Chapter 21

Chapter 21: Instrumentation for
Dosimetry
Slide set of 69 slides based on the chapter authored by
J. C. Hourdakis and R. Nowotny
of the IAEA publication (ISBN 978-92-0-131010-1):
Diagnostic Radiology Physics:

A Handbook for Teachers and Students
Objective:
To familiarize students with the instrumentation used for
dosimetry in diagnostic radiology.
Slide set prepared

by E.Okuno (S. Paulo, Brazil,
Institute of Physics of S. Paulo
University)
IAEA
International Atomic Energy Agency
Chapter 21. TABLE OF CONTENTS
21.1. Introduction
21.2. Radiation detectors and dosimeters
21.3. Ionization chambers
21.4. Semiconductor dosimeters
21.5. Other dosimeters
21.6. Dosimeter calibration
21.7. Instruments for measuring tube voltage and time
21.8. Instruments for occupational and public
exposure measurements
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Diagnostic Radiology Physics: a Handbook for Teachers and Students – chapter 21, 2
21.1. INTRODUCTION
Patient dosimetry is a primary responsibility of the

medical physicist in diagnostic radiology
Radiation measurement is also critical

for exposure control of worker
public
Measurements of absorbed dose (or air kerma) are required in

different situations in diagnostic radiology
The radiation fields vary from:
• plain projection geometry and may be
• slit geometry • stationary
• point geometry
• moving including rotational
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21.1. INTRODUCTION
Dose measurements are essential in acceptance testing

quality control
Dosimeter
• it is important to have a satisfactory energy response,
due to the use of low photon energies in diagnostic radiology
• accuracy requirements less stringent than for radiotherapy
• must not interfere with the examination
• ionization chambers of a few cm³ or specifically designed
solid state detectors can be used
Special types of ionization CT

chambers are employed in mammography
dosimetry for interventional radiology
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21.2. RADIATION DETECTORS AND DOSIMETERS
21.2.1. General characteristics of radiation detectors
Dosimeter
• is an instrument that measures dose of ionizing radiation
• usually comprises a measuring assembly - electrometer and one
or more detector assemblies which may or may not be an
integral part of the measuring assembly
• can be classified as:
active or passive
displays the dose cannot display the dose value directly, but
value directly record a signal which must be subsequently
retrieved and converted to dose (or air kerma)
by a reading device
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Active dosimeters Passive dosimeters

Ionization chambers and/or Solid state devices (dosimeters)
semi-conductor detectors used to such as:
measure:
• thermoluminescent (TLD)
• air kerma (K)
• optically stimulated luminescence
• air kerma rate ( K& )
(OSL)
• air kerma length product (PKL)
• film (including radiochromic film)
• air kerma area product (PKA)
that may be placed on patient’s skin
in primary beam conditions
or inside cavities to measure skin or
Measurements of patient exit dose organ doses
and CT phantom dose are also Similar measurements can be performed
performed with ionization chambers in phantoms
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Other instruments are needed to measure:
• X ray tube voltage (kV meter)
• exposure time (timer)
They can be used without direct connection into the
electrical circuits of the X ray units
There are also a variety of devices used for:
• occupational
dose assessment
• public
including
• ionization chambers for direct measurements
• TLD, OSL and film for indirect use as either personal
dosimeters or area monitors
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21.2.2. Properties of diagnostic radiology dosimeters
Many types of
ionization chambers
diagnostic radiology dosimeter
solid state detectors
are commercially available for the measurement of

air kerma (and its derivatives)
Solid state detectors have found wide spread use recently in
the area of quality control measurements, mainly because of their
small size, ruggedness, and convenience of use
The measurement assembly analyses and processes the electrical

signals from the detector in order to display the value
of the radiological quantity being measured:
K (Gy), K& (Gy⋅s-1), PKL (Gy⋅m) and PKA (Gy⋅m2)
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Most commercial dosimeters can be used for:

• fluoroscopic
applications
• radiographic
using
• the accumulated air kerma over time (integrate mode)
• air kerma rate mode
In most cases, the calibration coefficient is applied through the

system’s software to convert the measured charge (current) to air
kerma at a given beam quality
Some dosimeter models have internal sensors for the measurement

of the environmental temperature and pressure, so as to perform
corrections for the air density automatically
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The air kerma, K (or any other associate dosimetric

quantity), is obtained from:
K = M Q kTP N K ,Q0 kQ ∏ k j
MQ is the reading of the dosimeter for a beam quality Q

kTP is the air density correction factor for T and P
NK,Qo is the calibration coefficient
kQ is the correction factor for the applied X ray spectrum
kj are the other correction factors:
for ion recombination, polarizing voltage, radiation
incident angle, humidity
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Dosimeters are used for various types of X ray units

and exposure conditions
The choice of the appropriate instrument is important, in order for
the radiation measurement to be sufficiently accurate
Properties of radiation dosimeters:

• sensitivity
• linearity
• energy dependence
• directional dependence
• leakage current
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21.2.2.1. Sensitivity
• Sensitivity is related to the minimum air kerma required to produce

a signal output (charge or current produced by the detector and
collected by the measuring assembly)
• The better the sensitivity of the dosimeter, the higher the charge (or
current) produced for the same air kerma (rate) and consequently the
better the air kerma (rate) resolution and detectability
• Ionization chambers with larger active (effective) volumes exhibit higher
sensitivity than those with smaller volumes
• For this reason large ionization chambers are preferred for low air kerma rate
measurements such as in fluoroscopy or for scattered radiation
• In radiography, where the air kerma rates are higher, smaller chambers can be
used, allowing better spatial resolution for the measurement
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21.2.2.1. Sensitivity
In general, semi-conductor detectors have a

sensitivity which can be orders of magnitude higher than
that of ionization chambers
• This property, among others, makes the use of semi-

conductor detectors advantageous for a wide range of
applications
• However their intrinsic energy dependence makes their

use problematic in non calibrated beams and for
scattered radiation measurements
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21.2.2.2. Linearity
• The dosimeter reading M should be

linearly proportional to the air kerma (rate)
• All dosimeters exhibit linear response for a certain range of
air kerma (rate)
The linearity range and the non-linear behaviour depend on the
type of dosimeter and its physical characteristics
Among other factors, the:
• scale/reading resolution of the measuring assembly
• sensitivity
• leakage/dark current of the dosimeter
restrict the rated range to a lower value, while saturation (over ranging)
effects determine the upper value
The air kerma (rate) range in which the dosimeter response is
linear (rated range) should be stated by the manufacturer
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21.2.2.3. Energy dependence
• For diagnostic dosimeters, the X ray spectrum, often referred to as

the radiation or beam quality, is specified by the beam HVL and is
one of the important quantities that affect the response of a
dosimeter
• Within the range 25 kV to 150 kV of the clinical X ray radiation

qualities, the variation in the dosimeter response with energy may
be significant
This depends on the detector type and its physical and structural
properties
• The variation in response to different radiation qualities is taken

into account by the use of a beam quality correction factor kQ
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21.2.2.3. Energy dependence
• For a radiation quality Q, kQ is the ratio of the calibration factors for

quality Q to the reference radiation quality
• By definition, kQ is unity at the reference beam quality
For dosimeters used as reference
instruments at calibration
laboratories
kQ factor
• IEC 61674 standard imposes a

± 5% upper limit of variation of
energy response in the
50 - 150 kV range
• IAEA proposes the limit of

Beam quality, HVL (mmAl) ± 2.6%
The beam qualities (x-axis) correspond to the RQR
series described in the IEC 61267 standard
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21.2.2.4. Directional dependence
The response of a dosimeter may vary when the

radiation is incident on the detector from
different angles
The directional or angular dependence primarily depends on:
• the detector construction and physical size
• the energy of the incident radiation
The directional dependence of:

• cylindrical or spherical ionization chambers is negligible
• parallel plate chambers might be significant at large incident
angles
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21.2.2.4. Directional dependence
• Most commercial solid state detectors are mounted on lead

backing plates, to attenuate radiation incident from the rear
• Some models incorporate several semiconductor elements

covered with filters to attenuate the radiation. In such cases the
directional dependence is important and care should always
be taken to ensure that the radiation is incident on the elements
through the filters at right angles
The IEC 61674 standard imposes:

± 3% upper limit of variation of response at incident angles
of ± 5o from normal direction
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21.2.2.5. Leakage current
Leakage current refers to any signal change recorded by the

measuring assembly that is not generated by radiation
This could be:
• electronic noise
• current from resistor-capacitor circuits
• damaged cables or bad cable connections
• lack of electronic or environmental equilibrium or humidity etc
According to IEC 61674 standard:

• the leakage current shall not exceed 5% of the minimum
effective air kerma rate for the range in use
• the indicated value shall not change by more than 1%
per minute, when a dosimeter is left in measurement mode after
being exposed to the maximum effective air kerma value
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21.3. IONIZATION CHAMBERS
• The ionization detector is an air filled chamber, in which an electric

field is formed by the application of a polarizing voltage across two
electrodes to collect all charges liberated by the ionization of the
air contained within the chamber
• The electric field is sufficient to collect almost all of the liberated

charges that reach the electrodes but insufficient to induce
gas/charge multiplication and collision ionization of other
molecules (in contrast with Geiger Müller and proportional
counters)
• The number of ions collected or the rate of their collection is the
recorded signal, which is multiplied by the
average energy required to produce an ion pair in dry air:
Wair = 33.97 eV/ion pair = 33.97 J·C-1

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specialized chamber parallel plate • In cylindrical and spherical shape chambers,

the central electrode stands at the
geometrical centre of the cavity, while the
http://www.standardimaging.com
wall of the chamber is coated by a
conductive material which is often at ground
potential (ground electrode)
http://www.radcal.com • The wall (ground) and the collecting
cylindrical pencil
electrode are separated with a high quality
length-15 cm
insulator to reduce the leakage current
diameter-1 cm
• A third electrode, the guard, reduces
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chamber leakage current by allowing any
In parallel plate chambers, the electrode leakage to flow to ground, bypassing the
separation is of the order of 1 cm and the collecting electrode and ensuring high
electrodes are parallel to each other and to the uniformity of the electrical field in the
entrance window chamber volume
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Ionization chambers used in diagnostic radiology should be

vented, i.e. the air inside the volume communicates with the
environment, rendering the mass of air dependent on temperature,
pressure and humidity conditions
• Humidity has insignificant effect on air mass changes

