CHAPTER - IV

URBAN CENTRES IN THANJAVUR

DISTRICT : A BACKGROUND
 This chapter focuses mainly on urban centres and
concentrates on the various factors operated in urban centres in
the area of study. The major factors namely (i) port, (ii)
military, (iii) market, (iv) fort, (v) administration (capital),
(vi) trade routes, (vii) manufacture and industry, besides the
geographical and cultural factors such as agraharam, temple and
Christian missionary activities (i.e., religious) are broadly
highlighted in this chapter.

URBAN CENTRES IN THANJAVUR DISTRICT

Historically urban centres play a crucial role on account
of the economic, political, cultural and military activities in
them. The cities situated in strategic spots have natural
linkages with the near and far off hinterland from where they
draw human and material resources. They offer natural facilities
for the growth of defence, commerce and civilisation. Thanjavur
is one of such urban centres of Tamil Nadu.

Urban history in Tamil Nadu has a rich past. Most of the

research on Medieval Tamil Nadu and in particular on Thanjavur
district has concerned itself with agrarian structures, peasant
settlements and the general pattern of socio-economic changes.
Problems of interpretation of records and the inadequacy of
statistical data have deterred scholars from reconstructing the
history of urban centres, despite their interest in trade
patterns, merchant and craft organisations and state

138
participation in such a c t i v i t i e s . However with the dependable
framework of agrarian development now provided by recent
studies, it is possible and necessary to venture into urban
2
history.
As far as urban process in Medieval Tamil Nadu, is concerned
we can see certain distinct phases. The first, during the Sangam
period, the second with the period of the Cholas from the ninth
to thirteenth centuries and the third from fourteenth to
nineteenth centuries. This third phase also includes the
Muslims, Nayakas, Marathas and the European settlements,
providing a fairly large scale agrarian expansion, trade and
commercial activities, industrial developments, craft and
institutional organisations to serve as the basis for the growth
of urban centres in the study area of Thanjavur district. 3
It would be useful to survey, however briefly, the nature of
urban development in the first period in order to highlight the
underlying differences in the process of urban growth in the
second and third periods. The most crucial factor in the process
of urbanisation of the early period was that Maritime trade was
very extensively used by the great Cholas in their coastal
territories of Thanjavur region. Emerging from the main rice

R. Champakalakshmi, "Urban Process in early Medieval Tamil Nadu"

Urban History Association of India, Occasional Papers Series 3,
1982, p.3.
2
R. Champakalakshmi, "Growth of urban centres in South India",
Studies in History, Vol. 1, No.l, Jan-June, 1979, pp.12-13.
3
Ibid., pp.13-15.

139
producing region of the Cauvery delta, the Cholas controlled vast
tracts of agricultural land in this river valley. Evidence of
irrigation works and the maritime trade activities in this area is
4
provided by Tamil literature and inscriptions.
Sangam period seems to represent the emergence of Tamil
civilisation, which may be attributed to urbanisation stimulated
by Maritime trade. Socio-political dominance of this early Tamil
society was shared by the three "Crowned Kings" - Vendar of the
Chola, Chera and Pandya lines and the minor chieftains called
"Velirs".5

Literary references to ports, towns and cities are numerous,

the Greek sources alone giving the names of about a hundred
including emporia of trade on the coast, metropolis, marts, cities
and inland towns as political and trade centres. The literary
descriptions of fortified cities and coastal towns with several
quarters for merchants and other social groups would suggest a
sophistication in urban development far beyond the meagre
archaeological remains unearthed so far at places like
Kaveripoompattinam in Thanjavur district and Uraiyur in
Tiruchirappalli district.
Medieval Tamil Nadu, Thanjavur district in particular, would
provide a conspicuous or very noticeable example of a rural-urban

4
N.Subramaniam, Sangam Polity, Bombay, 1966, PP. 262-267.
5
R.Champakalakshmi,Op. Cit. , Vol 1, No.l January-June, 1979,
pp.15-17
M.M. Abraham "Religion and Trade": some aspects of the
relationship between India, Burma, Sri Lanka C.A.D 1070-1300",
unpublished research paper.

140
continuum without a clear cut demarcation of the rural-urban
boundaries. In this context, it would be relevant to raise
certain crucial questions relating to pre-Industrial societies.
What were the links between agricultural production and urban
growth? Are agricultural growth and availability of surplus a
necessary pre-condition to urban development? Does the increase
in commerce and overseas trade and the consequent emergence of
centres of commodity exchange markets stimulate agricultural
production? To what extent did towns develop as centres of
commodity production or as distribution centres in response to
internal factors as opposed to growth of towns in response to
o

demands of overseas trade?

In order to find answers to the above questions in the south
Indian context, particularly to Thanjavur district, reference
should be made to the progress of existing rural settlements.
These centres were the "brahmadeyas" or "Brahman" settlements
originating from land grants to Brahmans as learned men incharge
9
of education and as temple priests. Clusters of such settlements
emerge in the study (core) areas or delta regions (Cauvery) in the
river valleys forming the nuclei of Medieval Kingdoms. They were
pluralistic settlements with several temples as centres of

R. Champakalakshmi, "Symposium on urban History", Indian History

Congress, Bodhgaya, December, 1981, P.5-6.
8
Ibid_:_u P. 7
9
B. Stein, "Brahmin and Peasant in south Indian history", The
Adyar literary bulletin, Madras, Vol. 31-32, 1968, P. 3-4.

141
different socio-religious groups pursuing various economic
activities centering round the temple.

FACTORS

Many factors can be attributed to Medieval urban centres in

Thanjavur district of Tamil Nadu. They are (i) the holding of
fairs, (ii) the emergence of religious centres, (iii) commercial
activities centered around inland ports, (iv) urban status on
rural settlements and (v) initiatives taken by kings and
ministers in the creation of urban centres and so on. There were
some other factors also responsible for urban centres in
Thanjavur district. They were (a) the geographical location,
making it a point of convergence of all major routes which passed
through the core region, (b) trade, which however to begin with,
was incidental in the process of urbanization, (c) importance as
a centre of political and administrative activities and (d)
religious importance indicated by the presence of a large number
of temple shrines.
Geographical Factors
The geographical peculiarities of a region play an important
role in determining the role and conditions of its subsistence.
More over, the study of urban centres cannot be explained by a

10
Ibid., P.5.
T. Venkateswara Rao, Local Bodies in Pre-Vijayanagara, Ph.D.
Dissertation, Karnataka University, 1975, p.125-160.
R. Champakalakshmi, %Growth of Urban Centres in South India -
Kudamukku and Palaiyarai the Twin City of the Cholas', in Studies
in History, Vol.1, No.l, 1979, p.26.

142
single factor, for example, trade. The most dominant and crucial
factor for urban centre had been the geographical system of an
area. This can be better understood, in terms of the rainfall of
the area, its fertility, availability of agricultural land, scope
for natural irrigation as well as natural fortification. So, the
geographical system of an area plays a crucial role in the
emergence of urban centres. During the Medieval times, when
transportation system was not either efficient or easy, the towns
depended for their survival on the neighbouring hinterland. This
might explain, how the fertility and other characteristics of a
region become decisive in the context of urban settlements.

The significance of geographical location can also be

appreciated from yet another angle. In Tamil Nadu in general, and
Thanjavur district in particular, there were two important
categories of towns. They were economic towns and coastal towns.
There were obvious reasons for the formation of such towns in
Thanjavur district, for either they were trade centres or they
grew as a result of their location on important routes in the
region. Thus, it could be suggested that there were urban
centres, though mainly economic in nature, whose raison-d'etre
was basically their geographical location and ecology.

It should however be emphasised that in Medieval times

hardly any town performed a single function. There were
simultaneously performing the activities of administration,
religion, market and a centre of culture. In Thanjavur district,
urban areas can be classified under various categories on the
basis of the present study. They are as follows: (i) port towns

143
(ii) trade routes (iii) fort towns (iv) administrative towns (v)
military towns (vi) market centres (vii) religions and cultural
centres. The main factors influencing the formation of urban
settlements during the Medieval times in Thanjavur district were:
(a) Activities of the kings (b) Trade (c) Places of worship (d)
Village assemblies (e) Agriculture.

The possible supplementary factors that shapes the

conditions in urban centres were, food supply, craft
specialisation, special stratification, administration, warfare
and defence, and the population. All towns, irrespective of their
size and population depend on certain external forces, like a
non-urban population supplying food and materials and in turn
consuming the goods and services offered by the town. This
implies that denser the population within the limits of effective
agricultural population zones, more would be the support to the
urban centres. As the town grows, the population also increases.
The increase in population was obviously due to the process of
migration initiated by the emergence of towns. The obvious reason
for this migration must have been economic.

TRADE ROUTES
The main factor was the convergence of routes. Thanjavur
district was very famous for its route systems. Burton Stein
discussed about route character of Medieval Thanjavur district of
Tamil Nadu. The urban centres in Medieval Thanjavur were dotted
on routes. Puthupattinam, Tranquebar, Poraiyur, Karaikkal and
Nagore were located on the route from Thirumullaivasal to

144
Nagapattinam. Vailankanni, Thopputhurai, Point Calimere and
Muthupettai were existed on theroute from Nagapattinam to
Adhirampattinam; Ammapettai, Needamangalam, Koradacherry and
Tiruvarur were located on the route from Thanjavur to
Nagapattinam; Karanthai, Palliagrahanam, Kandiyur, Thiruvaiyaru
and Papanasam, Pandaravadai and Kuthalam were located on famous
Thanjavur to Kumbakonam road and Mayavaram, Sirkali, Poompuhar
(Kaveripoompattinam), Akkur, Thirukkadaiyur, Thirunallar were
located on the route from Kumbakonam to Nagapattinam which was
considered as one of the important trade (silk) routes and were
also in use from ancient period.

