Electronic Devices and Circuits Theodore F. Bogart, Jr. University of Southern Mississippi Merrill Publishing Company A Bell & Howell Company Columbus Toronto London _—_ SydneyCover Photo: Photo Researchers, Charles Falco Published by Merrill Publishing Company ‘A Bell & Howell Company Columbus, Ohio 43216 ‘This book was set in Times Roman ‘Administrative Editor: Christopher Conty Production Coordinator: Gaomi Sehrift Gouldin ‘Art Coordinator: Mark D. Garrett Cover Designer: Cathy Watterson Copyright © 1986 by Merrill Publishing Company. All rights reserved, No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, ot any information ‘storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. “Merrill Publishing Company” and “Merrill” are registered trademarks of Merrill Publishing Company. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 85-062491 International Standard Book Number: 0-675-20317-1 Printed in the United States of America 12345678 9-91 9 89 88 87 86Contents 1 INTRODUCTION The Study of Electronics 1 Versions of BASIC 2 Fundamental BASIC Syntax 3 Branching and Looping 6 Arrays 8 Functions 9 Subroutines 17 AGraph-Plotting Subroutine 12 getetrt: 2. SEMICONDUCTOR THEORY 21 Atomic Structure 19 2-2 Semiconductor Materials 27 23 Current in Semiconductors 23 24 P-and N-Type Semiconductors 29 25 The PN Junction 32 2-6 Forward: and Reverse-Biased Junctions 35 27 Schottky Diodes 43 3 THE DIODE AS A CIRCUIT ELEMENT 341 Introduction 48 3-2 The Diode as a Nonlinear Device 49 33 ACand DC Resistance 51 3-4 Analysis of DC Circuits Containing Diodes 54 3-5 Analysis of Small-Signal Diode Circuits 57 3-6 Analysis of Large-Signal Diode Circuits 65 3-7 Diode Types, Ratings, and Specifications 75vi CONTENTS 4 / BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS: 5 44 42 43 a4 45 46 a7 48 49 Introduction 85 Theory of BJT Operation 86 Common-Base Characteristics 1 Common-Emitter Characteristics 97 Common-Collector Characteristics 104 Bias Circuits 106 ‘The BJT Inverter (Transistor Switch) 18 Transistor Types, Ratings, and Specifications 122 Transistor Curve Tracers ‘124 SMALL-SIGNAL BJT AMPLIFIERS sa 52 AC Amplifiers 134 Graphical Anatysis of the Small-Signal CE Amplifier 142 > Amplifier Analysis Using Small-Signal Models 152 The Dependence of Small-Signal Parameters on DC Bias Conditions 173 ‘5.5. Small-Signal Parameter Equivalents: h Parameters 176 Improved Bias Methods for Discrete BJT Circuits 179 Bias Circuit Design 195 INTEGRATED-CIRCUIT METHODS ot & 63 64 65 66 FIEI 74 72 73 74 75 76 81 82 83 a4 85 86 87 Applications and Classifications of Integrated Circuits 206 Crystal Growth 208 PN Device Fabrication—The Photolithographic Process 210 Integrated-Circuit Fabrication 275 Thin- and Thick-Film Technology 226 Integrated-Circuit Bias Techniques 227 ‘LD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS Introduction 237 Junction Field-Effect Transistors 237 JFET Biasing 244 Manufacturer's Data Sheets 257 Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor FETs 260 Integrated-Circuit MOSFETs 270 FET CIRCUITS AND APPLICATIONS Small-Signal JFET Amplifiers 277 ‘The JFET Current Source 297 The JFET as an Analog Switch 292 Small-Signal MOSFET Amplifiers 296 MOSFET Inverters 299 Capacitive Loading of Switching Circuits 304 CMOS Circuits” 306contents Vii Two-Port Networks 376 Hybrid-(h-) Parameter Definitions 317 Hybrid Equivalent Circuits 322 Transistor h Parameters 329 BJT Amplifier Analysis Using h Parameters 333 yParameters 344 y-Parameter Equivalent Circuits 347 FET y Parameters 349 a 0 / FREQUENCY RESPONSE A a 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 105 10-6 10-7 Definitions and Basic Concepts 360 Decibels and Logarithmic Plots 363 Series Capacitance and Low-Frequency Response 370 Shunt Capacitance and High-Frequency Response 385, Transient Response 393 Frequency Response of BJT Amplifiers 395 Frequency Response of FET Amplifiers 403 MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS 114 12 13 4 1 11-6 a7 241 122 23 124 125 12-6 Gain Relations in Multistage Amplifiers 417 Methods of Coupling 424 RC-Coupled BJT Amplifiers 426 DirectCoupled BJT Amplifiers 432 Transistor Arrays 445 Multistage FET Amplifiers 448 Transformer Coupling 453, INTEGRATED DIFFERENTIAL AND OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS Introduction 470 The Ideal Differential Amplifier 477 Common-Mode Parameters 487 Practical Differential Amplifiers 462 Introduction to Operational Amplifiers 