). Geochemistry, geochronology, and doi:10.1016/j.jsames.2015.06.003
tectonic setting of Early Cretaceous volcanic rocks in the Sabaou, N., Ait-Salem, H., & Zazoun, R.S. (2009).
northern segment of the Tan-Lu Fault region, northeast Chemostratigraphy, tectonic setting, and provenance of
China. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 144, 303–322. the Cambro-Ordovician clastic deposits of the subsurface
doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2016.12.025 Algerian Sahara. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 55,
Löwemark, L., Chen, H.-F., Yang, T.-N., Kylander, M., Yu, 158–174.
E.-F., Hsu, Y.-W., … Jarvis, S. (2011). Normalizing XRF- Sakurai, K., Tsuji, K., Cesareo, R., Brunetti, A., Castellano,
scanner data: A cautionary note on the interpretation of A., Rosales Medina, M.A., … Kawai, J. (2004). Special
high-resolution records from organic-rich lakes. Journal of configurations. In K. Tsuji, J. Injuk, & R. Van Grieken
Asian Earth Sciences, 40, 1250–1256. (Eds.), X-ray spectrometry: Recent technological advances.
Löwemark, L., Jakobsson, M., Mörth, M., & Backman, J. Chichester: Wiley. doi:10.1002/0470020431.ch5
(2008). Arctic Ocean Mn contents and sediment color Taggart Jr., J.E., Lindsay, J.R., Scott, B.A., Vivit, D.V.,
cycles. Polar Research, 27, 105–113. Bartel, A.J.,  & Stewart, K.C. (1987). Analysis of geologic
Marguí, E., Queralt, I., & Van Grieken, R. (2016). Sample materials by wavelength-dispersive X-ray fluorescence
preparation for X-ray fluorescence analysis. Encyclopedia spectrometry.  In P.A. Baedecker (Ed.), Methods for
of Analytical Chemistry, 1–25. geochemical analysis. Denver, CO: US Geological Survey
Mighall, T., Timberlake, S., Martínez-Cortizas, A., Silva- Bulletin 1770.
Sánchez, N., & Foster, I.D.L. (2017). Did prehistoric and Tolosana-Delgado, R., & McKinley, J. (2016). Exploring
Roman mining and metallurgy have a significant impact the joint compositional variability of major components
on vegetation? Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, and trace elements in the Tellus soil geochemistry survey
11, 613–625. (Northern Ireland). Applied Geochemistry, 75, 263–276.
Oyedotun, T.D.T. (2015). Estuary – Coast interaction and Turco, F., Davit, P., Cossio, R., Agostino, A., & Operti, L.
morphodynamic evolution: A comparative analysis of (2017). Accuracy improvement by means of porosity
three estuaries in southwest England (Unpublished Ph.D. assessment and standards optimization in SEM-EDS and
Thesis). Coastal and Estuarine Research Unit, Department XRF elemental analyses on archaeological and historical
of Geography, University College London, London. pottery and porcelain. Journal of Archaeological Science:
Oyedotun, T.D.T. (2016). Historical mining signatures: Reports, 12, 54–65.
Geochemical and mineralogical evaluation of sediments Turner, A., & Filella, M. (2017). Field-portable-XRF reveals
in three coastal-estuarine systems. Journal of Coastal Zone the ubiquity of antimony in plastic consumer products.
Management, 19, 432. doi:10.4172/2473-3350.1000432 Science of the Total Environment, 584–585, 982–989.
Özkul, C., Çiftçi, E., Tokel, S., & Savaş, M. (2017). Boron as doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.01.149
an exploration tool for terrestrial borate deposits: A soil Vincze, L., Janssens, K., Vekemans, B., Adams, F., &
geochemical study in Neogene Emet-Hisarcık basin where Lemberge, P. (2004). New computerisation methods.
the world largest borate deposits occur (Kütahya-western In K. Tsuji, J. Injuk, & R. Van Grieken (Eds.), X-ray
Turkey). Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 173, 31–51. spectrometry: Recent technological advances. Chichester:
Pavilonis, B., Grassman, J., Johnson, G., Diaz, Y., & Caravanos, Wiley. doi:10.1002/0470020431.ch6
J. (2017). Characterization and risk of exposure to elements Weltje, G.J., & Tjallingii, R. (2008). Calibration of XRF core
from artisanal gold mining operations in the Bolivian scanners for quantitative geochemical logging of sediment
 GEOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND LANDSCAPES   7

cores: Theory and application. Earth Planet Science Letters, and in planetary surface exploration. Applied Geochemistry,
274(3–4), 423–438. 72, 77–87. doi:10.1016/j.apgeochem.2016.07.003
Young, K.E., Evans, C.A., Hodges, K.V., Bleacher, J.E., & Graff, Zhan, X., Luo, L., & Fan, X. (2007). Spatial XRF distribution
T.G. (2016). A review of the handheld X-ray fluorescence characteristics associated with polarized EDXRF
spectrometer as a tool for field geologic investigations on Earth spectrometry. X-ray Spectrometry, 36(4), 275–278.