• Temperature affect the air mass within the chamber
• Pressure significantly
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P0T
The air density correction factor kTP =
PT0
should always be applied to the dosimeter’s readings
P0 = 101.3 kPa (1 atm) are the values of the calibration

T0 = 293.2 K or 295.2 K reference conditions
P and T are the ambient pressure and temperature
during the air kerma measurement
According to the IEC 61674 standard:

• sealed chambers, in which the air volume does not change, are
not suitable for diagnostic radiology dosimetry; their necessary
wall thickness may cause unacceptable energy dependence,
while the long term stability of the chambers is not guaranteed
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21.3.1. Clinical application of ionization chambers
21.3.1.1. Chambers for air kerma (dose) measurements
The determination of the air kerma (dose) in common

diagnostic radiology applications:
• radiography
• fluoroscopy
• mammography
cylindrical or
is performed by ionization chambers
parallel plate (p-p)
The major disadvantage of p-p chambers is the directional dependence of

their response
The p-p chamber should always be placed perpendicular to the radiation
beam
In mammography, p-p ionization chambers with a thin entrance
window, made of a low density material (kapton film, acrylic, mylar,
etc) of (20 – 50 µm, 3 – 10 mg/cm2) thickness, are used
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21.3.1.1. Chambers for air kerma (dose) measurements
• Commercial parallel plate (p-p) chambers are disc shaped with

diameters of several cm and thickness of few cm
• The most common chambers with effective volumes (air cavity)
from about 1 cm3 to several hundreds of cm3 are then suitable for
application in a wide range of exposure rates
• Due to their shape, they can be safely inserted in hollow spaces,
such as on the X ray table under a phantom, or in contact with the
image intensifier, or inside the film cassette holder (Bucky) etc
Cylindrical chambers are uniformly sensitive around their central
geometrical axis. The chambers used for measurement in the X ray
beam have effective volume of 3 cm3 to 6 cm3
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21.3.1.2. Cylindrical pencil type chambers
Cylindrical pencil type ionization chambers are used in several

diagnostic radiology applications, for the measurement of the air
kerma length product, PKL
For the last decades, these chambers have mainly been used in
computed tomography (CT) dosimetry but they are also used in
dental application
• In contrast to other detectors used in diagnostic radiology, the
chamber is partially irradiated
• It is positioned with its axis at right angles to the
central beam axis
• The response of the active volume should be uniform
along its entire axial length
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21.3.1.3. KAP chambers
Air kerma-area-product (KAP) chambers:

• have a large surface area
• are transparent to radiation and light
• measure the integral of the air kerma over the area of the chamber
• measure the incident radiation or the transmitted radiation
• are usually used for patient dosimetry in
interventional radiology
fluoroscopy
general radiography
pantomographic dental radiography
This is reflected in the use of KAP for diagnostic reference levels
Because of the presence of extra-focal and scatter radiation, they
should be calibrated in-situ
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21.3.2. Application hints for ionization chambers
The following practical points should be considered:

• Appropriate ionization chambers should be selected, for the application
and the measuring procedure required
• Corrections for air density should always be applied to the dosimeter
reading. Great care should be taken for dosimeters that incorporate
internal sensors for automatic temperature and/or pressure
corrections, in order to interpret their reading correctly
• In general, ionization chambers detect radiations from all directions,
thus they measure all scatter, extra focal and leakage radiation. When
the incident air kerma is being measured, the chamber should be at a
distance from all supporting devices, in order to avoid backscatter
radiation, while other objects should not interfere with the X ray beam
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More practical points should be considered:

• The ionization chamber should be totally covered by the radiation field,
except for pencil type and KAP chambers. Good practice is to use field
sizes at least twice the detector cross section
• Ionization chambers should be calibrated at several qualities
This is especially important for chambers with a large energy
dependence. At least the qualities RQR3 (50 kV), RQR5 (70 kV) and
RQR9 (120 kV) should be used for radiography and fluoroscopy, and
RQR-M1 (25 kV), RQR-M2 (28 kV) and RQR-M4 (35 kV) for
mammography
• The user should know the limitations and the rated ranges for all the
quantities affecting the measurements. It is important to check that the
leakage (dark) current is negligible
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BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF DIAGNOSTIC RADIOLOGY DOSIMETERS
Range of X ray Variation Kair rate Angular
Type of Range of air kerma Intrinsic
Application tube voltage of energy dependen dependen
Detector or air kerma rate Error
kV response ce ce
Cylindrical, spherical, or 10 µGy – 1 Gy
General ±3%
plane parallel IC 60 – 150 1 mGy/s – 500 mGy/s a 5% ± 5% ± 2%
Radiography @ ± 5o
ST detectors 10 µGy/s – 5 mGy/s b
Fluoroscopy,
Plane parallel IC 10 µGy/s – 10 mGy/s a,d ±3%
Interventional 50 – 120 5% ± 5% ± 2%
ST detectors 0.1 µGy/s – 100 µGy/s b,d @ ± 5o
radiology e
Fluoroscopy,
10-1 – 106 µGy⋅m2
Interventional KAP meters 50-150 10% ± 8% ± 5%
10-1 – 103 µGy⋅m2/s --
radiology f
Plane parallel IC 10 µGy – 1 Gy ±3%
Mammography 22 – 40 5% ± 5% ± 2%
ST detectors 10 µGy/s – 10 mGy/s a @ ± 5o
Cylindrical pencil type IC ±3%
CT 100 – 150 0.1 mGy/s – 50 mGy/s 5% ± 5% ± 2%
of 100 mm active length c @ ± 180o
Cylindrical, spherical, or
plane parallel IC
Dental 10 µGy – 100 mGy ±3%
ST detectors 50 - 100 5% ± 5% ± 2%
radiography 1 mGy/s – 10 mGy/s @ ± 5o
KAP meters
Cylindrical pencil type IC
IC : Ionization chamber , ST : solid state (semiconductor) a Unattenuated beam b attenuated beam c In the light of new CT
technologies and the revision of CT dosimetry methodology new types of detectors may be proposed d that will be suitable for
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21.4. SEMICONDUCTOR DOSIMETERS
Diagnostic radiology dosimeters based on semiconductor

technology have found wide spread use
Two types are used: silicon diodes or MOSFETs
• Due to their small size and rigidness, they are convenient for use in
many applications
• MOSFETs often require a connection to a bias voltage during irradiation
• They are mainly used in patient dosimetry
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21.4.1. Theory of operation
A silicon diode dosimeter is a p–n junction diode. In most cases

p–type (rather than n-type) diodes are used for diagnostic radiology
dosimeters, since they are less affected by radiation damage and
have a much smaller dark current (noise)
• When radiation falls on the diode, it
produces electron–hole pairs in the body of
the diode and a current, is generated in the
reverse direction in the diode
• The number of such pairs is proportional to
the incident radiation dose
• Due to the diode structure and the intrinsically formed potential
difference, there is no need to apply a bias voltage across the p and n
type diode regions to collect the charge liberated by the radiation
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21.4.1. Theory of operation
A metal-oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET), is a

miniature silicon transistor. Its structure is equivalent to a planar capacitor
with one of the electrodes replaced by a semiconductor
• When MOSFET dosimeters are exposed to
radiation, electron-hole pairs are produced in the
SiO2. The positive charge carriers move in the
direction of Si - SiO2 interface, where they are
trapped, building up a positive charge, which
causes changes to the current in the n-type channel
and leads to change of the gate bias voltage
• The gate bias voltage change is a linear function of
absorbed dose. The integrated dose may be
measured in real time or after irradiation
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21.4.2. Application hints for semiconductors
• The response of diodes and MOSFETs generally has a more

pronounced energy dependence than that of ionization
chambers
The user should investigate the dosimeter’s energy
dependence characteristics. In this respect, measurements of
the HVL with semiconductor detectors should be avoided
• The angular dependence of semiconductor detectors is
comparable to that of plane parallel ionization chambers
However, semiconductor detectors are sensitive to their
positioning in the X ray field, especially to the direction of
the heel effect
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• When a semiconductor detector is used for dose measurements
on a surface of a phantom (or patient), backscatter and side
scatter radiation may not contribute significantly to the dosimeter
reading due to the presence of backing plates
• Semiconductor detector response does not depend on

temperature or pressure
For the sake of a standard dosimetric formalism : kTP = 1
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• Semiconductors have a limited useful life due to accumulated
radiation damage
Although the doses measured in diagnostic radiology dosimetry
are low, it is a good practice to recalibrate the detectors at regular
intervals
• Research with MOSFET devices is currently in the experimental stages

for dose measurements in some aspects of diagnostic radiology. These
may be potentially beneficial in some high dose applications, such as
interventional radiology, where high skin doses need to be avoided
However, they exhibit a high energy dependence and therefore frequent
calibration is essential in order to achieve adequate measurement
accuracy
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21.5. OTHER DOSIMETERS
21.5.1. Film dosimetry: radiographic film and radiochromic film
21.5.1.1. Radiographic film
Radiographic film still finds application as a dosimeter in personal
radiation monitoring using film badges
• The emulsion in a film dosimeter directly absorbs ionizing
radiation and can be correlated to the optical density of the
developed film
• The sensitometric curve is very different from that for screen-film
systems
• A radiographic emulsion is far from tissue equivalent and the
energy response of a film badge is modified by addition of several
filters
• The provision, processing and analysis of such dosimeters are
the task of specialized departments and companies, and
commonly not within the duties of a medical physicist
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21.5.1.2. Radiochromic film
• Radiochromic films (e.g. Gafchromic®) contain colourless dyes