492 Circuit Analysis of an Operational Amplifier 493 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER THEORY B41 B2 B3 13-4 BS B6 The Ideal Operational Amplifier 507 Feedback Theory 507 Frequency Response 515 Slew Rate 519 Offset Currents and Voltages 527 Operational Amplifier Specifications 534viii__ CONTENTS 14 APPLICATIONS OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS 14-1 Voltage Summation, Subtraction, and Scaling 557 14-2 Controlled Voltage and Current Sources 560 143 Integration, Differentiation, and Waveshaping 567 14-4 Instrumentation Amplifiers 584 145 Oscillators 589 146 Active Filters 597 14-7. Voltage Comparators 672 14-8 Clipping, Clamping, and Rectifying Circuits 627 15 POWER AMPLIFIERS Definitions, Applications, and Types of Power Amplifiers 644 Transistor Power Dissipation 645 Heat Transfer in Semiconductor Devices 648 Amplifier Classes and Efficiency 653 Push-Pull-Amplifier Principles 663 Push-Pull Drivers 669 Harmonic Distortion and Feedback 670 Distortion in Push-Pull Amplifiers 675 Transformerless Push-Pull Amplifiers 678 Class-C Amplifiers 686 MOSFET and Class-D Power Amplifiers 692 16, POWER SUPPLIES AND VOLTAGE REGULATORS 16-1 Introduction 703 16-2 Rectifiers 704 16-3 Capacitor Filters 717 16-4 RCand LC Filters 722 16-5 Voltage Multipliers 727 16-6 Voltage Regulation 730 16-7 Series and Shunt Voltage Regulators 733 16-8 Switching Regulators 743 16-9 Three-Terminal Integrated-Circuit Regulators 745 16-10 Adjustable Integrated-Circuit Regulators 749 17 SPECIAL ELECTRONIC DEVICES J S174 Zener Diodes 760 17-2 Fourlayer Devices 766 173 Opioelectronic Devices 780 17-4 Unijunction Transistors 805 17-5 Tunnel Diodes 814 17-6 Voltage-Variable Capacitors (Varactor Diodes) 675 ANSWERS TO ODD-NUMBERED EXERCISES 823 INDEX = 847Preface Electronic Devices and Circuits is a modern, thorough treatment of the topics traditionally covered during a two- or three-semester course in electronic device theory. The minimum preparation for students beginning their study of this material is a course in de circuit analysis. While the first eight chapters do not require an extensive knowledge of ac circuit theory, many subsequent chapters assume that the student understands impedance con- cepts and can perform phasor computations. Therefore, students who begin their study without having completed a course in ac circuit analysis should be taking that course as @ corequisite. Calculus is neither used nor required for the development of theoretical prin- ciples, but the discussion of electronic differentiators and integrators uses some of the standard notation from calculus as a symbolic aid. The practical applications of differen- tiators and integrators are emphasized, as in filtering and waveshaping. A principal consideration in selecting topics for the book was the significance of each in modem industrial applications and the impact they are likely to have in emerging technologies. Consequently, integrated-circuit theory is covered extensively, as are field- effect devices and their applications in large-scale integration, the theory of operational amplifiers, including many important applications of those versatile devices, optoelectron- ics, switching regulators, and class D amplifiers. The wide availability of high-speed computing power now makes it possible for students to investigate the behavior of complex circuits under variations in. parameter values, without having to perform tedious computations or resorting to elaborate approx- imations. Thus, the computer has become an important learning tool that permits students to focus on the results of computations rather than the mechanics. By posing questions that require interpretation of computational results, the BASIC programming examples and exercises in this book encourage students to use the computer for that kind of learning Little is to be learned from thie rote generation of computer output, so the programming exercises, which appear in a separate section at the end of each chapter, all stress the analysis and implications of computer-generated data. Programming examples and exer- cises become progressively more challenging in later chapters, ultimately requiring the use of iterative methods to solve transcendental equations. A brief summary of BASIC syntax appears in Chapter 1 for reference and review. Although some BASIC programming appears in every chapter except the last, the book is primarily about modern device and ix