Most of the urban centres were located on the convergence of

trade routes in Thanjavur district. Vallam was located on the
convergence of Tiruchirapalli-Thanjavur road and Vaduvoor,
Mannarkudi and Thiruthuraipoondi were located on the convergence
of Thanjavur-Vedaranniyam road. Tiruvarur was located on the
convergence of Thanjavur-Nagapattinam and Kumbakonam-
Thiruthuraipoondi road. Vallam and Boodalur were located on
strategic points in western Thanjavur. Since all the urban
centres were located on trade routes and convergence of trade
routes, it could be summarised that a major factor for the
emergence of urban centres in Thanjavur district was trade
routes.

MARKET TOWNS

Market play a crucial role in the development of urban

centres in Medieval Tamil Nadu, and especially in Thanjavur

145
district, market played an important role in the crystallisation
of towns. In a sense, it can be suggested that urban economy was
sustained by trade. This was indicated by the power and prestige
of the mercantile community for example, Chettiyars, Marakkayars,
Mudaliyars and so on in the urban areas in Thanjavur district.
Market was another major factor in the emergence of urban
centres in Thanjavur district but it was incidental in the
process of urbanisation. The agricultural developments and
proliferation of new urban settlements were the causes for market
networks.14 Most of the micro region administrative divisions had
one or two trade centres. For example, Nagapattinam had Paravai
and Velipalayam as marketting centres. In Thanjavur district,
Kumbakonam, Nachiarkovil, Nagore, Nagapattinam, Karaikkal,
Pattukottai, Mannarkudi and Tiruvarur were the marketing centres.
These centres had acted as nodal points for exchange of
commodities within the administrative divisions (micro regions) .
The range of spatial interaction for those centres remained
limited to their immediate rural context, not because the
epigraphs do not mention any item of exchange, which could be of

different origin, but also because the centres derived their

resources inter-alia from its immediate rural hinterland. 15

R. Champakalakshmi, xGrowth of Urban Centres in South India -

Kudamukku and Palaiyarai the Twin City of the Cholas', in Studies
in History, Vol.1, No.l, 1979, p.26.
14
R. Champakalakshmi, %Growth of Urban Centres in South India -
Kudamukku and Palaiyarai the Twin City of the Cholas', in Studies
in History, Vol.1, No.l, 1979, p.26.
15
B. D. Chattopadhyaya, Op.Cit., p.23-24.

146
 Commodities that exchanged in urban centres, i.e. from the
various market towns in Thanjavur district, were agricultural
products. Cereals, rice, coconut, arecanut, seasamum horsegram,
ragi, millets, etc. were the chief commodities. Also natural
products were unearthed from Thanjavur district. They had found
market in local trade centres. And iron and steel were smelted in
Nagapattinam and Thanjavur towns. They also served as commodities
in Medieval urban centres of the district. All these products and
produces were rural as well as urban oriented. Hence the market
centres in Thanjavur district had witnessed the overlapping or
x
intermingling of rural and urban characters. The grass surplus'
which was considered the subsistence base of these urban centres
covered a noticeably wide range of commercial and industrial
items including commercial crops. The production and variety of
these appear, from the surveys available for this period, were
fluctuating throughout the period of study. The exchange modes
presuppose a productive rural hinterland and that this essential
link has not gone entirely unnoticed, was evident from the
relationship which had sometimes been suggested between some
urban centres and their local rural centres.

PORT TOWNS
Ports play an important role in the economy of a country.
From time immemorial, Thanjavur district has enjoyed special
privileges that resulted naturally to a coastal district with its

B. D. Chattopadhyaya, op.cit., p.28

147
long coastline on the east; it had many important ports since
sangam period. Coastal shipping constituted the most convenient
mode of transporting bulky articles of daily use, in the
pre-rail, road era in Thanjavur district. When ships were the
only means of bulk transport, Thanjavur district ports were
centres of brisk trade. Foreign merchants were allowed in the
port towns in connection with their trade. The early factory
records and references in literature give an idea of the port
activity of those days.
Ports undoubtedly represented potential centres of urban
growth. During Medieval times, coastal trade was mainly in food
grains, fire wood, cattle transportation and such other bulk
commodities from the coastal areas. During the chola times
"Pattinam" meant a port on sea coast and "eri vira pattinam"
meant an interior emporium. 18 The latter was a centre for the
exchange of local products and occasionally involved in the
exchange of imported commodities. At the same time, "pattinam"
was clearly a centre for the exchange of foreign merchandise.
The coast of the Thanjavur district was consisted of not
less than eleven ports (Thanjavur District Manual mentions even
sixteen ports) .19 Out of them only a few were open to foreign
trade. They were from north to south Thirumullaivasal,

M.M.Abraham, "Religion and Trade : Some aspects of the

relationship between India, Burma and Sri lanka C.A.D.
1070-1300", Unpublished research paper, New Delhi, 1978, pp.3-5.
18
K.A.Nilakantha Sastry, The Cholas, pp.27-58.
19T.Venkatasamy, Op.Cit., p.9.

148
Tranquebar, Nagore, Nagapattinam, Velanganni, Topputturai, Point
Calimere, Muttupet, Adhirampattinam, Kodiyampalaiyam and
Kattumavadi. The anchorage was good at all these places. It was
even more sheltered at the ports South and West of Point
Calimere, but then the shoals made it necessary here for big
ships to anchor at a great distance (from two to four miles)from
the shore, whereas at the ports north of Point Calimere they
could come as close as from three quarters of a mile to one and a
half miles. No boats, small or large, could anchor closer than
this, as there was heavy ground swell. 20

Goods were brought from the ships to the shore on cargo

boats of various sizes upto ten tons . Facilities for landing
varied at different ports. At Topputurai the mouth of the
harbour was so good that crafts of 3 0 tons burden could enter it
for six months in a year and easily land the goods, whereas at
Tranquebar, Point Calimere and Adhirampattinam there being no
harbours, the cargo boats had to be beached on the shore. 21

At Nagapattinam there were adequate wharfs, but the entrance

was so blocked by shoals that it was often difficult and
dangerous for boats. At Thirumullaivasal the harbour was

F.R.Hemingway, Op.Cit., p.4.

21
B.S.Baliga, Op.Cit., pp.4-5.

149
excellent when the river was in flood, but in the dry weather it
was full of shoals and could be used only at high water. The
ports West of Point Calimere were even much worse, shoals of mud
blocked up the reaches of the rivers and the cargo was often to
be landed outside and taken to the port on carts.22

The sea on the Thanjavur coast, encroached gradually on the

land and buried completely several feet underground the famous
port of Kaveripoompattinam which was flourishing in the days of
the Chola Kings.2 3 In more recent times, it was known that the
sea encroached on Tranquebar and eroded some four or five hundred
feet of land until it was stopped by expensive groins. Indeed,
there seems to be a constant strife going on here between the sea
and the land in which the land was giving way, in which the
alluvium of the delta was gradually yielding to the denuding
action of the waves. 24

The Coromandel coastal line of Thanjavur district was long

and unbroken; hence natural harbours were rare. The sea was

22
F.R.Hemingway, Op.Cit., pp.4-5.
23
T.Venkatasamy, Op.Cit., pp.10-28
24
F.R.Hemingway, Op.Cit., p . 7.

150
 noted for its fisheries and pearl business activities. 25 The Palk
Bay being shallow, big ships were prevented from anchoring at its
shore. Therefore trade was carried on with small boats. Paddy,
dry fruits, brass and copper vessels, silk and carpets formed the
chief items of imports. Tranquebar (a Danish settlement situated
on the Coromandel Coast) was brought by the Danes from Raghunatha
Nayaka in 1612 and later on they purchased fifteen more villages
from the Maratha Kings. This settlement was the first Protestant
Missionary station in the South. Nagapattinam (one of the
principal urban settlement of the Dutch) and Devikottai along
with Tranquebar and Nagore have retained their importance as sea
ports to the present day.

The proximity of the Thanjavur territory to the Coromandel

coast made the activities of the people oriented towards the sea
(Bay of Bengal). Maritime trade with countries beyond the seas
appears to have brought untold wealth to the coffers of the
26
empire.

25
W.Hickey, The Thanjavur Maratha Principality in Southern India,
Madras, 1874, p p . 4 - 2 8 .
F.R.Hemingway, The Gazetteer of the Thanjavur District , 1933,
Madras, pp.7-9.

151
 Along the Coromandel coastal line, the port towns of
Thanjavur district, developedinto export points of commercial
goods to the rest of the world. 27 They were in general, oil
seeds, paddy, hides and skins, metals, tobacco and cotton fabrics
(textiles).
The port that were more visible in our period were
Thirumullaivasal, Tranquebar (Danish settlement area), Karaikkal
(French settlement area), Nagore and Nagapattinam (Portuguese,
Dutch and British settlement areas). By the beginning of the
seventeenth century, Nagapattinam became an important port of
this region. It acquired great significance as centre for
international market. It was also important for business, trade,
commerce, transportation and administrative activities. It was
one of the ancient port cities in India. Exports and imports
were the common business practices of this region. Its rich
streets were laden with heaps of silk, corals, pearls, gems,
gold, sandal, grains, metal-wares, rice, textiles, salt, and
other consumer items for sale, while the living quarters for
various artisans and artists gave special importance to this
region. So, this region became the focal point for trade and
commerce from surrounding regions by sea as well as by land.
These ports witnessed the presence of Portuguese, Dutch, British,
Danes and French settlers. Apart from the ports, the small ports

27
D.A.Washbrook, The Emergence of Provincial Politics: The Madras
Presidency 1870-1920, New Delhi, 1976, pp.71-72.

152
were Vailankanni, Topputurai, Point calimere, Muttupet,
Adhirampattinam and Kattumavadi.
Important Sea ports in Thanjavur District
The Thanjavur sea coast began about five miles south of
Porto-Novo and the ports that fed the trade of this vast kingdom
during the study period. Here was the delta area of the two
rivers estuaries the Coleroon and the Cauvery, with their
innumerable branches and streams flowing in to the sea, tidal for
miles inland, providing access lay river boats to the interior
villages and towns of Thanjavur district. The Ports in Thanjavur
District from North to South are as follows.
1. Kodiapaleam
The northern most partof Thanjavur was Kodiapaleam
situated at the mouth of Coleroon river.28 Within the entrance
of the Coleroon river, on an island formed by the river was a
small fort which gives a greater importance to this period. It
does not feature any importance, a port having developed a few
miles to the south called Puthupattinam. 29
Kaveripoompattinam, was a port city since the Sangam age and
it was continued to be the same in the Chola and later period
too. During the Medieval period, there were immense quantities
of articles of various description brought from distant lands and
exchanged for gold and the products of the Chola hinterland.

