Regenerative brake

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Mechanism for regenerative brake on the roof of a Škoda Astra tram.

A regenerative brake is an energy recovery mechanism typically consisting of a motor

controller and a electrical motor, that can reduce a vehicle's speed. It does this by converting
some of the kinetic energy of the motion into a useful form of energy instead. This is different
from a conventional brake, which dissipates it as heat,heating up the brake linings. The kinetic
energy thus obtained is passed on which is used to produce electricity and is fed back to the
system , which can be stored in a battery for further use or used immediately.

Electrical regenerative brakes in electric railways feed the generated electricity back into the
supply system. In battery electric and hybrid electric vehicles, the energy is stored in a battery or
bank of capacitors for later use. Energy may also be stored by compressing air or by a rotating
flywheel.

[edit] The motor as a generator

Vehicles driven by electric motors use the motor as a generator when using regenerative braking:
it is operated as a generator during braking and its output is supplied to an electrical load; the
transfer of energy to the load provides the braking effect.

Regenerative braking is used on hybrid gas/electric automobiles to recoup some of the energy
lost during stopping. This energy is saved in a storage battery and used later to power the motor
whenever the car is in electric mode.[1]
Early examples of this system were the front-wheel drive conversions of horse-drawn cabs by
Louis Antoine Krieger (1868-1951). The Krieger electric landaulet had a drive motor in each
front wheel with a second set of parallel windings (bifilar coil) for regenerative braking.[2]

An Energy Regeneration Brake was developed in 1967 for the AMC Amitron.[3] This was a
completely battery powered urban concept car whose batteries were recharged by regenerative
braking, thus increasing the range of the automobile.[4]

Many modern hybrid and electric vehicles use this technique to extend the range of the battery
pack. Examples include the Toyota Prius, Honda Insight, the Vectrix electric maxi-scooter, and
the Chevrolet Volt.

[edit] Limitations
Traditional friction-based braking is used in conjunction with mechanical regenerative braking
for the following reasons:

 The regenerative braking effect drops off at lower speeds; therefore the friction brake is
still required in order to bring the vehicle to a complete halt. Physical locking of the rotor
is also required to prevent vehicles from rolling down hills.
 The friction brake is a necessary back-up in the event of failure of the regenerative brake.
 Most road vehicles with regenerative braking only have power on some wheels (as in a
two-wheel drive car) and regenerative braking power only applies to such wheels, so in
order to provide controlled braking under difficult conditions (such as in wet roads)
friction based braking is necessary on the other wheels.
 The amount of electrical energy capable of dissipation is limited by either the capacity of
the supply system to absorb this energy or on the state of charge of the battery or
capacitors. No regenerative braking effect can occur if another electrical component on
the same supply system is not currently drawing power and if the battery or capacitors are
already charged. For this reason, it is normal to also incorporate dynamic braking to
absorb the excess energy.
 Under emergency braking it is desirable that the braking force exerted be the maximum
allowed by the friction between the wheels and the surface without slipping, over the
entire speed range from the vehicle's maximum speed down to zero. The maximum force
available for acceleration is typically much less than this except in the case of extreme
high-performance vehicles. Therefore, the power required to be dissipated by the braking
system under emergency braking conditions may be many times the maximum power
which is delivered under acceleration. Traction motors sized to handle the drive power
may not be able to cope with the extra load and the battery may not be able to accept
charge at a sufficiently high rate. Friction braking is required to absorb the surplus energy
in order to allow an acceptable emergency braking performance.

For these reasons there is typically the need to control the regenerative braking and match the
friction and regenerative braking to produce the desired total braking output. The GM EV-1 was
the first commercial car to do this. Engineers Abraham Farag and Loren Majersik were issued
two patents for this 'brake-by-wire' technology.[5][6]
[edit] Electric railway vehicle operation
During braking, the traction motor connections are altered to turn them into electrical generators.
The motor fields are connected across the main traction generator (MG) and the motor armatures
are connected across the load. The MG now excites the motor fields. The rolling locomotive or
multiple unit wheels turn the motor armatures, and the motors act as generators, either sending
the generated current through onboard resistors (dynamic braking) or back into the supply
(regenerative braking).

