Chapter 1

Introduction

Foundations of Logic Programming Introduction 1

 Outline

Introducing Prolog programs and queries

Showing the advantages of declarative programming

Illustrating shortcomings of Prolog

Foundations of Logic Programming Introduction 2

 A Prolog Program

direct(frankfurt,san_francisco).
direct(frankfurt,chicago). Facts
direct(san_francisco,honolulu).
direct(honolulu,maui).

connection(X, Y) :- direct(X, Y). Rules

connection(X, Y) :- direct(X, Z), connection(Z, Y).

Foundations of Logic Programming Introduction 3

 Queries (I)

direct(frankfurt,san_francisco).
direct(frankfurt,chicago).
direct(san_francisco,honolulu).
direct(honolulu,maui).

connection(X, Y) :- direct(X, Y).

connection(X, Y) :- direct(X, Z), connection(Z, Y).

| ?- connection(frankfurt, maui).
yes

Foundations of Logic Programming Introduction 4

 Queries (II)

direct(frankfurt,san_francisco).
direct(frankfurt,chicago).
direct(san_francisco,honolulu).
direct(honolulu,maui).

connection(X, Y) :- direct(X, Y).

connection(X, Y) :- direct(X, Z), connection(Z, Y).

| ?- connection(san_francisco, X).
X = honolulu ;
X = maui ;
no

Foundations of Logic Programming Introduction 5

 Queries (III)

direct(frankfurt,san_francisco).
direct(frankfurt,chicago).
direct(san_francisco,honolulu).
direct(honolulu,maui).

connection(X, Y) :- direct(X, Y).

connection(X, Y) :- direct(X, Z), connection(Z, Y).

| ?- connection(maui, X).
no

Foundations of Logic Programming Introduction 6

 An Important Data Structure: Lists

[a1,..., an] [apples,pears,plums]

[head | tail] = [apples | [pears,plums]]

member(X, [X | List]).
member(X, [Y | List]) :- member(X, List).

member_both(X, L1, L2) :- member(X, L1), member(X, L2).

| ?- member_both(X, [apples,pears,plums], [peaches,plums,pears]).

X = pears ;
X = plums ;
no

Foundations of Logic Programming Introduction 7

 An Imperative Program for Comparison

type List=array[1..n] of integer;

procedure members(a, b : List; var c : List; var x : integer);
var i, j, k : integer;
begin
k := 1;
for i := 1 to n do
for j := 1 to n do
if a[i] = b[j] then begin
c[k] := a[i]; k := k + 1
end;
x := k – 1
end;

Foundations of Logic Programming Introduction 8

 Declarative Programs are Flexible

member(X, [X | List]).
member(X, [Y | List]) :- member(X, List).

member_both(X, L1, L2) :- member(X, L1), member(X, L2).

| ?- member_both(pears,[apples,pears,plums],[peaches,plums,pears]).
yes

| ?- member_both(apples,[apples,pears,plums],[peaches,X]).
X = apples

Foundations of Logic Programming Introduction 9

 Declarative Programs are Flexible
add(X,0,X). /* x + 0 = x */
add(X,s(Y),s(Z)) :- add(X,Y,Z). /* x + y = z → x + s(y) = s(z) */
| ?- add(s(0),s(0),Z).
Z = s(s(0))
| ?- add(X,Y,s(s(0))).
X = s(s(0)),
Y = 0 ;
X = s(0),
Y = s(0) ;
X = 0
Y = s(s(0))

Foundations of Logic Programming Introduction 10

 Yet Another Declarative Specification

The square of 45 is 2025, and 20 + 25 is 45, isn't that strange?

Find more pairs of numbers that exhibit this pecularity!

solution(N, Z) :- between(1, 99, N),

Z is N*N,
Z >= 1000,
(Z // 100) + (Z mod 100) =:= N.
| ?- solution(N, Z).
N = 45, Z = 2025 ;
N = 55, Z = 3025 ;
N = 99, Z = 9801

Foundations of Logic Programming Introduction 11

 Programming Languages

Imperative Programming Languages

- Declaration part defines possible states (of variables); statement part defines
transformation on states
- Close to von Neumann computer architecture
- Description of how something is computed
- Example: Java

Declarative Programming Languages

- Abstraction from states and state transformations
- Direct formulation of mathematical objects (functions, relations, constraints)
- Description of what is computed
- Example: Prolog, Eclipse, Haskell, and Curry