28
B. S. Baliga, Thanjavur District Hand Booh, Madras, 1957, p.3.
29
S. Arasaratnam, Merchants, Companies and Commerce on the
Coromandel Coast: 1650-1740. Delhi, 1986, p . 2 6 .

153
This port continued to have the patronage of the Vijayanagar
rulers also. Moreover there was a mention about the King
Virupaksha I which also shows that this port was in use during
30

the fifteenth century.

2. Puthupattinam
The study period witnessed that a port having developed a
few miles to the South called Puthupattinam did not feature in
any importance during the study period.
3. Thirumullaivasal
The port that was more visible during the study period was
Thirumullaivasal and it was situated at the mouth of the river of
the same name. It had direct access to the island district town
of Sirkali (Sirkazhi) and other towns in Thanjavur district.
Rice and textiles were the main products of this region and these
products were transported through this port. The Dutch had a
factory in this port and the rulers of Thanjavur jealously
guarded its free trade against the Dutch encroachment.
4. Tranquebar
On the Coromandel coastline of the port Thirumullaivasal
approximately about fourteen miles to the South, was the port of
Tranquebar. It was situated on latitude 11°1 N., long. 79.51'
E. It was positioned on the left bank of a small river, which was
not familiar during the period under study. The Tranquebar port,
which was of some significance in the coastal and Bay of Bengal

Ibid., p.27.
21
Ibid., p.28.

154
trade was ceded t o t h e Danes by the r u l e r of Thanjavur in 1618.

They constructed a f o r t a t Tranquebar and i t was popularly called

as "Dansburg" fort. But as the Danish East India Company's

trade was never substantial, the Danes did not dominate the

shipping at Tranquebar as happened in other European Settled

Ports. Tranquebar continued as a p o r t of Indian shipping, making

use of the facilities and protection afforded by the Danes.

During the study period, Tranquebar was an important port of

Indo-Danish Shipping, with a heavy bias towards the trade to

island South East Asia and t h e Malay Peninsula. I t grew into a

township of some s i z e , with facilities and s e r v i c e s appropriate

32
to a port-town.

5. Karaikkal

About seven miles South of Tranquebar was Karaikkal, an

ancient Port of the Tamil Country, now considerably reduced in
importance. It was situated at the mouth of a river and nearby
ran several branches of the Cauvery, linked up by ancient
irrigation channels. Karaikkal town was on the north bank of
Arasalar, about a mile inland. The karaikkal port was an open
roadstead. The rivers were barred at the months and were
navigable only at high water in small flat-bottomed country
vessels, but at that time the river on which the port was located
was navigable by vessels of 200 tons burthen. Karaikkal was
under the administration of the rulers of Thanjavur till 1738
when it was ceded to the French. At that time the port-town had

22
Ibid., p.27.

155
over 5,000 inhabitants and 638 houses. The Dutch had a factory
there for some time. It was noted as a port for the export of
paddy and rice of the Cauvery delta which was shipped along the
coast to Malabar and Ceylon (Sri Lanka) . It also exported
textiles and sea produce. Karaikkal's traditional shipping and
trade patterns continued unchanged into the twentieth century. 33
6. Nagore
About eight miles South of Karaikkal was Nagore, a port
whose intrinsic importance did not come through in contemporary
accounts because of the absence of much foreign trade. It was
situated at the mouth of the Kadavaiyar a branch of the Vettar
river. There were five temples along the coast, white washed and
gleaming in the sun which formed an excellent landmark for pilots
heading towards this port. The bar of the river had eight feet
of water at high tide. The port was the home of a large Indian
merchant fleet (both Hindus and Muslims) ranging from small
one-masted boats to ships of 3 00 tons. Its chief exports were
rice, textiles, chanks and other sea produce, and its imports
spices, metals, arecanuts and a variety of consumables. The
trade was varied in character and small vessels sailed
south-wards, hugging the coast to southern Thanjavur, Madurai and
Tirunelveli ports.

A large part of the coromandel-Malabar trade was carried on

from Nagore and it was perhaps the most important port for South
Indian trade to Ceylon (Sri Lanka). The bigger vessels sailed

33
IJbid., p. 27

156
across the Bay of Bengal to mainland and islands of South East
Asia with which Nagore merchants had close, prolonged
associations. Nagore must have existed for long as a satellite
port of Nagapattinam, but the European conquest and domination of
this port brought about a shift of trade from there to Nagore.
7. Nagapattinam

Another important port that was more visible in the study

period was Nagapattinam. It was situated on latitude 10°46'N.,
long. 79°50 E was about three miles South of Nagore. It was for
centuries a prominent port of south India, but by the beginning
of the seventeenth century it became an important and significant
port of this region, its major strength being the trade across
the Bay of Bengal to South East Asia and beyond.

Nagapattinam port acquired great significance as a centre

for international market. It was also important for business,
trade commerce, transportation and administrative activities. It
was one of the ancient port cities in India. Exports and imports
were the common business practices of this region. Its rich
streets were laden with heaps of silk, corals, pearls, gems,
gold, Sandal, grains, metal-wares, rice, textiles, salt and other
consumer items for sale, while the living quarters for various
artisans and artists gave special importance to this region. 34
The port of Nagapattinam was an open roadstead. The surf
was high and broke on the bar formed by the Kadavaiyar river,
which flowed into the sea at this point and had a constantly

p.27.

157
shifting bar. Large ships anchored well out in to the sea and
loading and unloading was by small boats. At the height of the
north-east monsoon, it was hazardous for ships to be anchored
here. The river was too small to admit any shipping. The town
was to the north of the fort at the mouth of another small river
which could take in small boats. An ancient temple built of
black stone about a mile and a half north of the port was a good
landmark for vessels entering the port. Thus, this study region
became the focal point for trade and commerce from surrounding
regions by sea as well as by land.

The possibility of establishing a factory at Nagapattinam

was suggested by Johnson as early as 1617 during the period of
Raghunatha Nayak (1600-1634 A.D.) of Thanjavur. 35 Josiah Child
was the first man to promote this proposal very seriously i.e.,
of establishing fortified settlements along the Coromandel coast
and particularly of taking the settlements of Nagapattinam from
the Dutch.
Nagapattinam is presently the district headquarters and
carved out of the erstwhile Thanjavur district and also a minor
port town of the Thanjavur district. Along with other towns of
Nagapattinam and Thanjavur district, Nagapattinam shares certain
general characteristics viz. high concentration in land
ownership, a high proportion of the work force in agriculture,

V. Vriddhagirisan, The Nayaks of Thanjavur, Annamalai Nagar,

1942, pp.24-34.
Nagapattinam has been elevated from a taluk headquarters to
a district headquarters in the year 1994 and then it is called
Nagapattinam district.

158
within it a very high proportion of agricultural labourers, and
37
among them a very high proportion of Harijans. Agriculture was

predominantly paddy cultivation. Nagapattinam is situated at the

tail end of the Cauvery delta, and the tract faces problems of

both irrigation and drainage. The extent of double cropping was

limited.

In Nagapattinam (popularly called as East Thanjavur) ,

institutional land holdings by temples were prominent and

concentration of land ownership was very extreme. The people here

were considered to be the best educated in the district and this

characteristic and the general importance of the tract were due

to Nagapattinam town which was a large manufacturing centre and

sea port. Besides, most of the trade and industries of the taluk

centred around in Nagapattinam town. It became one of the

earliest settlements of the Portuguese on the east coast and was

38
called by them "the city of Coromandel". It was naturally one of

the first centres of the Portuguese mission. An interesting

glimpse of their relations with the court at Thanjavur in the

sixteenth century was given by the Venetian merchant, Caesar

Fredsick, who visited the place and relates that the Portuguese

and other Christians were well out-related by the Nayaks. Later,

37
4 2 . S . G u h a n , * P a l a k u n c h i — A R e s u r v e y ' , W . P . No. 4 2 . , "Madras
Institute of Development studies (MIDS) , Madras, 1983, p . 4 .
•JO

44. Ibid., p.411.

159
the Nagapattinam town wascaptured by the Dutch in 1660 and
remained in their hands till 1781. 39
Some interesting relics of the Dutch (modern Holland or
Netherlands) occupation of the Nagapattinam town are still alive.
The old Dutch church near the railway station contains a curious
antique pulpit and sounding board besides the pews and the
gallery which are also old. A stone in the building records its
foundation in 1774.40 There was some evidence to show that this
church was built in order to replace an earlier one on the
shorewhich was washed away by the sea. At the end of the
eighteenth century, it was handed over to Guersicke, a missionary
of the S.P.C.K. (The Society for the Promotion of Christian
Knowledge in London) and was taken over on his death by a
clergyman of the Danish mission. It was recovered by the S.P.G.
who succeeded to the work and institutions of the S.P.C.K. after
some dispute in the late sixteenth century. 41 It was again handed
back to the government, as the mission could not afford to
replace its roofwhich had been blown off by a hurricane.
The old Dutch cementry at Nagapattinam town is interesting
on account of the antique tombs and massive stone slabs with
inscriptions cut in large letters in high
relief. They were
stated to have been carved in and brought from Holland. 42

39
45. Ibid., p.411.
40
46. Ibid., p.412.
41
47. Ibid., p.412.
42
48. Ibid., p. 412
160
8. Point Calimere
South of Nagapattinam for about twenty miles, when the coast
bends almost at right angles west wards at point Calimere, there
were no ports of outlet. The country was sparsely populated
andinhospitable, marked by sand dunes and swamps (vedaranniyam)
andPoint Calimere itself was formed of ridges of sand built up by
the two monsoons to which the area was exported. The drift of
winds and currents along this part of the coast, between
Nagapattinam and point Calimere, was such that sailing ships
would find it difficult to steer towards land and be carried
northwards.
>, Adhirampattinam

South of Nagapattinam and Point Calimere, the nearest port

:>f any significance was Adhirampattinam, about twenty eight miles
west of point calimere. It was a port of the kingdom of
Thanjavur. It was important in the trade of the palk-straits and
the Bay of Madura and most of the sailings were to Malabar,
Tirunelveli and Ceylon (Sri Lanka). The trade was the small,
light craft, suitable for the sheltered waters of the Indo-Ceylon
(Sri Lanka) straits. In the hinterland of Adhirampattinam the
swamplands of the east gave way to densely populated villages
producing rice and handloom textiles.