For a given direction of travel, current flow through the motor armatures during braking will be
opposite to that during motoring. Therefore, the motor exerts torque in a direction that is
opposite from the rolling direction.

Braking effort is proportional to the product of the magnetic strength of the field windings, times
that of the armature windings.

Savings of 17% are claimed for Virgin Trains Pendolinos.[7] There is also less wear on friction
braking components. The Delhi Metro saved around 90,000 tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) from
being released into the atmosphere by regenerating 112,500 megawatt hours of electricity
through the use of regenerative braking systems between 2004 and 2007. It is expected that the
Delhi Metro will save over 100,000 tons of CO2 from being emitted per year once its phase II is
complete through the use of regenerative braking.[8]

Another form of simple, yet effective regenerative braking is used on the London underground
which is achieved by having small slopes leading up and down from stations. The train is slowed
by the climb, and then leaves down a slope, so kinetic energy is converted to "stored" potential
energy in the station.

[edit] Comparison of dynamic and regenerative brakes

Main article: Dynamic brake

Dynamic brakes ("rheostatic brakes" in the UK), unlike regenerative brakes, dissipate the electric
energy as heat by passing the current through large banks of variable resistors. Vehicles that use
dynamic brakes include forklifts, Diesel-electric locomotives, and streetcars. This heat can be
used to warm the vehicle interior, or dissipated externally by large radiator-like cowls to house
the resistor banks.

The main disadvantage of regenerative brakes when compared with dynamic brakes is the need
to closely match the generated current with the supply characteristics and increased maintenance
cost of the lines. With DC supplies, this requires that the voltage be closely controlled. Only with
the development of power electronics has this been possible with AC supplies, where the supply
frequency must also be matched (this mainly applies to locomotives where an AC supply is
rectified for DC motors).
A small number of mountain railways have used 3-phase power supplies and 3-phase induction
motors. This results in a near constant speed for all trains as the motors rotate with the supply
frequency both when motoring and braking.

[edit] Kinetic Energy Recovery Systems

Kinetic Energy Recovery Systems (KERS) were used for the motor sport Formula One's 2009
season, and under development for road vehicles. However, KERS has been abandoned for the
2010 Formula One season. The Formula One Teams that used Kinetic Energy Recovery Systems
in the 2009 season are Ferrari, Renault, BMW, and McLaren. One of the main reasons that not
all cars use KERS is because it adds an extra 25 kilograms of weight, while not adding to the
total car weight, it does incur a penalty particularly seen in the qualifying rounds, as it raises the
car's center of gravity, and reduces the amount of ballast that is available to balance the car so
that it is more predictable when turning.[9] FIA rules also limit the exploitation of the system.
Eventually, during the season, Renault and BMW stopped using the system. Williams is
developing a flywheel-KERS system. The concept of transferring the vehicle’s kinetic energy
using Flywheel energy storage was postulated by physicist Richard Feynman in the 1950s[citation
needed]
and is exemplified in complex high end systems such as the Zytek, Flybrid,[10] Torotrak[11][12]
and Xtrac used in F1 and simple, easily manufactured and integrated differential based systems
such as the Cambridge Passenger/Commercial Vehicle Kinetic Energy Recovery System (CPC-
KERS)[13]

Xtrac and Flybrid are both licensees of Torotrak's technologies, which employ a small and
sophisticated ancillary gearbox incorporating a continuously variable transmission (CVT). The
CPC-KERS is similar as it also forms part of the driveline assembly. However, the whole
mechanism including the flywheel sits entirely in the vehicle’s hub (looking like a drum brake).
In the CPC-KERS, a differential replaces the CVT and transfers torque between the flywheel,
drive wheel and road wheel.