(diacetylene) that become blue after exposure due to radiation
induced polymerization. This process is self-developing and requires
no chemical process but needs some time for full development
Depending on the material a density increase of about 10 % from 1 to
24 h after exposure is typical
• The film comprises of an active dye layer (15 - 20 µm thick)

sandwiched between two transparent polyester sheets each
containing a yellow dye
The yellow dye enhances visual contrast and reduces the effects
of exposure to blue and UV light
Some films use an opaque white backing sheet
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• Film optical density is measured with densitometers or film

scanners. For films having an opaque backing a reflective
densitometer is needed
The blue coloured polymer exhibits a maximum in optical
absorption at around 635 nm. Accordingly a densitometer with
a red light source should be used
• The composition of the film is near tissue equivalence

Some types of film incorporate barite compounds in the white
backing to increase radiation absorption and sensitivity
• Radiochromic films can be used for relative dosimetry in diagnostic

radiology. The measurement and mapping of patient skin dose in
interventional procedures is such an application
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• Several types of radiochromic films are optimized for applications

in diagnostic radiology
• Their energy response and other properties can differ and the
specifications should be collected from the supplier or from literature
Sensitivity ranges from ~1 mGy to ~50 Gy depending on film type
The sensitometric response is not linear and suitable calibration curves
need to be applied
• The handling of radiochromic films is simple

Dark rooms are not required and ambient conditions are of little concern
except for exposure to intensive light sources or humidity
The film can be obtained in large format (35 cm x 43 cm, maximum), and
can be bent and cut to size as required
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21.5.2. Thermoluminescent dosimetry (TLD)
A large and growing number of solid state materials exhibit the

phenomena of thermoluminescence (TL) which can be used
for dosimetric purposes
TL process consists of 2 stages:
• the first stage being the transference of an equilibrium TLD material
to a metastable state through irradiation
• the second stage being application of energy (through heat) to return
to the metastable state back to equilibrium
In the band structure model used to explain TL, electron energies are
not localized and the gap between the valence and conduction bands
is populated with trap sites that are caused by defects within the
material
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The release of thermally stimulated

electrons is shown for energy level
Ec-E
• The released electron may be
retrapped or can recombine with
trapped holes. If this process is
radiative, TL emission occurs
Energy levels in a TLD • Ec and Ev are the conduction and
material showing the process of valence band edges. Ef is the
free electron and hole creation, Fermi level
followed by non-radiative • ST(shallow) and AT(active) traps
charge trapping • DET and DHT deep electron and
hole traps respectively
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• In a typical TLD-reader the dosimeters are

placed on a planchet heated directly by an
electric current
• The temperature is measured with a
thermocouple welded to the planchet
• Other methods of heating the TLD are also
used such as hot nitrogen jets, laser heating
or infrared lamps
• The TL signal (glow curve) is detected with a
photomultiplier tube
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typical glow curve for LiF:Mg,Cu,P If a linear temperature ramp is applied the
TL signal (glow-curve) shows various peaks at
TL signal (a.u.)
characteristic temperatures attributable to the

traps present
Each type of TLD requires a specific optimized
dosimetric reading cycle
peak
Temperature (oC)
The reading cycle of a TLD is divided into preheat, signal integration and
annealing
• During preheat the dosimeter is maintained for some seconds at a constant
temperature sufficient to remove all low temperature signals
• Then the temperature is raised up to the maximum temperature
• Finally, the dosimeter is annealed in a dedicated oven to remove all remaining
signals, resetting the dosimeter to zero
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• The commonly used LiF:Mg,Ti (e.g. TLD100) is a well

standardized dosimeter but less sensitive than LiF:Mg,Cu,P
(GR200, TLD100H, MCP-N) that has a:
detection threshold of about 0.1 µGy
• TLDs are available in many forms and shapes:

chips, rods, cubes, ribbons and powder
• The relationship of dose to TL signal is linear up to

doses < 1 Gy
• For higher doses correction factors for a non-linear response
can be applied
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21.5.3. Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL)
Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) is the luminescence

emitted from an irradiated solid state material (OSL dosimeter), after
being illuminated by stimulating visible or infra red light
OSL is closely related to TL with
Optical the basic difference being the use
OSL stimulation of light instead of heat as the
added energy for the trapped
electron
Luminescence
Usually the stimulating light used

Thermal for OSL has a lower photon
TL stimulation energy than the emitted light
Adapted from E. Yukihara, 2008
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Typical OSL curve • The intensity of the emitted light is related to
the rate at which the system returns to
equilibrium, resulting in a characteristic
luminescence – time curve
• In a typical measurement using an OSL
dosimeter, the sample material is illuminated with
an appropriate light source
• The emitted light is passed through an optical
filter to suppress unwanted light and then
detected with a photomultiplier tube
• The arrangement of a OSL reader is similar to a
TLD reader
Adapted from E. Yoshimura, 2007
• An improvement in signal to noise can be
achieved by pulsing the stimulating light
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• One OSL dosimeter commercially available uses Al2O3:C whose dominant