These above mentioned port towns witnessed the presence of

European settlers. Apart from these ports, the small ports in the
study region were Vailankanni, Thopputhurai, Muthupettai and
Kattumavadi. Thus it was around the port towns that first urban
centres came into existence in Thanjavur district.

161
 A number of ports in the Thanjavur region were the centres
of trade. These were old ports under the control of Indian
rulers as well as newly risen European settlements that were seen
in the seventeenth century. Nagore and Nagapattinam were the
home of a sizeable shipping fleet that engaged in long-distance
and coastal trade. Nagapattinam had been taken first by the
Portuguese and then by the Dutch and was the centre of the trade
of these powers to Europe as well as of a limited Asian trade
carried on by them. It was also the centre of a thriving Indian
trade carried out under the protection of these European powers.

The Dutch East India Company's trade fluctuated somewhat in

this period. On average, exports in textiles of the Dutch were
only slightly lower than that of the English. They had a
stronger import trade into the country than the English. The
Dutch derived their textiles from Thanjavur. They imported
spices, copper and other minerals. All the ports in Thanjavur
district and their activities are given in the following table:

162
 TABLE : IV - 1
MAJOR PORTS IN THANJAVUR DISTRICT AND THEIR
TRADING ACTIVITIES, C. A .D. 1750 - 1813
(FROM NORTH TO SOUTH DIRECTION)

Name of t h e Major activity Connection Remarks

Port & at the port with Trading
companies pr-
ior to 1813

1)THIRUMUL- A free port of the Open to a l l Mainly an

LAIVASAL Thanjavur Kingdom Europeans Indian
with rice and trading
Location : other traditional port
Cauvery trade
Delta

2)TRANQUEBAR Danish Port.There Centre of Trade from here

Location : was no exports to Danish- was backed by
Cauvery Europe after 1777 Europe clandestine
Delta trade funds of British
c i v i l servants
3) KARAIKKAL Mainly rice and French Textile
Location : other commodities enclave collection
Cauvery like Cotton, centre for
Delta Salt, etc. to French
Ceylon and the
Malay archipelago

4)THIRUMALAI- Mainly rice and Indian Typically

ROYANPATTI- other goods like port Indian
NAM cotton, chillies, port
Location: groundnuts, salt,
Cauvery etc.
Delta
5)NAGAPATTI- Mainly rice, Important, Centre for the
NAM and other goods first as a European private
Location : to ceylon, Malabar Portuguese traders as
Cauvery and Malay port and as the Indian
Delta archipelago then Dutch. merchant
English community
contract
from 1783
Table continued.. .

163
6)NAG0RE Mainly rice,Textiles First as a Centre for the
Location: and other goods to Portuguese European private
Cauvery Ceylon, Malabar port and . trader as well
Delta Malay archipelago then Dutch, as the Indian
English Merchant
contract Community
from 1783

7) MUTHUPETTAI Mainly rice Indian Port Small volume of

Location: Indian trade
Cauvery
Delta
8)ADHIRAM- Mainly rice and Indian port Small volume of
PATTINAM other goods Indian as well
Location : as foreign trade
Cauvery
Delta
9) SALUVA- Mainly rice and Indian port Small volume of
NACKEN- other goods Indian trade
PETTAI
Location:
Cauvery
Delta

Therefore the total ports in the district of Thanjavur

during the period under study were only nine, but the Thanjavur
district manual mentioned 16 ports during the early part of the
Medieval period. And it also quotes more or less more than 11
ports during the later part of the Medieval period.

IMPORTANCE OF RELIGION IN URBAN CENTRE

Devotional or bhakti worship was one of the most significant
cultural development of the period as the locus worship and the
urban temple centre often as the pinnacle of a system of rural
shrines.

164
 Many cities or towns have grown round temples in Thanjavur
district during the study period. People congregate for worship
in pilgrim centres in this region. There has been a mutual
attraction of temples to natural surroundings and of cities to
temples. Spirituality and morality, cleanliness and religion
interact in t h e social w e l l - b e i n g of t h e people. 4 3
The great shrines in the Thanjavur district of Tamil Nadu
were almost always associated with some unique manifestation of
nature. Poet Nakirrar bears testimony to this effect when he
says." God is pleased to reside in forests, in groves, in islands
created by the confluence of rivers, on river banks, tank bunds,
in all places of public worship, in squares in the heart of
towns".

Burton Stein suggested that, there were several factors

which resulted in urban growth in the Thanjavur study region.
They were as follows (i) the emergence of religious centres; (ii)
the holding of fairs; (iii) commercial activities centres around
ports; (iv) the bestowal of urban status on rural settlements;

(v) initiatives taken by kings and ministers in the creation of

45
urban centres and so on.
The fact that temple shrines in the Thanjavur region were
the most dominant monuments of the urban landscape and that the

43
T.R.Venkata Subramanian, Environment and urbanisation in early
Tamilagam, T h a n j a v u r , 1 9 8 8 , P . 3 9 .
44
I b i d . P 39
45
B . S t e i n , "Temples i n Tamil C o u n t r y , A.D 1 3 0 0 - 1 7 5 0 " , IESHR, V o l . ,
XIV, No. 1 , 1 9 7 7 , P . 1 - 3 .

165
 available records mostly relate to them have considerably
coloured the perspective regarding the growth of urban centres. 46
This was evident from the statements given by R.R.Hall regarding
the urban complex of Tiruvidaimaruthur. Tiruvidaimaruthur, now in
the Thanjavur district of Tamil Nadu, was a famous religious
(Hindu) centre during the periods of Cholas, Nayaks and Marathas.
Even today, this centre is considered to be one of the major
religious towns of the Thanjavur region. To contradict Burton
Stein's argument that the religious importance of such a centre
(Tiruvidaimaruthur) comes first in the urban centres, Hall
47
states, "Tiruvidaimaruthur, was strategically located at an
important intersection of the river Cauvery. Communication
network had natural advantages which encouraged its development
as a centre of exchange" and further "Tiruvidaimaruthur nagaram
fulfilled the area's commercial needs, specialising as the centre
of a community of exchange. This urban centre was the locus for
local economic interaction with higher order networks of
exchange". And yet the temple remains the final
contributory
factor for the growth of urban centres in the Thanjavur region. 48
Tiruvidaimaruthur provides an example of an urban
centrewhich as a major religious hub was a participant in the
pilgrimage networks of that era, but also and possibly as a
consequence of this influx of religious pilgrims, developed as a

46
Ibid., P.3.
47
Ibid., P. 397.
48
Ibid., P. 398.

166
supra-local centre of consumption as well, requiring goods
(commercial items) supplied not only by area residents, but also
goods acquired from distant places. For example: condiments in
temple (religious) rituals as well as provisions for the
consumption (it includes "prasadam") of visitors to the temple
49
compound.

THE TEMPLE TOWNS IN THANJAVUR DISTRICT

A number of temples, mutts, pallis and viharas were
scattered throughout the Thanjavur kingdom.
A Modi document gives a list of 64 temples under the direct
control and management of the Maratha rulers. Some of these
temples were ancient dating back to the Chola period and some
were Vaishnavite ones consecrated by the Prabandham of the
Alwars. Many temples were newly constructed by the Maratha rulers
in Thanjavur district.

Thanjavur temple was regarded as the biggest of all temples,

the Rajarajeswara temple, the wonder of the age and the
monumental work of Rajaraja, The Great. The city seems to have
grown in size in course of time. The historians learnt that in
the reign of Rajaraja, there were two parts of it, the inner
(ullalai) and the outer (purambadi). The other attraction of
Thanjavur were the "Jayabhima" temple and a hospital attached to
a Vishnu temple called after Rajaraja's father, Sundara Chola

49
Ibid., P.398.

167
 50
Vinnagar Atula-Salai and endowed by his sister, Kundavai. The
whole Thanjavur city was sorrounded by a Fort wall and a deep
Moat. The Chandramouleeswara Swami shrine within the Thanjavur
Maratha Palace premises was purely a private shrine of the
Maratha rulers.

The Thanjavur Prahatheeswara temple, popularly called as

"Big Temple", got full patronage of all the rulers from Cholas to
Marathas in the study region. The Maratha ruler Serfoji-II
installed 108 Siva Lingams in the Big Temple during his reign
(i.e., from 1798 - 1832). He brought all those Lingams from
various temples under his position as a ruler. He also endowed a
sum of Rs. 5000/-, the interest of which was to be utilised for
the daily worship of those Lingams.