[edit] Use in motor sport

[edit] History

A Flybrid Systems Kinetic Energy Recovery System

The first of these systems to be revealed was the Flybrid.[14] This system weighs 24  kg and has
an energy capacity of 400 kJ after allowing for internal losses. A maximum power boost of 60 
kW (81.6 PS, 80.4 HP) for 6.67 s is available. The 240  mm diameter flywheel weighs 5.0  kg
and revolves at up to 64,500 rpm. Maximum torque is 18  Nm (13.3 ftlbs). The system occupies
a volume of 13 litres.[14]

Two minor incidents have been reported during testing of KERS systems in 2008. The first
occurred when the Red Bull Racing team tested their KERS battery for the first time in July: it
malfunctioned and caused a fire scare that led to the team's factory being evacuated.[15] The
second was less than a week later when a BMW Sauber mechanic was given an electric shock
when he touched Christian Klien's KERS-equipped car during a test at the Jerez circuit.[16]

[edit] FIA

A KERS flywheel

Formula One teams support responsible solutions to the world's environmental challenges,[17] and
the FIA allowed the use of 81 hp (60 kW; 82 PS) KERS in the regulations for the 2009 Formula
One season.[18] Teams began testing systems in 2008: energy can either be stored as mechanical
energy (as in a flywheel) or as electrical energy (as in a battery or supercapacitor).[19] Due to high
cost, FOTA teams agreed to drop KERS from the 2010 season onwards, but this is still an open
issue as Williams F1 said it will use KERS in 2010 and changes to the regulations must be
agreed by all teams.[20] Vodafone McLaren Mercedes became the first team to win a F1 GP using
a KERS equipped car when Lewis Hamilton won the Hungarian Grand Prix on July 26, 2009.
Their second KERS equipped car finished fifth. At the following race Lewis Hamilton became
the first driver to take pole position with a KERS car, his team mate, Heikki Kovalainen
qualifying second. This was also the first instance of an all KERS front row. On August 30,
2009, Kimi Räikkönen won the Belgian Grand Prix with his KERS equipped Ferrari. It was the
first time that KERS contributed directly to a race victory, with second placed Giancarlo
Fisichella claiming "Actually, I was quicker than Kimi. He only took me because of KERS at the
beginning".[21] New rules for the 2011 F1 season raise the minimum weight limit of the car and
driver by 20kg to 640kg. This is to prepare the way for a return of the KERS power-boost and
energy storage systems which featured in 2009.[22] Although KERS is still legal in F1, for the
2010 season all the teams have agreed not to use it.[23]

[edit] Autopart makers

Bosch Motorsport Service is developing a KERS for use in motor racing. These electricity
storage systems for hybrid and engine functions include a lithium-ion battery with scalable
capacity or a flywheel, a four to eight kilogram electric motor [with a maximum power level of
60  kW (81  hp)], as well as the KERS controller for power and battery management. Bosch also
offers a range of electric hybrid systems for commercial and light-duty applications.[24]

[edit] Carmakers

Automakers including Honda has been testing KERS systems.[25] At the 2008 1000  km of
Silverstone, Peugeot Sport unveiled the Peugeot 908 HY, a hybrid electric variant of the diesel
908, with KERS. Peugeot plans to campaign the car in the 2009 Le Mans Series season, although
it will not be capable of scoring championship points.[26]

Vodafone McLaren Mercedes began testing of their KERS in September 2008 at the Jerez test
track in preparation for the 2009 F1 season, although at that time it was not yet known if they
would be operating an electrical or mechanical system.[27] In November 2008 it was announced
that Freescale Semiconductor would collaborate with McLaren Electronic Systems to further
develop its KERS for McLaren's Formula One car from 2010 onwards. Both parties believed this
collaboration would improve McLaren's KERS system and help the system filter down to road
car technology.[28]

Toyota has used a supercapacitor for regeneration on Supra HV-R hybrid race car that won the
24 Hours of Tokachi race in July 2007.[29]

[edit] Motorcycles

KTM racing boss Harald Bartol has revealed that the factory raced with a secret Kinetic Energy
Recovery System (KERS) fitted to Tommy Koyama's motorcycle during the 2008 season-ending
125cc Valencian Grand Prix. This was illegal and against the rules. so they were later banned
from doing it afterwards.[30]

