You can declare static data regions (analogous to global variables) in x86

assembly using special assembler directives for this purpose. Data

declarations should be preceded by the .DATA directive. Following this
directive, the directives DB, DW, and DD can be used to declare one, two, and
four byte data locations, respectively. Declared locations can be labeled with
names for later reference — this is similar to declaring variables by name, but
abides by some lower level rules. For example, locations declared in
sequence will be located in memory next to one another.

Example declarations:

.DAT
A
var DB 64 ; Declare a byte, referred to as location var, containing the value 64.
var2 DB ? ; Declare an uninitialized byte, referred to as location var2.
; Declare a byte with no label, containing the value 10. Its location
DB 10
is var2 + 1.
X DW ? ; Declare a 2-byte uninitialized value, referred to as location X.
DD 30000
Y ; Declare a 4-byte value, referred to as location Y, initialized to 30000.

Unlike in high level languages where arrays can have many dimensions and
are accessed by indices, arrays in x86 assembly language are simply a
number of cells located contiguously in memory. An array can be declared by
just listing the values, as in the first example below. Two other common
methods used for declaring arrays of data are the DUP directive and the use
of string literals. The DUP directive tells the assembler to duplicate an
expression a given number of times. For example, 4 DUP(2) is equivalent
to 2, 2, 2, 2.

Some examples:

; Declare three 4-byte values, initialized to 1, 2, and 3. The value

Z DD 1, 2, 3
of location Z + 8 will be 3.
bytes DB 10 DUP(?) ; Declare 10 uninitialized bytes starting at location bytes.
DD 100 ; Declare 100 4-byte words starting at location arr, all
arr
DUP(0) initialized to 0
; Declare 6 bytes starting at the address str, initialized to the
str DB 'hello',0
ASCII character values for hello and the null (0) byte.

Addressing Memory
Modern x86-compatible processors are capable of addressing up to 232 bytes
of memory: memory addresses are 32-bits wide. In the examples above,
where we used labels to refer to memory regions, these labels are actually
replaced by the assembler with 32-bit quantities that specify addresses in
memory. In addition to supporting referring to memory regions by labels (i.e.
constant values), the x86 provides a flexible scheme for computing and
referring to memory addresses: up to two of the 32-bit registers and a 32-bit
signed constant can be added together to compute a memory address. One
of the registers can be optionally pre-multiplied by 2, 4, or 8.
The addressing modes can be used with many x86 instructions (we'll
describe them in the next section). Here we illustrate some examples using
the mov instruction that moves data between registers and memory. This
instruction has two operands: the first is the destination and the second
specifies the source.
Some examples of mov instructions using address computations are:
; Move the 4 bytes in memory at the address contained in EBX
mov eax, [ebx]
into EAX
; Move the contents of EBX into the 4 bytes at memory
mov [var], ebx
address var. (Note, var is a 32-bit constant).
mov eax, [esi-4] ; Move 4 bytes at memory address ESI + (-4) into EAX
mov [esi+eax], cl ; Move the contents of CL into the byte at address ESI+EAX
mov edx,
; Move the 4 bytes of data at address ESI+4*EBX into EDX
[esi+4*ebx]
Some examples of invalid address calculations include:
mov eax, [ebx-ecx] ; Can only add register values
mov [eax+esi+edi], ebx ; At most 2 registers in address computation

Size Directives

In general, the intended size of the of the data item at a given memory
address can be inferred from the assembly code instruction in which it is
referenced. For example, in all of the above instructions, the size of the
memory regions could be inferred from the size of the register operand.
When we were loading a 32-bit register, the assembler could infer that the
region of memory we were referring to was 4 bytes wide. When we were
storing the value of a one byte register to memory, the assembler could infer
that we wanted the address to refer to a single byte in memory.
However, in some cases the size of a referred-to memory region is
ambiguous. Consider the instruction mov [ebx], 2. Should this instruction
move the value 2 into the single byte at address EBX? Perhaps it should move
the 32-bit integer representation of 2 into the 4-bytes starting at address EBX.
Since either is a valid possible interpretation, the assembler must be explicitly
directed as to which is correct. The size directives BYTE PTR, WORD PTR,
and DWORD PTR serve this purpose, indicating sizes of 1, 2, and 4 bytes
respectively.
For example:
mov BYTE PTR [ebx],
; Move 2 into the single byte at the address stored in EBX.
2
mov WORD PTR [ebx], ; Move the 16-bit integer representation of 2 into the 2 bytes
2 starting at the address in EBX.
mov DWORD PTR ; Move the 32-bit integer representation of 2 into the 4 bytes
[ebx], 2 starting at the address in EBX.