The Vellaippillaiyar Temple in the East Gate in Thanjavur

was renovated during the Maratha ruler Serfoji-Il's time.
The nineteen wealthiest temples were those of Sirkali,
Vaideeswarankovil, Tivengad, Mayavaram, Tirukkadaiyur,
Pandanallur, two at Tiruppanandal, Tiruvudaimaruthur,
Tirubhuvanam, Tiruppugalur, Tiruchendattankudi, Punnainallur,
Tiruvaiyaru, Tiruvarur, Mannarkudi, Sikkal, Nagapattinam and
Vedaranyam.51

Many temples in Thanjavur district including Kumbakonam,

Nagapattinam, Vedaranniyam, Tiruvarur, Vaideeswaran Kovil,
Darasuram, Papanasam, Thiruvaiyaru and Sikkal, including

50.
A. Panchanathan, Op. Cit., pp. 7-8.
51
Census of India, 196, Vol.9, Part II.D

168
Thanjavur got munificent gifts from the Marathas. Though Marathas
were staunch Saivites, they also worshipped Vishnu. They were
very tolerant towards other religions.
Temples as the institutional base for socio-economic and
political integration assume great significance from the time of
the Bhakti movement in south India especially in Tamil Nadu from
seventh century. Some of these Bhakti centres like Tiruvavaturai
matha, Tarumapuram Matha, Thirupannanthal Matha became leading
political centres, religious and pilgrimage centres and evolved
into huge urban complexes either around a single large temple or
with multiple temples together forming parts of an urban complex.
Such temples were built by the major ruling dynasties either to
legitimise their sovereignty, or as Bhakti centres. The growth in
the activities of such temples led to urban development. 52
Temple plays a vital role for the development of towns and
cities. A town or a city some times grew round a temple and as
soon as the fame of the temple increased, it would attract people
and became places of pilgrimage. 53 Land grants by the rulers and
individuals also contributed for the maintenance of temple towns
and thus, its gradual transformation led to the settlement of
urban centres in Thanjavur district.
Thanjavur kings (Cholas, Nayakas and Marathas) resorted to
plundering expeditions to enrich their coffers. The commercial

52
R.Champakalakshmi, "The Bhakti ideology and Socio-Political
integration in Tamil Nadu", Urban History Association of India,
Occasional Paper Series, No.3, 1982, PP.5-8.
53
Ibid. , p.8.

169
intercourse paved the way for cultural contacts as well. Part of
the wealth was endowed to the temples and enshrined as trust
property meant for the socio-economic upliftment of the people.

The few important cultural and religious (temple) towns in

this district were Nagapattinam, Kumbakonam, Nagore (Muslim
darga) , Vailankanni (Christian church), Sikkal (Lord Muruga
temple), Tiruvarur, Mannarkudi, Vedaranniyum, Thiruvaiyaru and
Thanjavur includes with in its boundaries the earlier French
settlement "Karaikkal" (It was also a temple and port town) which
lies on the coastal side of Bay Bengal about half way between the
mouth of Coleroon and point Calimere (before French occupation,
it was part of Thanjavur district. Since 1954, Karaikkal has
become part of the Indian union and then it has been transferred
to form part of union territory of Pondicherry. For the purpose
of this study Karaikkal was considered to be part of Thanjavur
district) .

Going by the evidence used in the present work it would

appear that during the greater part of the Medieval period, the
towns were either political centres or places of religious
importance, where corporate activity was generally centered round
fiscal, administrative, ritual and structural activities such as
the construction of temples, monasteries, tanks roads etc. Tasks
which were generally associated with commerce and artisanal
production in towns seem to have been of a purely local
character. It was also noticed that during this period there was
an increase in the numerical distribution of administrative towns
owing to the decentralisation of political and fiscal power.

170
 The last two centuries preceding the study period, however,
marked the beginning of a new phase in the urban history of Tamil
Nadu, possibly, also of the entire sub-continent. The period
witnessed a commercial revival, which seem to have been supported
by greater use of metallic money and also the resettlement of old
towns and construction of new ones. 54
The role of communication in the expansion of urban
settlements can also be seen from the fact that the ancient and
medieval trading cities were situated near the profitable trade
routes. In Medieval Tamil Country also, there was a large
concentration of urban settlements in areas which commanded a
widespread communication network in north-western parts of the
55
state.
In the above pages, it has been discussed that trade and
commerce were also responsible for the settlement of urban
centres in Thanjavur district and this was particularly so in the
case of town situated on the banks of river and seashore. This
discussiongave us the key to the proper understanding of the
factors underlying the study of urban centres during the study
period of Thanjavur district of Tamil Nadu.

^4Brajadulal Chattopadhyaya, Coins and Currency systems in South

India C.A.D. 225-1300, New Delhi, 1977, PP. 163-165.
55
Om Prakash Prasad, Decay and Revival of Urban Centres in
Medieval South India C.A.D. 600-1200, New Delhi, 1989, P.13.

171
 This study would thus suggest that in Thanjavur, although
political and administrative necessity plays an important role in
the urban centres, the degree of urbanity largely depended upon
economic condition also.

Darga
The Maratha's rule in Thanjavur district witnessed the
Muslims being awarded endowments of lands by the kings. The
Muslim festivals were also celebrated with great gaiety and
fervour in the region. It may be noted here that the Bade Hussain
Durga at Thanjavur is still under the management of the Thanjavur
Palace Devasthanam.
Of the sacred Darga's (Tombs) of the Thanjavur district, the
most important was that of Miran Sahib at Nagore. It's
reputation has spread far and wide in this state and it attracts
a large number of pilgrims from all over India and abroad.

The Mutts and the Ascetics

Though there were big Mutts in Dharmapuram and
Thiruvavaduthurai in Thanjavur district, the references are
available only to the Kasi Mutt (Tirupanandal) and Kanchi
Kamakoti petam (Kumbakonam) and also the Ahobila Mutt in the
region.

B. S. Baliga, Thanjavur District Hand book, Madras, 1957,

pp.152-154.
57
K. Nambi Arooran, The Origin of Three Saiva Mathas in Thanjavur
district, Institute of Correspondence Course Madurai Kamaraj
University, Madurai pp 12-81

172
Kasi Mutt (Tirupanandal)
The oldest reference to Kasi Mutt is in a record of 1737,
and Kasi Tambiran was favoured with an endowment of a village
near Tirupanandal fetching an annual income of 100 chakrams to
conduct feeding at Banaras. The Pontiff referred to here could
have been none other than Tillai Nayaka Swamigal who founded the
Mutt at Tirupanandal in 172 0. He was referred to as the disciple
of the Dharmapuram Atheenam in Thanjavur district. It seems that
during the time of Kumaragurupara Swamigal II (1756-1770) , a sum
of 2000 chakrams was given to him to conduct some charities at
Rameswaram. The charities were conducted till 1828 and the
capital was returned to the Rajah because it remained
unproductive. 58
About eight villages in Tiruloki Maganam and a few more were
earmarked for feeding at Banaras. An yield of 82,000 kalams was
estimated in 1772. But as the actual yield in the previous years
were 22,000 and 21,000 kalams less than the estimated income, it
was ordered that 72,000 kalams should be given at any rate for
the conduct of the charity. This belongs to the period of
Kasivasi Kumara gurupara Swamigal II. 59

58
Ibid.,pp 12-83.
59
T. A. Meenakshi Sundaram P i l l a i , Tiruvavatuturai atina varalaru
(Tamil), Madurai pp 3-17.

173
 Tirupanandal Kasi Mutt also served as a counting house for
the Maratha Rajahs. A discount of ab
about 10% was allowed for
sending money from Thanjavur t o Banaras. 60

Kanchi Kamakoti Mutt at Kumbakonam

Adi Sankara founded Mutts in five places, one of which was
Kamakoti Peetha at Kanchipuram. During the reign of Pratapa
Simha (1739-1763), the head of Kanchi Kama Koti Peetha while he
was camping at Udayarpalayam was induced to go to Thanjavur. The
Pontiff, who wanted to reside at some place on the banks of the
river Cauvery, preferred to reside at Kumbakonam. Thereupon the
Rajah built a Mutt for him at the Dabir Agraharam, gifted him
with inam lands, utensils of silver and gold, jewels, horses and
elephants.
From the time of founding the Mutt at Kumbakonam,
Sankarachari was paid annually large sums of money for the
conduct of worship of Chandramouleeswar and of the Vysapuja in the
solar month Ashada. This grant continued upto 1798. During the
period of Serfoji II a new temple was constructed and
62
consecretion conducted in t h e Mutt a t Kumbakonam.

60
Ibid.,pp. 3-17.
K.Nambi Arooran,Op. Cit, pp. 12-85.
62
Ibid., pp. 12-76.
Ref: (i) A life span of 200 years used to be said for Sridhar
Sivaprakasar of Tiruvavaduthurai, making Namasivayamurati a
contemporary of Gurujnasambandar. (ii) The Suriyanar Koil matha
was established at that place about three miles north east of
Aduthurai in the days of Sevappa Nayak of Thanjavur (1532-1580) .
(iii) Tiruvavaduthurai and Dharmapuram are Mathas presided over

174
Ahobila Mutt
This is a Vaishnavite Mutt founded in Andhra Pradesh by one
Sadagopa of Alwar Tirunagari. There was a branch of this Mutt at
Narasimhapuram near Kumbakonam. The Maratha Rajahs extended
their patronage to the Heads of Ahobila Mutt also. In 1811 the
Jiyar of Ahobila Mutt paid a visit to the place and
Kanakabhishekam and Pada puja (worshipping the feet) were
performed.

There is a Veera Saiva Mutt in Kumbakonamand it is one of

the oldest Mutts at Kumbakonam. The other important Mutts in
Thanjavur district are Meru Swamigal Mutt at Mannarkudi, Sivapuja
Mutt at East Alangam in Thanjavur, Goswami Mutt, Uttaradi Mutt
and Vyasaraya Mutt.
There were also Tambirans (Siva Ascetics) belonging to the
Dharmapuram and Tirvuvavaduturai Athinams, attached to some of
the temples under their control in the Maratha principality. At
Tirubhuvanam and Vaitheeswaran Koil, there were Tambirans of
Dharmapuram Athinam. At Tiruvidaimarudur and Tirupperunthurai,
there were Tambirans belonging to Tiruvavaduthurai Athinam.

£y Acharyas, spirititual heads, while that at Tirupanandal is

presided over only by a disciple of Dharmapuram and has no
Acharya. (iv) The institution at Tiruppanandal is even today
known as xSri Kasi Matha'. It is incorrect to say that the
headquarters was transferred from Banares at any time. At best
it may be said that Tiruppandal is the winter headquarters of the
head of the Kasi Matha like the Rastrapathi Nivas in
Secunderabad.
T.A.Menakshi Sundaram Pillai, Op.Cit., pp. 3-17.