OSL trapping levels require thermal energies above 200°C to create
thermoluminescence
• Consequently the OSL signal is thermally stable and signal fading is
negligible
• Some transient signals due to shallow traps will disappear after a few
minutes
• Dominant emission occurs in a band centred at around 420 nm
• Stimulation of OSL is carried out by green light, either from green LEDs or a
laser
• Since a single reading with useful signal intensities requires only 0.05% of
the signal stored, re-reading or intermittent reading of the dosimeter is
feasible and the dosimeter can be kept as a permanent dose record
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• Care must be taken to avoid exposure of the dosimeter to

light (particularly UV) as electrons from deep traps could be
transferred to dosimeter traps (phototransfer) changing the
response of the dosimeter
• Doses in the range from 10 µGy to 15 Gy can be measured

using commercial systems
• The OSL principle is also utilized for imaging using

computed radiography (CR) systems
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21.5.4. Dosimetric applications of TLD and OSL
Solid state dosimeters can be used for

• patient dosimetry external to the body or phantom in the same
way as an ionisation chamber
• for internal measurements, typically in a phantom
• for occupational and public exposure monitoring
For internal dosimetry a near tissue-equivalent composition may

have advantages in determining energy deposition within the body
Material tissue water LiF:Mg, Ti Li2B4O7:Mn Al2O3 BeO

Effective
atomic 7.22 7.42 8.31 7.40 11.30 7.21
number
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21.5.4. Dosimetric applications of TLD and OSL
• It must be remembered however that the primary dosimetry

system in diagnostic radiology is based on air kerma and not
absorbed dose to water or tissue
• Further, solid state dosimetry is a relative methodology that
requires standardized calibration procedures
• Care must be exercised if TLD or OSL dosimeters are used in
radiation fields that differ from the calibration conditions
• Consequently careful consideration must be given before LiF
and Al2O3 dosimeters are used in applications such as CT
phantom dosimetry
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21.6. DOSIMETER CALIBRATION
All instruments used for dosimetric measurement in the clinical

environment should have a calibration traceable to a recognized
dosimetry standard
• The measurement of a dosimetric quantity, such as air kerma, prerequisites
that there is a SI that determines the quantity and its unit
• Primary Standards Dosimetry Laboratories (PSDLs) employ free air ionization
chambers for the measurement of absorbed dose traceable to the
fundamental SI absorbed dose unit of Gray (Gy)
• Secondary Standards Dosimetry Laboratories (SSDLs) calibrate their
reference class instruments at PSDLs and use these as their local dosimetry
standards
• Therefore the traceability of the measurements to the specific PSDL is
maintained. The main role of the SSDL is to bridge the gap between PSDL
and dosimeter user
IAEA
21.6.1. Standard free air ionization chamber
Free air ionization chambers are
often used by PSDLs as the primary
standard for the determination of air
kerma against which the secondary
standard chambers from SSDLs are
calibrated
The charge liberated by X rays in the
mass of the air inside the chamber
volume is measured
dEtr dQWair
The air kerma is deduced according to its definition K= =
dm dm
from measurements of basic physical quantities (charge and mass) and
applying physical constants and relative correction factors
IAEA
21.6.2. SSDL calibration
Most SSDLs apply the substitution method for the dosimeter

calibration
"true"
At a given beam quality, Q, the true value of air kerma K Q
is measured using the reference dosimeter
The reference point of the user’s dosimeter is placed at the same

point and the dosimeter’s reading is used to derive the calibration
"true"
coefficient from the ratio user K Q
N K ,Q =
M Quser
M Quser is the reading of the user’s instruments corrected for air
density
IAEA
The calibration of the diagnostic radiology dosimeters are performed at

the radiation qualities which are described in the IEC 61267 standard
and which are produced using appropriate tube filtration at the
specified tube voltage
Depending on the application of the dosimeter, a series of different
beam qualities are used. For example: series
• RQR simulates the primary beams incident on the patient
• RQT, the beam qualities used in CT
• RQA, the transmitted radiation qualities through the patient
• RQR-M, mammography beams
Each series consists of several beams with different combinations of
tube voltage and filtration
IAEA
Characterization of Radiation Quality Series RQR (according to IEC 61267,

2005) used for unattenuated beams for General Radiography Applications
Spectra are for an X ray tube with a W target and Al filters
Radiation X ray Tube Voltage First HVL Homogeneity coefficient
Quality (kV) (mm Al) (h)
RQR 2 40 1.42 0.81
RQR 3 50 1.78 0.76
RQR 4 60 2.19 0.74
RQR 5 * 70 2.58 0.71
RQR 6 80 3.01 0.69
RQR 7 90 3.48 0.68
RQR 8 100 3.97 0.68
RQR 9 120 5.00 0.68
RQR 10 150 6.57 0.72
*This quality is generally selected as the reference of the RQR series

IAEA
Characterization of Radiation Quality Series RQR-M (according

to IEC 61267, 2005) used for unattenuated beams for
Mammography Applications. Spectra are for an X ray tube with a
Mo target / Mo filter
Radiation X ray Tube Voltage First HVL

Quality (kV) (mm Al)
RQR-M 1 25 0.28
RQR-M 2 * 28 0.31
RQR-M 3 30 0.33
RQR-M 4 35 0.36
* This quality is generally selected as the reference of the RQR-M series
IAEA
Characterization of Radiation Quality Series RQT (according to

IEC 61267, 2005) used for unattenuated beams for Computed
Tomography (CT). Applications Spectra are for an X ray tube
with a W target and Al and Cu filters
Radiation X ray Tube Voltage First HVL