Instructions
Machine instructions generally fall into three categories: data movement,
arithmetic/logic, and control-flow. In this section, we will look at important
examples of x86 instructions from each category. This section should not be
considered an exhaustive list of x86 instructions, but rather a useful subset.
For a complete list, see Intel's instruction set reference.
We use the following notation:
<reg32> Any 32-bit register (EAX, EBX, ECX, EDX, ESI, EDI, ESP, or EBP)
<reg16> Any 16-bit register (AX, BX, CX, or DX)
<reg8> Any 8-bit register (AH, BH, CH, DH, AL, BL, CL, or DL)
<reg> Any register

<mem> A memory address (e.g., [eax], [var + 4], or dword ptr [eax+ebx])
<con32> Any 32-bit constant
<con16> Any 16-bit constant
<con8> Any 8-bit constant
<con> Any 8-, 16-, or 32-bit constant

Data Movement Instructions

mov — Move (Opcodes: 88, 89, 8A, 8B, 8C, 8E, ...)
The mov instruction copies the data item referred to by its second operand
(i.e. register contents, memory contents, or a constant value) into the location
referred to by its first operand (i.e. a register or memory). While register-to-
register moves are possible, direct memory-to-memory moves are not. In
cases where memory transfers are desired, the source memory contents
must first be loaded into a register, then can be stored to the destination
memory address.

Syntax
mov <reg>,<reg>
mov <reg>,<mem>
mov <mem>,<reg>
mov <reg>,<const>
mov <mem>,<const>

Examples
mov eax, ebx — copy the value in ebx into eax
mov byte ptr [var], 5 — store the value 5 into the byte at location var

push — Push stack (Opcodes: FF, 89, 8A, 8B, 8C, 8E, ...)
The push instruction places its operand onto the top of the hardware
supported stack in memory. Specifically, push first decrements ESP by 4,
then places its operand into the contents of the 32-bit location at address
[ESP]. ESP (the stack pointer) is decremented by push since the x86 stack
grows down - i.e. the stack grows from high addresses to lower addresses.
Syntax
push <reg32>
push <mem>
push <con32>

Examples
push eax — push eax on the stack
push [var] — push the 4 bytes at address var onto the stack

pop — Pop stack

The pop instruction removes the 4-byte data element from the top of the
hardware-supported stack into the specified operand (i.e. register or memory
location). It first moves the 4 bytes located at memory location [SP] into the
specified register or memory location, and then increments SP by 4.

Syntax
pop <reg32>
pop <mem>

Examples
pop edi — pop the top element of the stack into EDI.
pop [ebx] — pop the top element of the stack into memory at the four bytes
starting at location EBX.
lea — Load effective address
The lea instruction places the address specified by its second operand into
the register specified by its first operand. Note, the contents of the memory
location are not loaded, only the effective address is computed and placed
into the register. This is useful for obtaining a pointer into a memory region.

Syntax
lea <reg32>,<mem>

Examples
lea edi, [ebx+4*esi] — the quantity EBX+4*ESI is placed in EDI.
lea eax, [var] — the value in var is placed in EAX.
lea eax, [val] — the value val is placed in EAX.

Arithmetic and Logic Instructions

add — Integer Addition

The add instruction adds together its two operands, storing the result in its
first operand. Note, whereas both operands may be registers, at most one
operand may be a memory location.
Syntax
add <reg>,<reg>
add <reg>,<mem>
add <mem>,<reg>
add <reg>,<con>
add <mem>,<con>
Examples
add eax, 10 — EAX ← EAX + 10
add BYTE PTR [var], 10 — add 10 to the single byte stored at memory
address var
sub — Integer Subtraction
The sub instruction stores in the value of its first operand the result of
subtracting the value of its second operand from the value of its first
operand. As with add
Syntax
sub <reg>,<reg>
sub <reg>,<mem>
sub <mem>,<reg>
 sub <reg>,<con>
sub <mem>,<con>
Examples
sub al, ah — AL ← AL - AH
sub eax, 216 — subtract 216 from the value stored in EAX
inc, dec — Increment, Decrement
The inc instruction increments the contents of its operand by one.
The dec instruction decrements the contents of its operand by one.