175
Kumbakonam
Kumbakonam town a historical and ancient place, was at one
time the capital of the Cholas. It has a number of temples and
contains the famous "Mahatma Tank". The town was known as
"Tirukkudamukku" in ancient times and it was called
"Tirukkudanthai" Py orthodox Vaishnavites. Kumbakonam attained
the name because of too many temples in and around the town.
The two rivers, Cauvery and Arasalar pass through the town
and the town is surrounded by rich and fertile paddy fields and
is lying in the midst of the several irrigation channels of the
Cauvery delta. The town has an altitude of only two metres from
the sea level and a latitude of 11.58°N and latitude of 79.23°C.
During the early part of the study period, the Kumbakonam
town was well formed, and most of the wholesale trade centres,
the Bazaar and shops were located in the centre of the city,
particularly on the road to the North from Ramaswamy Temple and
the road to East from Kumbeswarar Temple.
From the point of view of the study of urban centres,
Kumbakonam cannot be said to have made any rapid strides during
the later part of the study period. It may be observed from the
schematic map of the city that old residential houses were almost
in the entire area. The lack of space for building new colonies
in the town was perhaps one reason for the sluggish growth of the
town. New residential colonies were seen mostly in the eastern
part along the Needamangalam road to a smaller extent in the
eastern portion just near the Cauvery river in the north.

176
Thiruvaiyaru
In greatness, Thiruvaiyaru is ^marginally ahead of Kashi'.
According to an adage -"fractionally" 1/16 to be precise . it
is Thiruvaiyaru, a small town just a "big village when compared
with its counterpart Banaras in North India". 64
Thiruvaiyaru is situated on the northern bank of the sacred
river Cauvery at a distance about 13 kilometres to the north of
Thanjavur town. The place Thiruvaiyaru is one of the important
spots in the "musical map" of India, approximately on the
intersection of 79°-15° and 10°-15°-E. L.
As far as the antiquity of Thiruvaiyaruis concerned, the
historical evidences are many, besides references in the
legendary chronicle. It had received the Royal patronage from the
kings of the Chola Dynasty (850 A D to 1279 A.D), being very near
Thanjavur, their capital city. Thereafter, the region came under
the sway of the Pandyas, the emperors of Vijayanagar and the
Nayakas for a period of about 400 years. It was during the rule
of the Maratha kings from 1675 A.D that the town regained it
status. Thiruvaiyaru was declared one of the five administrative
divisions, a grade it continued to enjoy even in the initial
phase of the British sovereignty, in the beginning of the
nineteenth century.

64
S. A. Alagarsamy, Indu Tourism Nevs - An I n t e r n a t i o n a l Tourism

Magazine, Vol.5, Madras, Novermber, 1991, p . 6 .

Ibid., p.6
177
 The Thiruvaiyaru is very fertile as it is encompassed by
five rivers. They are (i) the Kollidam (Coleroon) , (ii) the
Kudamuruthi, (iii) the Vadavaru, (iv) the Vennaru (Vinnaru) , and
the (v) Cauvery. The interpretations for the term "Iyaru" and the
prefix "Tiru" are mentioned in the following paragraph.

The Siva temple is dedicated to Panchanadeeshwara, the Lord

of the five rivers (pancha-five, Nadi-river) his consort being
Dharmasanivardani. The saiva saint Appar who lived in the seventh
century A.D. was blessed with the "Darshan" of the Almighty,
here, a glimpse of his form as in Kailash, His holy abode! ... It
was on a new moon day in the Tamil month of Aadi (August) . On
account of this, the place is also referred to as the
"SouthKailash". The southern entrance is of significance. One of
the ^dwarapalas' (door-keepers of Shiva) guarding it is known as
x
Aathondai'.66
The *saptha sthana' festival on the full moon day in the
Tamil month of Chithrai (April-May) is one of the grandest among
the festivals at Thiruvaiyaru. The ^palanquin' festival
culminates at the sacred place, Tiruvaiyaru, hence the name
x
saptha sthana' festival (saptha seven, sthana - holy place).
Among the temple towns in Thanjavur, Kandiyoor is unique; in
that small village it has temples in honour of the trinity -
Brahma, Vishnu and. Shiva.

66
Ibid., p.7

178
 Thiruvaiyaru, in the later years came to be associated with
the life history of Saint Tyagaraja (04-05-1767 to 06-01-1847).
In fact, the period between the second half of the eighteenth
century and the first half of the nineteenth century could easily
be described as the * golden period' for music the world over.
Famous composers like Beethovan of Germany, Mozart of Austria,
the xMusical Trinity' — Tyagaraja, Muthuswamy Dikshitar, Shyama.
Shastri — of India lived in that period, to mention a few.
Tyagaraja, the saint-composer who lived in Thiruvaiyaru, sang
x
nearly seven hundred keerthanas' in ecstasy. He attained
x
siddhi' on 06-01-1947. The spot on the banks of Cauvery, at
which his mortal remains were interred is a revered shrine.
Thiruvaiyaru is thronged with musicians, musicologists and music
lovers from all over the globe during the congregation in the
Tamil month of *Thai' (January) every year. All pay homage to the
versatile composer to describe which one has to discover one's
own metaphor. According to traditions the saint had the
x
darshan' of Lord Rama thrice in his life time (as had Saint
Appar that of Lord Shiva more than 1,300 years ago!) The house in
x
which he lived in Tirumanjana veethi and the samadhi'
(mansoleum) are well preserved as monuments. The Welmeethi
x
mandapa', erected close to the samadhi' contains blocks of
marbles on which are inscribed his immortal compositions.

Ibid., p.7.
CO
Ibid., p.8.

179
 Thus the religious centres occupied an important place in
Thanjavur district. It was the place where all people, young and
old, came to worship God. It was the place where all
entertainments and the festivals, religious as well as secular,
and dancing as well as music were held and also kings, queens and
nobles loved to display their munificience. It was indeed the
most magnificient place, where riches, beauty, sanctity, worship,
learning, fine arts and even mundane things combined to attract
all sections of the people in the study region. No wonder that
the culture and civilization during the study period grew under
the protecting shade of the temple.

CHRISTIAN MISSIONARIES IN THANJAVUR DISTRICT

As Thanjavur has been from early times a scene of missionary
labour, some account of the number and state of the several
missionary establishments witnessing the existence of urban
centres in the study regionis important. The Christian missions
from various European countries landed in the Thanjavur region at
different intervals of time and they contributed a lot for the
betterment of towns and cities in this region. Thanjavur district
witnessed the earliest Christian missions in India.

The Protestant Mission in the Danish settlement of

Tranquebar was extended to Thanjavur in the year 1778 A.D. by the

69
J. M. Somasundaram Pillai, The Great Temple at Thanjavur,
Thanjavur University Publication No. 192, Thanjavur, 1994, p.100.

180
Rev. C.F. Schwartz of the Leipzig Lutheran Mission who had
transferred his services to the mission in Thanjavur.
The Roman Catholic missions in Thanjavur also date from the
first half of the eighteenth century, long before the Protestant
missionaries in the city of Thanjavur. Thanjavur was considered
to be one of their principal seats in the study region. There
were two large and substantially built protestant churches within
the urban limit of Thanjavur. The first one was the Schwartz
church, originally called the Christ church in the north-east of
the smaller fort. The second one was the Saint Peter's church
in Mahar-nombu Chavadi in the south-east of Thanjavur. The
former was at the beginning a mud wall church created by Major
Stevens, in which Rev. Schwartz officiated to the English
garrison and other Christians, both Indian and European. The
English service was held here till June 1798 A.D. when, on the
restoration of Serfoji to the throne, the British troops
evacuated the adjacent small fort and the temple. Tamil service
was thereafter conducted and the same was permitted by the Rajah

10
Ibid., p.433.
Thanjavur comprises primarily two main divisions, the
smaller fort of Sevvappa and the larger fort of Vijayaraghava of
the great rulers of the Thanjavur Nayaks. Besides, it has three
sub-urbs: they were Mahar-nombu chavady in the south-east (Mahar
nombu in Tamil denotes a great festival; it was the Dasara
festival in which the Maratha Rajahs used at the Vijaya Mandapam
in Sri Thyagarajaswami Temple at this place, to go through the
ceremony of shooting arrows at an asura, signifying the foe of
the Gods). Karuntitaikkudi and Paliagraharam in the north, and
the modern township extensions of New (George) town and Daniel
Thomas Nagar in the south.

181
of Thanjavur. Service was performed here annually once in the
morning of the New Year's day. 72
The Schwartz church "a striking and gratifying memorial of
Christian excellence and of Hindu gratitude and affection" was
the gift of Rajah Serfoji's in token of his affection and esteem
for Rev. Schwartz and was constructed by him in 1779 A.D. Its
interior, contains the marble tablet by Flaxman representing in
basso-relievo, the death-bed scene of Schwartz. The Schwartz
church a garden which was formerly the pleasure resort of the
Maratha Rajahs of Thanjavur. 74 (the columns of whose buildings
alone remain), is now maintained as a public garden, and a number
of buildings which were utilized as public offices. The old walls
and the moat are still a fine sight. 75
The Schwartz church in Thanjavur was a plain building and
contains a few graves and inscriptions. A sculpture of king
Serfoji's visit to Schwartz in November 1797 (during his
illness, a few months before his death) standing by the side of
the bed was Guesicke who had been Serfoji's guardian and tutor at
Madras and was Schwartz when he died.
Besides the Schwartz church and the St.Peter's church
mentioned above there were the S.P.G. church, a Roman Catholic

72J. M. Somasundaram Pillai., op.cit., p.101.

73
IJbid., p. 101.
Ibid., p.89
75
IJbid., p.90.
A Manual of the Administration of the Madras Presidency. Vol
II., p.126.

182
 Church and a church built by the Leipzig Evangelical Lutheran
77
Mission.

The arrival of Schwartz in 1770 in Thanjavur town spurt the

activities of the Christianity. 78 This same year he founded a
mission in Thanjavur, which received land grants from the Maratha
ruler, Tulzaji. At that time, the number of Christians were
accounting to 1,000. Schwartz's mission became very famous and
very soon started offering educational facilities for both boys
and girls. English and Tamil both were taught in these schools
which was attended by more than 300 children.

Apart from the Schwartz's mission, there were two more

missionaries established in Thanjavur town. One of them was
located in the small fort at one side of the "big temple". The
other one was situated opposite to the tank near the Maratha's
palace. Many educational institutions managed by the Christians
were the recipients of periodical money grants from the Maratha
rulers.