[edit] Races

Automobile Club de l'Ouest, the organizer behind the annual 24 Hours of Le Mans event and the
Le Mans Series is currently "studying specific rules for LMP1 that will be equipped with a
kinetic energy recovery system. "[31] Peugeot was the first manufacturer to unveil a fully
functioning LMP1 car in the form of the 908 HY at the 2008 Autosport 1000  km race at
Silverstone.[32]
 ©iStockphoto/Lisa Anderson
Trolley cars were among the first vehicles to use regenerative braking technology. Check out our
brake pictures.

Every time you step on your car's brakes, you're wasting energy. Physics tells us that energy can
not be destroyed. So when your car slows down, the kinetic energy that was propelling it forward
has to go somewhere. Most of it simply dissipates as heat and becomes useless. That energy,
which could have been used to do work, is essentially wasted.

Is there anything that you, the driver, can do to stop wasting this energy? Not really. In most cars
it's the inevitable byproduct of braking and there's no way you can drive a car without
occasionally hitting the brakes. But automotive engineers have given this problem a lot of
thought and have come up with a kind of braking system that can recapture much of the car's
kinetic energy and convert it into electricity, so that it can be used to recharge the car's batteries.
This system is called regenerative braking.

At present, these kinds of brakes are primarily found in hybrid vehicles like the Toyota Prius,
and in fully electric cars, like the Tesla Roadster. In vehicles like these, keeping the battery
charged is of considerable importance. However, the technology was first used in trolley cars and
has subsequently found its way into such unlikely places as electric bicycles and even Formula
One race cars.

More on Braking

 How Air Brakes Work

 How Engine Brakes Work
 Brake Type Differences Quiz
In a traditional braking system, brake pads produce friction with the brake rotors to slow or stop
the vehicle. Additional friction is produced between the slowed wheels and the surface of the
road. This friction is what turns the car's kinetic energy into heat. With regenerative brakes, on
the other hand, the system that drives the vehicle does the majority of the braking. When the
driver steps on the brake pedal of an electric or hybrid vehicle, these types of brakes put the
vehicle's electric motor into reverse mode, causing it to run backwards, thus slowing the car's
wheels. While running backwards, the motor also acts as an electric generator, producing
electricity that's then fed into the vehicle's batteries. These types of brakes work better at certain
speeds than at others. In fact, they're most effective in stop-and-go driving situations. However,
hybrids and fully electric cars also have friction brakes, as a kind of back-up system in situations
where regenerative braking simply won't supply enough stopping power. In these instances, it’s
important for drivers to be aware of the fact that the brake pedal might respond differently to
pressure. The pedal will sometimes depress farther towards the floor than it normally does and
this sensation can cause momentary panic in drivers.

In the following pages, we'll take a more detailed look at how a regenerative braking system
works, and we'll discuss reasons why regenerative braking is more efficient than a typical
friction brake system.

Regenerative Braking Circuits

©iStockphoto/TIM MCCAIG
Hybrid and fully electric cars use regenerative braking systems to charge the batteries.

Regenerative braking is used in vehicles that make use of electric motors, primarily fully electric
vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles. One of the more interesting properties of an electric motor
is that, when it's run in one direction, it converts electrical energy into mechanical energy that
can be used to perform work (such as turning the wheels of a car), but when the motor is run in
the opposite direction, a properly designed motor becomes an electric generator, converting
mechanical energy into electrical energy. This electrical energy can then be fed into a charging
system for the car's batteries.

In a regenerative braking system, the trick to getting the motor to run backwards is to use the
vehicle's momentum as the mechanical energy that puts the motor into reverse. Momentum is the
property that keeps the vehicle moving forward once it's been brought up to speed. Once the
motor has been reversed, the electricity generated by the motor is fed back into the batteries,
where it can be used to accelerate the car again after it stops. Sophisticated electronic circuitry is
necessary to decide when the motor should reverse, while specialized electric circuits route the
electricity generated by the motor into the vehicle's batteries. In some cases, the energy produced
by these types of brakes is stored in a series of capacitors for later use. In addition, since vehicles
using these kinds of brakes also have a standard friction braking system, the vehicle's electronics
must decide which braking system is appropriate at which time. Because so much is controlled
electronically in a regenerative braking system, it's even possible for the driver to select certain
presets that determine how the vehicle reacts in different situations. For instance, in some
vehicles a driver can select whether regenerative braking should begin immediately whenever the
driver's foot comes off the accelerator pedal and whether the braking system will take the car all
the way to 0 mph (0 kilometers per hour) or will let the car coast slightly.

There's a general movement in the automotive industry toward so-called brake-by-wire systems
where many of the functions of brakes that have traditionally been performed mechanically will
be performed electronically. Hybrids and electric cars will probably be early adopters of these
brake types. At present, different automotive engineers have come up with differing circuit
designs to handle the complexities of regenerative braking; however, in all cases, the single most
important part of the braking circuitry is the braking controller, which we'll discuss in the next
section.

Regenerative Braking Controllers

©iStockphoto/Dave Herriman
Regenerative braking systems are particularly effective in stop-and-go driving conditions.

Brake controllers are electronic devices that can control brakes remotely, deciding when braking
begins, ends, and how quickly the brakes need to be applied. In towing situations, for instance,
brake controllers can provide a means of coordinating the brakes on a trailer with the brakes on
the vehicle doing the towing.

Regenerative braking is implemented in conjunction with anti-lock braking systems (ABS), so

the regenerative braking controller is similar to an ABS controller, which monitors the rotational
speed of the wheels and the difference in that speed from
one wheel to another. In vehicles that use these kinds of brakes, the brake controller not only
monitors the speed of the wheels, but it can calculate how much torque -- rotational force -- is
available to generate electricity to be fed back into the batteries. During the braking operation,
the brake controller directs the electricity produced by the motor into the batteries or capacitors.
It makes sure that an optimal amount of power is received by the batteries, but also ensures that
the inflow of electricity isn't more than the batteries can handle.

The most important function of the brake controller, however, may be deciding whether the
motor is currently capable of handling the force necessary for stopping the car. If it isn't, the
brake controller turns the job over to the friction brakes, averting possible catastrophe. In
vehicles that use these types of brakes, as much as any other piece of electronics on board a
hybrid or electric car, the brake controller makes the entire regenerative braking process
possible.

Hybrid Regenerative Braking

©iStockphoto/David H. Lewis
Hybrid vehicles make use of an internal combustion engine and an electric motor.

How is a hybrid vehicle different from a fully electric vehicle? Well, hybrid electric vehicles use
both an electric motor and an internal combustion engine to provide a best-of-both-worlds
driving experience. They combine the driving range of an internal combustion engine with the
fuel efficiency and emissions-free characteristics of an electric motor. If a hybrid is to have
maximum fuel efficiency and produce as few carbon emissions as possible, it's important that the
battery remain charged as long as possible. If a hybrid vehicle battery were to lose its charge, the
internal combustion engine would be entirely responsible for powering the vehicle. At that point,
the vehicle is no longer acting as a hybrid but rather just another car burning fossil fuels.
Automotive engineers have come up with a number of tricks to wring the maximum efficiency
out of hybrids, like aerodynamic streamlining of the bodies and use of lightweight materials, but
arguably, one the most important is regenerative braking. In a hybrid setup, however, these types
of brakes can provide power only to the electric motor part of the drivetrain via the vehicle's
battery. The internal combustion
engine gains no advantage from these kinds of brakes.

In part, these efficiencies are necessary due to the extreme difficulty in finding a place to
recharge a hybrid. This makes longer trips difficult without relying on the hybrid's internal
combustion engine, which actually cancels out some of the advantage of owning a hybrid.

Up next, we'll learn about a new take on this idea of regenerative braking.

Hydraulic Regenerative Braking

©iStockphoto/Eric Bechtold
Hydraulic Power Assist (HPA) braking systems may prove to be most useful in large trucks.

An alternative regenerative braking system is being developed by the Ford Motor Company and
the Eaton Corporation. It's called Hydraulic Power Assist or HPA. With HPA, when the driver
steps on the brake, the vehicle's kinetic energy is used to power a reversible pump, which sends
hydraulic fluid from a low pressure accumulator (a kind of storage tank) inside the vehicle into a
high pressure accumulator. The pressure is created by nitrogen gas in the accumulator, which is
compressed as the fluid is pumped into the space the gas formerly occupied. This slows the
vehicle and helps bring it to a stop. The fluid remains under pressure in the accumulator until the
driver pushes the accelerator again, at which point the pump is reversed and the pressurized fluid
is used to accelerate the vehicle, effectively translating the kinetic energy that the car had before
braking into the mechanical energy that helps get the vehicle back up to speed. It's predicted that
a system like this could store 80 percent of the momentum lost by a vehicle during deceleration
and use it to get the vehicle moving again [source: HybridCars.com]. This percentage represents
an even more impressive gain than what is produced by current regenerative braking systems.
Like electronic regenerative braking, these kinds of brakes -- HPA systems -- are best used for
city driving, where stop-and-go traffic is common.

So far, HPA systems have been used primarily as proofs of concept and in demonstration
projects only. They aren't quite ready for production models just yet. At present, these hydraulic
brakes are noisy and prone to leaks; however, once all of the details are ironed out, such systems
will probably be most useful in large trucks weighing 10,000 pounds (4,536 kilograms) or more,
where these types of brakes may prove to be a more optimal system than electronically
controlled regenerative brakes.

Eventually, this technology may trickle down to smaller vehicles. One company, Hybrid-Drive
Systems, LLC, of Michigan, has retrofitted a 1968 Volkswagen Beetle with a hydraulic
regenerative braking system. However, the accumulators take up a considerable amount of space,
and future production plans are focused more on using the technology in larger vehicles, like
vans. Meanwhile, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has partnered with Eaton
Corporation to install hydraulic regenerative braking systems on UPS delivery trucks.

Regenerative Braking Efficiency

Vince Bucci/Getty Images

The Tesla Roadster is a fully electric car.

The energy efficiency of a conventional car is only about 20 percent, with the remaining 80
percent of its energy being converted to heat through friction. The miraculous thing about
regenerative braking is that it may be able to capture as much as half of that wasted energy and
put it back to work. This could reduce fuel consumption by 10 to 25 percent. Hydraulic
regenerative braking systems could provide even more impressive gains, potentially reducing
fuel use by 25 to 45 percent [source: HybridCars.com]. In a century that may see the end
of the vast fossil fuel reserves that have provided us with energy for automotive and other
technologies for many years, and in which fears about carbon emissions are coming to a peak,
this added efficiency is becoming increasingly important.

The beginning of the 21st century could very well mark the final period in which internal
combustion engines are commonly used in cars. Already automakers are moving toward
alternative energy carriers,
such as electric batteries, hydrogen fuel and even compressed air. Regenerative braking is a
small, yet very important, step toward our eventual independence from fossil fuels. These kinds
of brakes allow batteries to be used for longer periods of time without the need to be plugged
into an external charger. These types of brakes also extend the driving range of fully electric
vehicles. In fact, this technology has already helped bring us cars like the Tesla Roadster, which
runs entirely on battery power. Sure, these cars may use fossil fuels at the recharging stage -- that
is, if the source of the electricity comes from a fossil fuel such as coal -- but when they're out
there on the road, they can operate with no use of fossil fuels at all, and that's a big step forward.

The added efficiency of regenerative braking also means less pain at the pump, since hybrids
with electric motors and regenerative brakes can travel considerably farther on a gallon of gas,
some achieving more than 50 miles per gallon at this point. And that's something that most
drivers can really appreciate.

Regenerative Braking Diagram

This simple diagram shows how a regenerative braking system is able to recapture some of the
vehicle's kinetic energy and convert it into electricity. This electricity is then used to recharge the
vehicle's batteries.