Syntax
inc <reg>
inc <mem>
dec <reg>
dec <mem>

Examples
dec eax — subtract one from the contents of EAX.
inc DWORD PTR [var] — add one to the 32-bit integer stored at location var

imul — Integer Multiplication

The imul instruction has two basic formats: two-operand (first two syntax
listings above) and three-operand (last two syntax listings above).
The two-operand form multiplies its two operands together and stores the
result in the first operand. The result (i.e. first) operand must be a register.
The three operand form multiplies its second and third operands together
and stores the result in its first operand. Again, the result operand must be a
register. Furthermore, the third operand is restricted to being a constant
value.
Syntax
imul <reg32>,<reg32>
imul <reg32>,<mem>
imul <reg32>,<reg32>,<con>
imul <reg32>,<mem>,<con>

Examples

imul eax, [var] — multiply the contents of EAX by the 32-bit contents of the
memory location var. Store the result in EAX.
imul esi, edi, 25 — ESI → EDI * 25
idiv — Integer Division
 The idiv instruction divides the contents of the 64 bit integer EDX:EAX
(constructed by viewing EDX as the most significant four bytes and EAX as
the least significant four bytes) by the specified operand value. The quotient
result of the division is stored into EAX, while the remainder is placed in EDX.

Syntax
idiv <reg32>
idiv <mem>

Examples

idiv ebx — divide the contents of EDX:EAX by the contents of EBX. Place the
quotient in EAX and the remainder in EDX.
idiv DWORD PTR [var] — divide the contents of EDX:EAX by the 32-bit value
stored at memory location var. Place the quotient in EAX and the remainder
in EDX.
and, or, xor — Bitwise logical and, or and exclusive or
These instructions perform the specified logical operation (logical bitwise
and, or, and exclusive or, respectively) on their operands, placing the result in
the first operand location.

Syntax
and <reg>,<reg>
and <reg>,<mem>
and <mem>,<reg>
and <reg>,<con>
and <mem>,<con>

or <reg>,<reg>
or <reg>,<mem>
or <mem>,<reg>
or <reg>,<con>
or <mem>,<con>

xor <reg>,<reg>
xor <reg>,<mem>
xor <mem>,<reg>
xor <reg>,<con>
xor <mem>,<con>
Examples
and eax, 0fH — clear all but the last 4 bits of EAX.
xor edx, edx — set the contents of EDX to zero.

not — Bitwise Logical Not

Logically negates the operand contents (that is, flips all bit values in the
operand).

Syntax
not <reg>
not <mem>

Example
not BYTE PTR [var] — negate all bits in the byte at the memory
location var.

neg — Negate
Performs the two's complement negation of the operand contents.

Syntax
neg <reg>
neg <mem>

Example
neg eax — EAX → - EAX

shl, shr — Shift Left, Shift Right

These instructions shift the bits in their first operand's contents left and right,
padding the resulting empty bit positions with zeros. The shifted operand can
be shifted up to 31 places. The number of bits to shift is specified by the
second operand, which can be either an 8-bit constant or the register CL. In
either case, shifts counts of greater then 31 are performed modulo 32.

Syntax
shl <reg>,<con8>
shl <mem>,<con8>
shl <reg>,<cl>
shl <mem>,<cl>

shr <reg>,<con8>
shr <mem>,<con8>
 shr <reg>,<cl>
shr <mem>,<cl>

Examples

shl eax, 1 — Multiply the value of EAX by 2 (if the most significant bit is 0)
shr ebx, cl — Store in EBX the floor of result of dividing the value of EBX by
2n wheren is the value in CL.

Control Flow Instructions

The x86 processor maintains an instruction pointer (IP) register that is a 32-
bit value indicating the location in memory where the current instruction
starts. Normally, it increments to point to the next instruction in memory
begins after execution an instruction. The IP register cannot be manipulated
directly, but is updated implicitly by provided control flow instructions.

We use the notation <label> to refer to labeled locations in the program text.
Labels can be inserted anywhere in x86 assembly code text by entering a
label name followed by a colon. For example,
mov esi, [ebp+8]
begin: xor ecx, ecx
mov eax, [esi]

The second instruction in this code fragment is labeled begin. Elsewhere in

the code, we can refer to the memory location that this instruction is located
at in memory using the more convenient symbolic name begin. This label is
just a convenient way of expressing the location instead of its 32-bit value.

jmp — Jump

Transfers program control flow to the instruction at the memory location

indicated by the operand.

Syntax
jmp <label>

Example
jmp begin — Jump to the instruction labeled begin.

jcondition — Conditional Jump

These instructions are conditional jumps that are based on the status of a set
of condition codes that are stored in a special register called the machine
status word. The contents of the machine status word include information
about the last arithmetic operation performed. For example, one bit of this
word indicates if the last result was zero. Another indicates if the last result
was negative. Based on these condition codes, a number of conditional
jumps can be performed. For example, the jz instruction performs a jump to
the specified operand label if the result of the last arithmetic operation was
zero. Otherwise, control proceeds to the next instruction in sequence.

A number of the conditional branches are given names that are intuitively
based on the last operation performed being a special compare
instruction, cmp (see below). For example, conditional branches such
as jle and jne are based on first performing a cmp operation on the desired
operands.

Syntax
je <label> (jump when equal)
jne <label> (jump when not equal)
jz <label> (jump when last result was zero)
jg <label> (jump when greater than)
jge <label> (jump when greater than or equal to)
jl <label> (jump when less than)
jle <label> (jump when less than or equal to)

Example
cmp eax, ebx
jle done

If the contents of EAX are less than or equal to the contents of EBX, jump to
the label done. Otherwise, continue to the next instruction.
cmp — Compare
Compare the values of the two specified operands, setting the condition
codes in the machine status word appropriately. This instruction is equivalent
to the subinstruction, except the result of the subtraction is discarded instead
of replacing the first operand.

Syntax
cmp <reg>,<reg>
cmp <reg>,<mem>
cmp <mem>,<reg>
cmp <reg>,<con>

Example
cmp DWORD PTR [var], 10
jeq loop

If the 4 bytes stored at location var are equal to the 4-byte integer constant
10, jump to the location labeled loop.
call, ret — Subroutine call and return
These instructions implement a subroutine call and return.
The call instruction first pushes the current code location onto the hardware
supported stack in memory (see the push instruction for details), and then
performs an unconditional jump to the code location indicated by the label
operand. Unlike the simple jump instructions, the call instruction saves the
location to return to when the subroutine completes.

The ret instruction implements a subroutine return mechanism. This

instruction first pops a code location off the hardware supported in-memory
stack (see the pop instruction for details). It then performs an unconditional
jump to the retrieved code location.

Syntax
call <label>
ret

Calling Convention
To allow separate programmers to share code and develop libraries for use
by many programs, and to simplify the use of subroutines in general,
programmers typically adopt a common calling convention. The calling
convention is a protocol about how to call and return from routines. For
example, given a set of calling convention rules, a programmer need not
examine the definition of a subroutine to determine how parameters should
be passed to that subroutine. Furthermore, given a set of calling convention
rules, high-level language compilers can be made to follow the rules, thus
allowing hand-coded assembly language routines and high-level language
routines to call one another.
In practice, many calling conventions are possible. We will use the widely
used C language calling convention. Following this convention will allow you
to write assembly language subroutines that are safely callable from C (and
C++) code, and will also enable you to call C library functions from your
assembly language code.
The C calling convention is based heavily on the use of the hardware-
supported stack. It is based on the push, pop, call, and ret instructions.
Subroutine parameters are passed on the stack. Registers are saved on the
stack, and local variables used by subroutines are placed in memory on the
stack. The vast majority of high-level procedural languages implemented on
most processors have used similar calling conventions.
The calling convention is broken into two sets of rules. The first set of rules is
employed by the caller of the subroutine, and the second set of rules is
observed by the writer of the subroutine (the callee). It should be emphasized
that mistakes in the observance of these rules quickly result in fatal program
errors since the stack will be left in an inconsistent state; thus meticulous
care should be used when implementing the call convention in your own
subroutines.

>
Stack during Subroutine Call
[Thanks to Maxence Faldor for providing a correct figure and to James Peterson for finding and fixing
the bug in the original version of this figure!]
A good way to visualize the operation of the calling convention is to draw the
contents of the nearby region of the stack during subroutine execution. The
image above depicts the contents of the stack during the execution of a
subroutine with three parameters and three local variables. The cells depicted
in the stack are 32-bit wide memory locations, thus the memory addresses of
the cells are 4 bytes apart. The first parameter resides at an offset of 8 bytes
from the base pointer. Above the parameters on the stack (and below the
base pointer), the call instruction placed the return address, thus leading to
an extra 4 bytes of offset from the base pointer to the first parameter. When
the retinstruction is used to return from the subroutine, it will jump to the
return address stored on the stack.

Caller Rules

To make a subrouting call, the caller should:

1. Before calling a subroutine, the caller should save the contents of

certain registers that are designated caller-saved. The caller-saved
registers are EAX, ECX, EDX. Since the called subroutine is allowed to
modify these registers, if the caller relies on their values after the
subroutine returns, the caller must push the values in these registers
onto the stack (so they can be restore after the subroutine returns.
2. To pass parameters to the subroutine, push them onto the stack before
the call. The parameters should be pushed in inverted order (i.e. last
parameter first). Since the stack grows down, the first parameter will be
stored at the lowest address (this inversion of parameters was
historically used to allow functions to be passed a variable number of
parameters).
3. To call the subroutine, use the call instruction. This instruction places
the return address on top of the parameters on the stack, and branches
to the subroutine code. This invokes the subroutine, which should
follow the callee rules below.

After the subroutine returns (immediately following the call instruction), the
caller can expect to find the return value of the subroutine in the register EAX.
To restore the machine state, the caller should:
 1. Remove the parameters from stack. This restores the stack to its state
before the call was performed.
2. Restore the contents of caller-saved registers (EAX, ECX, EDX) by
popping them off of the stack. The caller can assume that no other
registers were modified by the subroutine.

Example
The code below shows a function call that follows the caller rules. The caller
is calling a function _myFunc that takes three integer parameters. First
parameter is in EAX, the second parameter is the constant 216; the third
parameter is in memory location var.
push [var] ; Push last parameter first
push 216 ; Push the second parameter
push eax ; Push first parameter last

call _myFunc ; Call the function (assume C naming)

add esp, 12

Note that after the call returns, the caller cleans up the stack using
the add instruction. We have 12 bytes (3 parameters * 4 bytes each) on the
stack, and the stack grows down. Thus, to get rid of the parameters, we can
simply add 12 to the stack pointer.

The result produced by _myFunc is now available for use in the register EAX.
The values of the caller-saved registers (ECX and EDX), may have been
changed. If the caller uses them after the call, it would have needed to save
them on the stack before the call and restore them after it.

Callee Rules

The definition of the subroutine should adhere to the following rules at the
beginning of the subroutine:

1. Push the value of EBP onto the stack, and then copy the value of ESP
into EBP using the following instructions:
2. push ebp
3. mov ebp, esp

This initial action maintains the base pointer, EBP. The base pointer is
used by convention as a point of reference for finding parameters and
local variables on the stack. When a subroutine is executing, the base
 pointer holds a copy of the stack pointer value from when the
subroutine started executing. Parameters and local variables will
always be located at known, constant offsets away from the base
pointer value. We push the old base pointer value at the beginning of
the subroutine so that we can later restore the appropriate base pointer
value for the caller when the subroutine returns. Remember, the caller
is not expecting the subroutine to change the value of the base pointer.
We then move the stack pointer into EBP to obtain our point of
reference for accessing parameters and local variables.

4. Next, allocate local variables by making space on the stack. Recall, the
stack grows down, so to make space on the top of the stack, the stack
pointer should be decremented. The amount by which the stack pointer
is decremented depends on the number and size of local variables
needed. For example, if 3 local integers (4 bytes each) were required,
the stack pointer would need to be decremented by 12 to make space
for these local variables (i.e., sub esp, 12). As with parameters, local
variables will be located at known offsets from the base pointer.
5. Next, save the values of the callee-saved registers that will be used by
the function. To save registers, push them onto the stack. The callee-
saved registers are EBX, EDI, and ESI (ESP and EBP will also be
preserved by the calling convention, but need not be pushed on the
stack during this step).

After these three actions are performed, the body of the subroutine may
proceed. When the subroutine is returns, it must follow these steps:

1. Leave the return value in EAX.

2. Restore the old values of any callee-saved registers (EDI and ESI) that
were modified. The register contents are restored by popping them
from the stack. The registers should be popped in the inverse order
that they were pushed.
3. Deallocate local variables. The obvious way to do this might be to add
the appropriate value to the stack pointer (since the space was
allocated by subtracting the needed amount from the stack pointer). In
practice, a less error-prone way to deallocate the variables is to move
the value in the base pointer into the stack pointer: mov esp, ebp. This
works because the base pointer always contains the value that the
 stack pointer contained immediately prior to the allocation of the local
variables.
4. Immediately before returning, restore the caller's base pointer value by
popping EBP off the stack. Recall that the first thing we did on entry to
the subroutine was to push the base pointer to save its old value.
5. Finally, return to the caller by executing a ret instruction. This
instruction will find and remove the appropriate return address from the
stack.

Note that the callee's rules fall cleanly into two halves that are basically mirror
images of one another. The first half of the rules apply to the beginning of the
function, and are commonly said to define the prologue to the function. The
latter half of the rules apply to the end of the function, and are thus
commonly said to define the epilogue of the function.
Example
Here is an example function definition that follows the callee rules:
.486
.MODEL FLAT
.CODE
PUBLIC _myFunc
_myFunc PROC
; Subroutine Prologue
push ebp ; Save the old base pointer value.
mov ebp, esp ; Set the new base pointer value.
sub esp, 4 ; Make room for one 4-byte local variable.
push edi ; Save the values of registers that the function
push esi ; will modify. This function uses EDI and ESI.
; (no need to save EBX, EBP, or ESP)

; Subroutine Body
mov eax, [ebp+8] ; Move value of parameter 1 into EAX
mov esi, [ebp+12] ; Move value of parameter 2 into ESI
mov edi, [ebp+16] ; Move value of parameter 3 into EDI

mov [ebp-4], edi ; Move EDI into the local variable

add [ebp-4], esi ; Add ESI into the local variable
add eax, [ebp-4] ; Add the contents of the local variable
; into EAX (final result)

; Subroutine Epilogue
pop esi ; Recover register values
pop edi
mov esp, ebp ; Deallocate local variables
pop ebp ; Restore the caller's base pointer value
ret
_myFunc ENDP
END
The subroutine prologue performs the standard actions of saving a snapshot
of the stack pointer in EBP (the base pointer), allocating local variables by
decrementing the stack pointer, and saving register values on the stack.

In the body of the subroutine we can see the use of the base pointer. Both
parameters and local variables are located at constant offsets from the base
pointer for the duration of the subroutines execution. In particular, we notice
that since parameters were placed onto the stack before the subroutine was
called, they are always located below the base pointer (i.e. at higher
addresses) on the stack. The first parameter to the subroutine can always be
found at memory location EBP + 8, the second at EBP + 12, the third at EBP
+ 16. Similarly, since local variables are allocated after the base pointer is set,
they always reside above the base pointer (i.e. at lower addresses) on the
stack. In particular, the first local variable is always located at EBP - 4, the
second at EBP - 8, and so on. This conventional use of the base pointer
allows us to quickly identify the use of local variables and parameters within a
function body.

The function epilogue is basically a mirror image of the function prologue.

The caller's register values are recovered from the stack, the local variables
are deallocated by resetting the stack pointer, the caller's base pointer value
is recovered, and the ret instruction is used to return to the appropriate code
location in the caller.