11
Ibid., p.126.
78
William Hickey., The Maratha Principality in Southern India:
the Land of the Chola, the Eden of the South., Madras, 1988,
Appendix-B, p.ii. Schwartz (1726-1798) a German missionary was
closely connected to the development of missionary activities in
Thanjavur district. He was supposed to be the close confident of
Maratha rulers and made them to donate land and money to the
church activities liberally. He was once sent as an ambassador by
the British government to Hyder Ali, the ruler of Mysore for the
services rendered to the government, the British has erected his
statue at St.George fort in Madras. Schwartz has a habit of
writing diaries, which is very useful to the student of history
in many ways. See: K.R.Subramanian, The Maratha Rajahs of
Thanjavur, Madras, 1988, pp.86-87.

183
 Church and the Hissionary Activities
Higher education was well prevalent and a big collection of
manuscript literature on a variety of topics were also seen
during this period. Tamil was given more importance.The progress
of education in the Thanjavur district was highly developed in
this respect. F. R. Hemingway's Thanjavur District Gazetteer
highlights that Thanjavur was considered to be the most educated
and populated district than almost any other district in the
Madras Presidency. 79
Thanjavur district was generally rich and well educated and
litigious and therefore provided unusual openings to the
professional classes.

Vailanganni
It is situated south of Nagapattinam and was well known for
its Roman Catholic Church in this place. This town has
consequently been called the "Lourdes of India". The origin of
the shrine (Our Lady of Health — as virgin Mary) was obscure,
but most commonly accepted account was that 200 or 300 years ago
a wealthy Portuguese merchant erected a little chapel to "Our
Lady of Health". This now forms the choir of the church. The
chapel was long in charge of the Portuguese
but Franciscans,
later secular priests from Mylapore (Madras) have officiated. 8 0

79
F. R. Hemingway, Op. Cit., pp. 54-55
on
Ibid., p.415.

184
 CULTURAL FACTORS

Towns had emerged and died but their culture, which absorbed
the achievements of previous epochs, was handled down from
generation to generation. Many features and functions of towns
remained virtually unchanged.

Music, Drama and Dance

Politically kingdoms rose and fell, and there was a fatal
fragmentation. Culturally the towns in Thanjavur district were on
par with the most advanced civilization. 81
According to William Hickey, there was a renaissance in arts
and culture in the "Ancient Thanjavur
Country", during the
period between seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. 82
In Tamil Nadu, Thanjavur district was especially known for
its art and culture and also the unique traditional and cultural
heritage that the region carries till today.
Thanjavur kings resorted to many expeditions to enrich their
economy. The commercial interactions paved the way for cultural
contacts between this region and the neighbouring areas.
Moreover, the rulers liberally spent their income for the
development of art and culture in this region. Besides, part of
their wealth was endowed to temples and enshrined as trust

81
T. Walter Wall Bank, quoted by G. Devaneyam, in his article
"Antiquity of Tamil", published in the special issue journal:
Tamil Arasu, Eighth World Tamil Conference, Thanjavur, January
1-5, 1995, p.19.
8?
William Hickey, Thanjavur: Maratha Principality on South India,
Madras, 1872, p.1-3.

185
property meant for social, economic and more precisely cultural
upliftment of the people.
Apart from the wealthy merchants the business class
patronised the art and culture in this region. Land grants by the
rulers and individuals contributed for the formation of cultural
centres and temple towns in Thanjavur district.
The Sree Punnainallur Mariamman temple at the outskirts of
Thanjavur town and other temples in this region were famous for
folklore arts. The components of the art of drama "karagam",
"vocal", "dance" and "dramas" were presented in the temples
during the festival occasions.
Music and songs constituted a substantial part of stage
plays like "therukoothu" (a dramatic performance of dance in the
street) , "kathaakalaachebam" (a narration of puranic stories
interspersed with songs) and "villupaattu" (a folk performance in
which a story was sung with prose interludes to the accompaniment
of a huge bow and other instruments). These dramas coupled with
music and songs were well received by the people in Kumbakonam,
Thiruvaiyaru and other places.
Tamil Nadu, particularly Thanjavur district was full of
veritable sources for enjoyment not generally seen in other
regions. Architects were also well versed in the knowledge of
music and acoustics. While erecting colossal temples they applied

83
Pamplet issued by the IATR at the Eighth World Tamil Conference,
Thanjavur, January 1-5, 1995.
Ibid.

186
their knowledge not only to decorate them with monumental art

creation, but also to intensify and enrich the grandeur and

solemnity of the divine worship.

Thanjavur has been the nursery of the Carnatic music with

the i l l u s t r i o u s trinity and their school of musicians. One was

even tempted to construct music as yet another "industry".

During the rule of Marathas, i t was acclaimed as a very important

cityc where a r t and music were greatly patronised. Pilgrims and

tourists to temples augmented its economic resources which

maintained hospitals and educational institutions. Its

indigenous industries manufactured salt, brassware, musical

instruments e t c . Hence, t h i s region was considered to be one of

the greatest centres of culture and learning in India.

The panchamukha vaadhyam ( i . e . the drum or pot shaped body)

was met with in the sculptural panels and niches depicting Lord

Shiva as the arch dancer-Nataraja in the temples at Thanjavur,

Kumbakonam, Tarangampadi (Tranquebar) , Tiruvalanjuli and other

places in the study region. The panchamukha vaadhyam has been

85
essentially a temple r i t u a l drum even today in t h i s region. It

is played during the annual festival in the temple of Sri

Thyagaraja at Tiruvarur in Thanjavur d i s t r i c t . Moreover, it has

been played as solo and along with the suddha maddalam. Probably

the only other place where t h i s instrument is being played, even

today, is Thirutturaipoondi in the same d i s t r i c t .

Dr. (Mrs)., S. Premalatha, "The History of Indian Musical

Instruments", Proceedings of the Fifth World Tamil Conference,
Madurai, 1981, p . 4 - 1 - 4 0 .

187
 The district of Thanjavur became gradually an enlightened
centre of musical learning due to the patronage extended by the
various rulers.
Sahaji was distinguished as a poet and he was the author of
about 30 works in various languages. Yaksha Ganas were also
composed. Though Panca Parinaya Nataka was ascribed to Sahaji, it
is said that the real author was one Seshachalapati. His work
Sankara Narayana Vilasa was written in Tamil.
Serfoji I was also a musicologist. Tulzaji I was the author
of a musical treatise called Sangeeta Saravali. Ekoji II was the
author of some Padas and Dramas.
The authorship of Devendra Kuravanji and a few plays are
ascribed to Serfoji I. Sarabhendra Bhupala Kuravanji was a
Kuravanji Natakam written on Serfoji II by Sivakkolundu Desikar.
Sivaji II was the author of Annappoornamba natakam.
Many musicians, vocal as well as instrumental, were favoured
with endowments of landed property. Veenai Kalahasti Iyer, Veenai
Kuppier, Veenai Ramaswami, Jagannatha Bhatgoswami, Palambhat
Bhatgoswami were among those who were such recipients.
Seshachalapathi, Giri Rajakavi, Muthuswami Kavirayar, Utke
Govindachari, Ramachandra Dixit, Naila Bhuta Kavi, Venkatesa
Kavi, Triyambaka Bhat, Bhagavanta Kavi and Sivakkolundu Desikar
were among the galaxy of court poets of those days.
Many Dramas, written in various languages, were enacted in
the palace. There was a separate department for music. Students
from other parts of the country came to Thanjavur to learn music.
There was also Bhagavata Mela at Mannarkudi. Western music was

188
also favoured and musical instruments like the harp, violin,
piano, French horn were also introduced.
Educational Institutions
Sanskrit education was popular among the Brahmins. The
advent of the Muslim power necessitated the study of the Arabic
language. Telugu became the Court language during the Nayaks.
Marathi was introduced during the Maratha rule. Marathi speaking
families settled in Thanjavur in large numbers. Hence the elite,
at least, had to learn these court languages in addition to their
mother tongue. From the beginning of the eighteenth century
English took active part in the politics of Thanjavur and English
also had to be learnt. Tamil, the language of the land and the
masses survived in the midst of so many languages.
Some English schools were established wherein "for the first
time in the late eighteenth century, the window to the west was
thrown open to the Tamils".
There was the Nava Vidya Kala Nidhi Sala in the fort of
Thanjavur wherein instruction in Vedic lore was given. There was
also provision to impart education in six native languages, there
were also Tamil schools in the four main streets at Thanjavur.
There were also schools attached to the Chatrams and in the
Muktambal Chatram 436 pupils were given free boarding and
lodging. Out of them 183 learnt Tamil. It seems one came from
Penukonda to learn English. There were also special schools for
the education of the Europeans. In olden days the Saraswathy
Mahal was called Saraswathy Bhandaram- The custodian of this
Mahal during Sivaji II was Varahppayya.

189
 During the reign of Serfoji II many palm leaf manuscripts
were purchased and added to the library. Many old manuscripts
which were in decay were copied afresh. There was a fair
collection of French, English, German, Greek and Latin books in
the library by this time. There was also a printing press.

Land Grants
Land grants to Brahmins were common in Thanjavur district
during the period of study. Tulzaji I granted 5 velis of land to
three Brahmins naming it Lakshmi Narsimhapuram in Kottur Mahanam
and three velis to eight persons in Tirutturaipoondi Mahaham.
Land was also granted to high officials of the Raj, temples and
the Bhagavata Mela.

Agraharams
Residential quarters for the Brahmins were called as
Agraharam. In this place the Brahmins were given land grants
without any tax to be paid to the government. There was one
Agraharam in the name of Dabir Pandit Kumbakonam. During Tulzaji
II one has come up at kumbakonam in 1763. There were other
agraharams also, which were established in different years, for
example, at Mimisal in 1777, one at Vennar Bank in 1779, one at
Narsingapuram in 1786, at Tiruvidaimarudur and Tirubhuvanam. At
Orathanadu there were 24 houses and each occupant was awarded 51
kalams of Paddy every year. One of the Brahmins was an "Ekasanta
grahi" in Chakvarambapuram Agraharam.

190
Choultries (or) Chatrams
A Modi document dated 14-10-1838 gives a list of 15 chatrams
under the management of the Maratha rulers. Rajakumaramba Boi
Choultry was the oldest chatram. It was founded by Tulzaji I in
the name of his consort at Surakkottai. Chakvaramba Boi Chatram
was situated in Tirubhuvanam. It had Sarvamanya lands at
Tepperumanallur. Raja Kumara Boi Choultry at Mimisal was founded
by Tulzaji II in the name of his queen of the same name.
Mohanambalpuram Chatram at Rajamadam near Papanasam in Thanjavur
district was also founded by Tulzaji II in the name of his queen.

Draupadambalpuram Chatram was at Manamerkudi and

Yamunambalpuram Chatram at Nidamangalam was founded in 1761. In
the latter place Vedas were imparted to pupils and Upanayanam
etc. were performed at chatram expenses. The Rameswaram Chatram
was perhaps founded by Tulzaji II and the handed property for the
chatram was at Vadaseri. Sulakshnambalpuram Chatram was founded
at Velangulam in 1784 by Tulzaji II with an agraharam attached
with it. Rajasambalpuram Chatram was founded at Darasuram by the
ruler Tulzaji II. At Mahadevapattinam there was a choultry called
Umabol Choultry. At Muktambalpuram Chatram in Orathanadu the
pilgrims were fed thrice a day. Marriages etc. were conducted at
the expenses of the Choultry. There were five schools attached to
the choultry and 641 pupils.
The Thanjavur Chatram had lands at Annamma Pettai. Besides
daily feeding, some other functions were conducted.
Saidambalpuram Chatram and Surakkottai Chatram were amalgamated
into one. There were choultries near Mahamaham tank at Kumbakonam

191
and Thiruvaiyaru. Lakshimirajapuram (Palliagraharam) Chatram was
founded by the father of Amirtha Rao Ramoji Ghatge, the brother
in-law of Serfoji II. The superintendence of the choultries
always descended from the elder to the younger queen and then to
the wife of the reigning king. Those who did not choose to take
food in the choultry were provided with unboiled rice with spices
etc. Travellers who fell sick at the chatram were treated
carefully, given medicine and also the diet proper for them till
their recovery. By a regulation of the Revenue Board of 1811, the
administration of the property of the chatrams was transferred to
the District Collector.

There were other types of charities existing during the

period of study. The place where yaga was performed was made over
to the person who performed the yaga. In 1828 Serfoji II gave the
"dana" to one Reddirayaer at Kumbakonam. Dasadana, i.e., giving
of cow, land, sesame, gold, ghee, cloth, jaggery, paddy, silver
and salt was also performed periodically. Daily godana and
gosahasra or giving of 1000 cows on one day was also conducted in
1819. Gold bull and gold elephant were gifted to the Big Temple
at Thanjavur.

FORT TOWNS

In Thanjavur district, there were so many fort towns emerged

during the study period, especially, during the times of
Marathas.

192
Tranquebar
In Tamil, Tranquebar was called as Tarangambadi, which means
"vave village". In 1706 A.D., the German Protestant missionaries,
namely, Ziegenbalg and Plutschan established their first
protestant mission in the Danish (Denmark) settlement of
86
Tranquebar in the Coromandel coast of Thanjavur region.
Tranquebar was a very early Danish settlement of the region and
also an important seaport as well as fort city of the study area.
Tranquebar once also served as the headquarters of the
collector. Tranquebar town was enclosed by a brick wall and also
the town had the remains of a fortification. The main road enters
through an imposing gateway bearing the date 1792 and the
monogram of the king of Denmark. 87 The houses were mostly
bungalows without compound and the streets (known by such names
as King's Street and Queen's Street) were
suggestive of a
European town. The inhabitants were mostly Christians. 88
The Danes obtained Tranquebar and a few villages adjoining
to the town from the Nayakas of Thanjavur, under a grant in the
year 1620. The Danes continued to occupy this town till 1845,
when the British East India Company acquired Tranquebar by
purchase.89 The Danes paid an annual subsidy to the Maratha Rajahs

86B. S. Baliga, Thanjavur District Handbook, Madras, 1957, p.405.

87.
7
Ibid., p.406.
88
Ibid., p. 40.
89
T. Venkatasamy, Thanjavur District Manual, Vol.1, Madras,
1915, p.124.

193
 of Thanjavur 90 and the British East India Company. This subsidy of
payment to these people continued by the Danes at Tranquebar till
about 1852. 9 1
The Leipzig Lutheran Mission had its headquarters at
Tranquebar. Besides a Roman Catholic Mission was also established
in the town. During the study period, the town witnessed little
trade and commerce activities in this region, though the port was
open to foreign trade.92 The Danish fort at Tranquebar called as
the "Dansborg" is an important building and probably the only
defensible part of the town during the large part of its
memorable history. 93

CAPITAL TOWNS
Among the cities, Thanjavur perhaps stood first in the urban
centres of the capital towns in the region. It was the capital of
Cholas, Nayakas, Marathas rule. And it was an administrative
centre consisted of number of Royal palaces, a large number of
stately residences of the Royal family and a large number of busy
streets. There were big streets such as South Street, East Main

90
Official Reports of Thanjavur Papers: 1789, Vol. 2-3, Part
3, deals the financial committments of Thanjavur and see also:
the papers r e l a t i n g to the payment of the above subsidy in bundle
No. 1, sub Nos. 44-57, etc.
91
Ibid.
92S. Anasaratnam. Merchants, Companies and Commerce on the
Coromandel Coast 1650-1740., Delhi, 1986, pp.27-28.

93
B. S. Baliga., Op.Cit., p.407.

194
Street, North Street, West Street and so on, the big bazaar of
Ayyankadai Theru and Kilavasal and the two new important roads
running east to west of the whole city known as the Northern and
Southern talicharis.
Urban history is undoubtedly an objective process and a
historically progressive one at certain stages of social
development. Towns have existed for almost two thousand years in
Thanjavur district of Tamil Nadu. Towns had emerged and died but
their culture which absorbed the achievements of previous epochs
is handled from generation to generation. Many features and
functions of towns remained virtually unchanged. Medieval
Thanjavur saw the promising activities of trade and industries.
These two occupations were the root causes for urban centres in
medieval Thanjavur district of Tamil Nadu.
There was no distinction between village and town in late
medieval period in South India. According to G. R. Kuppuswamy,
"It futile to attempt a clear cut classification of medieval
economy of Karnataka into different sectors, namely urban and
rural. The villages exhibited more features of a rural of
agricultural economy while the towns or cities betrayed more of
an urban or industrial and commercial economy". 94
P. V. Kane pointed out the ancient fact that a village, even
a large one, was distinguished from a town on the basis that it
was only in the latter all castes were to be found. 95 With this

94G. R. Kuppuswamy, Economic Condition in Karnataka : 973-1336,

Dharwad.
95
P. V. Kane, History of Dharmasastra (Ancient and Medieval

195
one can give a picture of urban life. The nomenclature of place
name had come in handy to evolve the urban centres in Thanjavur
district. Generally Indian historians accepted the following
suffices as the pointers to urbanity. They were Nagara, Pura,
Pattana, Nigma and Mahanagara. Among these, Nigama was
infrequently used in the Medieval period. This indicates the
idea of two essentially opposite points on a continuous pole
which continued to survivewhatever the stages in the history of
urban history.

Terms such as Nagaram, Purani, Pattinam were attached to

certain urban settlements in recognition of their market
functions and their more diverse population. However such urban
settlements were within the complex structure of the newly
emerged rural localities, before 1750 A.D. In most of the urban
settlements of that time merchants and artisians along with
others lived in close association, sharing involvement in the
cultural life of the locality.

Administrative Centres
Some big urban settlements had acted as administrative
centres in late medieval Thanjavur district of Tamil Nadu. They
were Nagore, Karaikkal, Nagapattinam, Pattukottai, Kumbakonam,
Vallam, Mannarkudi and Thanjavur which had acted as authority
centres at times. In all these centres army was deployed. All

Religious and Civil Lav), Poona, 1946, vol III, p.183.

B. D. Chattopadhyaya,"Urban Centres in Early Medieval India - An
overview",in Situating Indian History, Oxford, 1986, p.16

196
types of armies had held their sway over these centres and areas
around them. Vallam in Thanjavur district was the best example
for this. Here the British regiment and the Marathas army-like
cavalry, and infantry had been deployed. Many commander-in-chiefs
were present and government authorities and local officials were
mentioned in the Gazetteers and Manual reports and records.
Vallam was one of the important as well as significant military
towns in Thanjavur district.

Another administrative centre, to be noted, was Karaikkal.

Here French people ruled autonomously. They built many
administrative complexes in Karaikkal. Karaikkal had been
populated by government and local officials. French army had been
stationed here. Also it acted as a pilgrim centre for the people
from Thanjavur, Kumbakonam and Nagapattinam and also other parts
of the Madras Presidency. Hence it developed as a urban centre in
the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. Poompuhar
which was submerged in the Bay of Bengal was another centre of
the kings from Thanjavur,
particularly Cholas. It was also
located at the strategic point. 97 This centre must have been the
authority over ancient highway and the hinterlands in Chola,
Chera and Pandya countries. It was populated by communities of
the local Tamil people mainly comprising of merchants, various
inland traders, businessmen, potters, artisans, craftsmen,

97
Karnataka kings who ruled upto sixteenth century (Udaiyar
dynasty) had controlled souther Karnataka and modern Kongu.

197
weavers and administrative officials of the Thanjavur rulers
besides musicians, dancers. In course of time it emerged as an
urban centre.
Urban history was a distinctive feature of the economic
history of later Medieval south India, and it may well have been
the most significant historical process of the period from the
thirteenth century in the sense of the study of the factors such
as economic, cultural and political of that period. 98
The following chapter discusses about the socio-economic
conditions in Thanjavur district during the period between 1750
and 1813 in detail.

98
Tapanroy Chowdary and Irfan Habib, The Cambridge Economic
History of India, Vol. I , New Delhi, 1982, P. 452.

198