Foundations of Logic Programming Introduction 12

 Declarative Programming Languages

Logic Programming Languages

Example language: Prolog

Constraint Logic Programming Languages

Example language: Eclipse

Functional Programming Languages

Example language: Haskell

Integrated (Functional-logic) Programming Languages

Example language: Curry

Foundations of Logic Programming Introduction 13

 Advantages of Declarative Programming

Specifications are programs

The computation mechanism is not part of the program

“Thinking” declaratively is easier than “thinking” procedurally

Declarative programs are therefore much simpler to understand, develop,

and verify

The output of a logic program is a logical consequence of the program

Logic programs are flexible

Foundations of Logic Programming Introduction 14

 Shortcomings of Prolog: Termination (I)
direct(frankfurt,san_francisco).
direct(frankfurt,chicago).
direct(san_francisco,honolulu).
direct(honolulu,maui).
direct(san_francisco,san_francisco).

connection(X, Y) :- direct(X, Y).

connection(X, Y) :- direct(X, Z), connection(Z, Y).

| ?- connection(san_francisco, X).
X = honolulu ;
X = san_francisco ;
X = maui ;
X = honolulu ;
...

Foundations of Logic Programming Introduction 15

 Shortcomings of Prolog: Termination (II)
direct(san_francisco,san_francisco).
direct(frankfurt,san_francisco).
direct(frankfurt,chicago).
direct(san_francisco,honolulu).
direct(honolulu,maui).

connection(X, Y) :- direct(X, Y).

connection(X, Y) :- direct(X, Z), connection(Z, Y).

| ?- connection(san_francisco, X).
X = san_francisco ;
X = honolulu ;
X = san_francisco ;
X = honolulu ;
...

Foundations of Logic Programming Introduction 16

 Shortcomings of Prolog: Termination (III)
direct(frankfurt,san_francisco).
direct(frankfurt,chicago).
direct(san_francisco,honolulu).
direct(honolulu,maui).
direct(san_francisco,san_francisco).

connection(X, Y) :- direct(X, Z), connection(Z, Y).

connection(X, Y) :- direct(X, Y).

| ?- connection(san_francisco, X).
X = maui ;
X = maui ;
X = maui ;
...

Foundations of Logic Programming Introduction 17

 Shortcomings of Prolog: Termination (IV)
direct(san_francisco,san_francisco).
direct(frankfurt,san_francisco).
direct(frankfurt,chicago).
direct(san_francisco,honolulu).
direct(honolulu,maui).

connection(X, Y) :- direct(X, Z), connection(Z, Y).

connection(X, Y) :- direct(X, Y).

| ?- connection(san_francisco, X).

Foundations of Logic Programming Introduction 18

 Shortcomings of Prolog: “Occur Check” - Failure

A person x and the mother of x can never be the same.

mystery :- same_person(X, mother_of(X)).

same_person(Z, Z).

| ?- mystery.
yes

Foundations of Logic Programming Introduction 19

 Shortcomings of Prolog:
Is Prolog Truly Declarative?

This rule can only be “called” if all three arguments are numbers:

between(X, Y, Z) :- X =< Z, Z =< Y.

This is the “simplest” usable specification:

between (X, Y, Z) :- X =< Y, Z is X.

between (X, Y, Z) :- X < Y, X1 is X+1, between(X1, Y, Z).

Foundations of Logic Programming Introduction 20

 How to Use a Prolog System (I)

% add-program in file add.pl:

add(X,0,X).
add(X,s(Y),s(Z)) :- add(X,Y,Z).

irz601:~> sicstus
SICStus 3 #5: Fri Nov 1 15:49:55 MET 1996
| ?- [add].
{consulting/usr/users/ith/ak15/add.pl...}
{/usr/users/ith/ak15/add.pl consulted, 0 msec 352 bytes}

yes
| ?- add(X,Y,s(s(0))).

Foundations of Logic Programming Introduction 21

 How to Use a Prolog System (II)

X = s(s(0)),
Y = 0 ? ;

X = s(0),
Y = s(0) ? ;

X = 0,
Y = s(s(0)) ? ;

no
| ?- halt.

Foundations of Logic Programming Introduction 22

 Objectives

Introducing Prolog programs and queries

Showing the advantages of declarative programming

Illustrating shortcomings of Prolog

Foundations of Logic Programming Introduction 23