Quality (kV) (mm Al)
RQT 8 100 6.90
RQT 9 * 120 8.40
RQT 10 150 10.1
* This quality is generally selected as the reference of the RQT series
IAEA
A general purpose dosimeter should be calibrated in terms of air kerma

at the RQR (RQR 2 to RQR 10) radiation qualities
• According to common practice, the calibration coefficient, NK of a
dosimeter is obtained at the RQR 5 (70 kV)
• For the other radiation qualities of the RQR series, further correction
factors (kQ) are provided to take into account the energy dependence
of the dosimeter response
• For a given radiation quality Q, kQ is defined as the ratio of the
calibration coefficients at radiation quality Q to that at the radiation
quality RQR 5
• By definition kQ equals 1 at RQR 5
• For mammography the standard beam quality is the RQR-M2 (28 kV)
and for CT the RQT 9 (120 kV)
IAEA
21.6.3. Field calibration
In some cases, for practical, economic and other reasons,

users may calibrate their field instruments themselves
• For example, when many dosimeters are being used in a large
hospital, the user may prefer to calibrate them against a
reference dosimeter, rather than send all of them to an SSDL
• Some dosimetry equipment, such as KAP meters, are
permanently installed on X ray systems and they must be
calibrated on-site
• Generally, cross-calibration of a field instrument refers to its
direct comparison in a suitable user’s beam quality, Q, against a
reference instrument that has been calibrated at an SSDL
IAEA
21.6.3. Field calibration
The calibration coefficient K Qref M Qref N Kref,Q kQref

is obtained from equation : N Kfield
,Q = = 0
M Qfield M Qfield
• ‘field’ and ‘ref’ refer to the field and the reference instruments, respectively
• M values are readings of the reference and the field instruments and have
been corrected for the influence of all quantities except beam quality
• Since the calibration coefficient refers to a specific beam quality, the cross-
calibration should be performed at the whole range of beam qualities that are
used in the hospital
• It is important to note that other essential elements of traceability of
measurement, such as uncertainty evaluation, evidence of competence,
documentation, etc. should be taken into account and be declared for cross-
calibrations
IAEA
21.7. INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING TUBE VOLTAGE AND TIME
Measurement of the X ray tube voltage and exposure Depending on the model, the
duration (often referred as “exposure time”, are kV-meter measures the
usually performed with non-invasive, portable,
• absolute peak voltage, (the maximum
electronic devices, often called kV-meters and timers value of the voltage during the exposure -
circled point)
• average peak voltage
• average voltage
• effective peak voltage, (the voltage that
Voltage (kV)
would give the same image contrast as a

constant potential X ray system)
• Practical Peak Voltage (PPV), (defined
as the equivalent value of a voltage of any
waveform related to an ideal X ray
generator that provides a constant voltage
and that produces the same image
contrast)
Time (ms)
Typical X ray tube voltage waveform from a three phase six pulse PPV has been proposed as the standard
generator operating at 80 kV tube voltage and 165 ms exposure time quantity for the X ray tube voltage
IAEA
• The kV-meter is positioned in the primary X ray beam and measures the
X ray tube voltage with methods based on attenuation measurements
• Such instruments usually incorporate two (or more) detectors covered with filters (usually
made of copper) of different thickness
• The detectors, when exposed to radiation, produce different signals, due to the different
attenuation of the X ray beam by the filters
• The signal ratio (or any other relationship of the signals) is a function of the incident X ray
energy and consequently of the tube voltage
• During the initial calibration of the kV-meter at the factory, the signal output and/or the
reading is appropriately adjusted to the ‘correct’ tube voltage value
• Many kV-meters digitize, process and store their detector signals and can supply voltage
and/or exposure waveforms
• The kV-meter detectors’ long geometrical axis should be positioned perpendicular to the
tube anode – cathode direction to eliminate the influence of the “heel” effect on the kV
measurement
IAEA
The IEC 61676 standard specifies the performance requirements

of instruments used for the non-invasive measurement of the X
ray tube voltage up to 150 kV
• It recommends that the relative intrinsic error of the

PPV measurement shall not be greater than ± 2% over the effective
voltage ranges:
60 kV to 120 kV for diagnostic
24 kV to 35 kV for mammography
• Also, that a 1.5% limit of variation in response is acceptable at tube

filtration ranges of 2.5 to 3.5 mm Al
(for diagnostic radiology applications)
IAEA
Exposure time is the time during which the X ray beam is

generated
• It is measured as the radiation pulse width (time difference) between
an “initial” and “final” point of the exposure, which are defined by a
pre-set triggering level
• The proposed convention for timing measurements of X ray systems,
is to measure the pulse width at a height of 50% of the waveform
peak (the full width half maximum)
• Some manufacturers use different values of the triggering level (e.g.
10% or 75%)
• The exposure time may be measured using either invasive or non-
invasive equipment
IAEA
21.8. INSTRUMENTS FOR OCCUPATIONAL AND
PUBLIC EXPOSURE MEASUREMENTS
Radiation monitoring is performed in diagnostic radiology facilities:

• to determine the radiation levels in and around work areas, around
radiology equipment
• to assess the radiation protection of the workplace and individuals
• Such monitoring devices should typically measure in integrate mode and
for direct (or real time) measurements include ionization chambers and
some specifically developed semi-conductor detectors suitable for
scattered radiation
• Longer term monitoring is typically achieved with film or increasingly
with solid state devices
For personal dosimeters :TLD or film badges
IAEA
The use of survey meters (such as Geiger Müller (GM) counters or

proportional counters) is not recommended for diagnostic radiology
Such devices are typically designed to detect isotope emissions and are
used in nuclear medicine and have some application in radiation therapy
particularly for • Co-60 units
• brachytherapy usage
• radioactive iodine treatment of patients
The two main difficulties in diagnostic radiology for the use of GM

counters, are their response time of several seconds, whereas
diagnostic X ray exposures have a duration of only small fractions of
a second, and the strong energy dependence of their response at
low photon energies
IAEA
• Detectors used for occupational and public exposure measurement

should be traceable to appropriate calibration standards at suitable X
ray energies (e.g. ISO Narrow series N40 to N80)
• While the user should know or estimate the mean energy of the
X ray beam for calibration factor application, in some situations, such as
estimating the mean energy of radiation transmitted through protective
barriers, this can be difficult
• In these cases it is acceptable to use measurements directly from a
detector with a small energy response variation
• The uncertainty of measurement should be assessed with reference to
the variation in the calibration coefficients within the energy range used
IAEA
BIBLIOGRAPHY
• INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Dosimetry in Diagnostic

Radiology: An International Code of Practice, Technical Reports Series No.
457, IAEA, Vienna (2007). http://www-
pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/TRS457_web.pdf
• MCKEEVER, S.W.S., MOSCOVITCH, M., TOWNSEND, P.,

Thermoluminescence dosimetry materials: Properties and uses, Nuclear
Technology Publishing, Ashford, Kent, England (1995)
• BØTTER-JENSEN, L., MCKEEVER, S.W.S., WINTLE, A.G., Optically

stimulated luminescence dosimetry, Elsevier Science, The Netherlands
(2003)
• CHEN, R., MCKEEVER, S.W.S., Theory of Thermoluminescence and related

phenomena, World Scientific Publishing, Singapore (1997)
• YUKIHARA, E.G. and MCKEEVER, S.W.S. Optically Stimulated

Luminescence: Fundamentals and Applications, Wiley, Singapore (2011)
IAEA

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Chapter 21: Instrumentation for

Diagnostic Radiology Physics:

Slide set prepared

Patient dosimetry is a primary responsibility of the

Radiation measurement is also critical

Measurements of absorbed dose (or air kerma) are required in

Dose measurements are essential in acceptance testing

Special types of ionization CT

Active dosimeters Passive dosimeters

are commercially available for the measurement of

The measurement assembly analyses and processes the electrical

Most commercial dosimeters can be used for:

In most cases, the calibration coefficient is applied through the

Some dosimeter models have internal sensors for the measurement

The air kerma, K (or any other associate dosimetric

MQ is the reading of the dosimeter for a beam quality Q

Dosimeters are used for various types of X ray units

Properties of radiation dosimeters:

• Sensitivity is related to the minimum air kerma required to produce

In general, semi-conductor detectors have a

• This property, among others, makes the use of semi-

• However their intrinsic energy dependence makes their

• The dosimeter reading M should be

• For diagnostic dosimeters, the X ray spectrum, often referred to as

• Within the range 25 kV to 150 kV of the clinical X ray radiation

• The variation in response to different radiation qualities is taken

• For a radiation quality Q, kQ is the ratio of the calibration factors for

• IEC 61674 standard imposes a

• IAEA proposes the limit of

The response of a dosimeter may vary when the

The directional dependence of:

• Most commercial solid state detectors are mounted on lead

• Some models incorporate several semiconductor elements

The IEC 61674 standard imposes:

Leakage current refers to any signal change recorded by the

According to IEC 61674 standard:

• The ionization detector is an air filled chamber, in which an electric

• The electric field is sufficient to collect almost all of the liberated

Wair = 33.97 eV/ion pair = 33.97 J·C-1

specialized chamber parallel plate • In cylindrical and spherical shape chambers,

Ionization chambers used in diagnostic radiology should be

• Humidity has insignificant effect on air mass changes

P0 = 101.3 kPa (1 atm) are the values of the calibration

According to the IEC 61674 standard:

The determination of the air kerma (dose) in common

The major disadvantage of p-p chambers is the directional dependence of

• Commercial parallel plate (p-p) chambers are disc shaped with

Cylindrical pencil type ionization chambers are used in several

Air kerma-area-product (KAP) chambers:

The following practical points should be considered:

More practical points should be considered:

Diagnostic Radiology Physics: a Handbook for Teachers and Students – chapter 2, 30

Diagnostic radiology dosimeters based on semiconductor

A silicon diode dosimeter is a p–n junction diode. In most cases

A metal-oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET), is a

The following practical points should be considered:

• The response of diodes and MOSFETs generally has a more

The following practical points should be considered:

• Semiconductor detector response does not depend on

The following practical points should be considered: