INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

ON

HYDRO TURBINES ENGINEERING ,

FORMING
&
STEAM TURBINES

GUIDED BY :- SUBMITTED BY:-

AMITAV MONDAL AKSHAY SHARMA

AGM, HTE DEPARTMENT TRAINEE

 DECLARATION:-

I , AKSHAY SHARMA , declare that this

project report entitle “Project report on Hydro Turbines
Engineering , Casting , Steam Turbines” is originally
piece of work done and submitted by towards partial
fulfillment of my B.E.(Mechanical Engineering)
Graduate program (Industry Integrated) , under the
guidance of “ Mr. Amitav Mondal (AGM, HTE) BHEL
Bhopal”.

DATE – 29/06/2013 AKSHAY SHARMA

B.E. (MECHANICAL)
VIST, Bhopal
 PREFACE

At very outset of the prologue it becomes imperative to

insist that vocational training is an integral part of
engineering curriculum. Training allow us to gain an
instate into the practical aspects of the various topics,
with which we come across while pursuing our B.E.
i.e. vocational training gives us practical
implementations of various topics we already learned
and will learn in near future. Vocational training always
emphasizes on logic and common sense instead of
theoretical aspects of subject.
On my part, I pursued four weeks training at
BHEL Bhopal. The Training involved a study of various
departments of the organization as per the time
logically scheduled and well planned given to us. The
rotation in various departments was necessary in order
to get an overall idea about the working of the
organization.

AKSHAY SHARMA
B.E. (MECHANICAL)
VIST, BHOPAL
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The extensive training program at BHARAT HEAVY

ELECTRICALS LIMITED {BHEL}, Bhopal was a great
opportunity and an exceptional learning experience for
me. It is first hands on experience and an exposure of
practical world.
I got opportunity to work under the esteemed
supervision of Mr. AMITAV MONDAL,AGM HTE. It was
great privilege for me to work under him. I am thankful
to him for his extremely patient gesture, to make
training program fruitful for me and for rendering every
possible help to carry out this research project.
I offer my gratitude to the management and staff that
have spent their precious time, expressed keen interest
and given continued encouragement throughput the
study and enabled the successful completion of my
practical at BHEL, Bhopal.
I am indebted to my parents , teachers and friends who
helped and encouraged me to work hard, move ahead
and inspired me with words. Their blessings made this
work possible.

AKSHAY SHARMA
B.E. {MECHANICAL}
VIST, BHOPAL
 CONTENTS

Company Overview……………………………………………………………. .

Product Profile…………………………………………………………………. ..

Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited {BHEL},Bhopal………………….

Various Divisions at BHEL Bhopal………………………………………. .

Hydro turbines Manufacturing in {BHEL}..............................

Introduction to hydro turbines..............................................

Types of hydro turbines.......................................................

Valves {main inlet valve} .....................................................

Governors............................................................................................

Cavitations.............................................................................................

Fabrication...........................................................................

Casting.................................................................................

Ferrous and non ferrous alloys ..............................................

Core , Pattern and design of mould........................................

Shell Mould casting...............................................................

Introduction to steam turbines.............................................................

Some of the machines used in BHEL....................................................

 BHEL is the largest engineering and manufacturing enterprise in India in
the energy-related/infrastructure sector, today. BHEL was established in
1964, ushering in the indigenous Heavy Electrical Equipment industry in
India - a dream that has been more than realized with a well-recognized
track record of performance. The company has been earning profits
continuously since 1971-72 and paying dividends since 1976 -77.

BHEL caters to the core sectors of the Indian Economy, viz. Power,
Transmission, Industry, Transportation, Renewable Energy, Oil & Gas and
Defence. The wide network of BHEL’s 15 Manufacturing Divisions, 4 Power
Sector Regional Centres, 8 Service Centres, 15 Regional Offices, 4
Overseas Offices, 2 Subsidiaries and over 150 project sites spread all over
India enables the Company to promptly serve its customers and provide
them with suitable products, systems and services -- efficiently and at
competitive prices. The high level of quality & reliability of its products is
due to the emphasis on design, engineeri ng and manufacturing to
international standards by acquiring and adapting some of the best
technologies from leading companies in the world, together with
technologies developed in its own R&D centres.

BHEL has acquired certifications to Quality Managemen t Systems (ISO

9001:2008), Environmental Management Systems (ISO 14001:2004) and
Occupational Health & Safety Management Systems (OHSAS 18001:2007)
and is also well on its journey towards Total Quality Management.

BHEL has

Installed equipment for over 1,17,000 MW of power generation - for

Utilities, Captive and Industrial users.

Supplied over 2,25,000 MVA transformer capacity and other equipment

operating in Transmission & Distribution network up to 400 kV (AC &
DC).

Supplied over 25,000 Motors with Drive Control System to Power

projects, Petrochemicals, Refineries, Steel, Aluminum, Fertilizer, Cement
plants, etc.

Supplied Traction electrics and AC/DC locos to power over 12,000 kms
Railway network.

Supplied over one million Valves to Power Plants and other Industries.

BHEL's operations are organized around three business sectors,

namely Power, Industry - including Transmission, Transportation and
Renewable Energy - and Overseas Business. This enables BHEL to have a
strong customer orientation, to be sensitive to his needs and respond
quickly to the changes in the market.
BHEL's vision is to become a world-class engineering enterprise.

BHEL is today a key player in the power sector through the construction,
commissioning and servicing of power plants all over the world. BHEL has
around 14 manufacturing

divisions, four power sector regional centers, over 100 project sites, eight
service centers and 18 regional offices.

As an engineering conglomerate, BHEL offers over a wide spectrum of

products and services for core sectors including power generation,
transmission and distribution; transportation; and oil and gas. as well as
the supply of non-conventional energy systems.

Over 65 percent of power generated in India comes from BHEL -supplied

equipment. Overall it has installed power equipment with a total capacity
of over 90,000 MW.

The product profile of BHEL is very vast and includes following equipments
and services:

Thermal Sets:

Turbine generator sets along with all Auxiliaries of thermal power plant of
the utilities are supplied for rating of 30, 60, 110, 120, 2 00, 210 & 500 MW
capacities.

Hydro Sets:

Custom built conventional hydro-turbines of Kaplan, Francis and Peloton

type with matching generators.

Pump turbines with matching motor generators.

Mini/ micro hydro sets such as horizontal tubular turbines.

Spherical, butterfly & rotary valves and Auxiliaries for hydro stations.

Governors (Mechanical and Electro -hydraulic type), drainage and

dewatering systems, compressed air systems, centralized grease
lubrication system and other control and protection systems.

Equipments for Nuclear Power Plant:

Turbines and Generators.

Steam generators.
Re-heaters/ separators.

Heat exchangers & condensers.

Heat Exchangers:

Surface condensers.

Low pressure heaters for re-generative feed heating systems.

High pressure heaters.

Chimney and gland steam-condensers for all operating condition s.

Coolers, condensers, separators and seal oil regulators, tanks, for up to

300 atm on channel sides of any material.

Try type de-areators for TG sets.

Steam operated air ejectors.

Boiler Auxiliaries:

Fans-Axial reaction fans of single stage and double stage for clean air
application with capacity ranging from 25m^3/sec to 800m^3/sec with
pressure ranging from 120 to 1480 meters of gas column. Axial impulse
fans single and double suction radial fans etc are also.

Air heaters-Ljungstrong regenerative air-heaters for boiler and process

furnaces in a broad range of size and capacities.

Gravimetric feeders:

Pulverizes- slow and medium speed coal pulverizes up to a capacity of

100 tones/ hour.

Electro static precipitators- of any capacity with efficiency up to 99.5% for

fly ash removal in power plants.

Mechanical separators.

Boiler & Pressure Vessels:

Steam generators for utilities; range - 30MW to 500MW using coal, oil,
natural gas or a combination of these fuels.

Steam generators for industrial applications; range- 6tonnes/hour to

300tonnes/hour using coal, oil, natural gas, industrial gases, wood, bio
gases or a combination of these fuels.

Waste heat recovery boilers.

Recovery boilers for paper industry; range - 100tonnes/day to 1000

tons/day of dry solids.
Pressure vessels.

Fluidized bed boilers.

Pumps:

Boiler feed pumps (motor or steam turbine driven).

Condensate booster pumps.

Boiler feed booster pumps.

Condensate pumps.

Circulating water pumps.

Emergency oil pumps.

Lubricating oil pumps.

Standby oil pumps.

Power station Electronic equipments:

Static excitation equipment.

Data acquisition systems.

Micro-processors based distributed digital control.

Automatic voltage regulators.

Electro-hydraulic governor control.

Controls for HP / LP bypass valves.

Turbine supervisory system and controls.

Static shunt compensator.

Station and industrial turbo-sets.

Equipments for thermal, hydro, nuclear power.

Controls for electrostatic precipitators.

Oil field equipments:

Diesel electric oil rigs for onshore drilling for depths up to 9000m complete
with matching draw-works and hoisting equipments.

Christmas tree valve and well head assembly.

Compressors:

Centrifugal compressors of varying size for industrial applications range

covers MCL series (pressure up to 40kg/cm^2 and capacity up to
350,000NM^3/hr) and BCL series (pressure up to 800kg/cm^2 and capacity
up to 50,000 NM^3 /hr) and package SRL series (pressure ratio up to 40
and capacity up to 240,000 NM^3/hr).

Transformers:

Power transformers for voltage up to 400KV.

HVDC transformer and reactors.

Series and shunt reactors up to 400KV.

Instrument transformers: current transformers up to 400KV,

electromagnetic voltage transformer up to 220KV and capacitor voltage
transformer up to 400KV.

Electrical Machines:

DC general purpose and rolling mill machines.

DC auxiliaries mill motors.

AC induction motors- squirrel cage and slip ring motor from 150KW to
15000KW.

AC synchronous motors- from 400KW to 15000KW.

AC alternators- from 500KW to 25000KW.

Synchronous condensers- from 2200KVAr to 100,000KVAr.

Insulators:

Disc/ suspension insulator for ac/dc applications; range - 45KN to 160KN

electro mechanical strength for clean and polluted atmospheres.

Pin and post insulator up to 33KV.

Bushings up to 220KV.

Solid core insulator of 25KV rating for railways.

Special ceramics including ceramic liners for process industry.

Seamless steel tubes:

Hot finished and cold drawn seamless steel tubes with a range varying
from outer diameter of 14mm to 159mm and wall thickness 12.5mm in
carbon steel and low alloy steels to suit ASTM/AP and other international
specifications.
Capacitors:

Power capacitors for industrial use from 2to 20KVAr at 400V.

Capacitors for high voltage installation.

Coupling/ CVT capacitors for high voltage up to 400KV.

Electrolytic and paper capacitor for motor start and motor run duties.

Transportation Equipments:

Traction motors.

Traction generators/ alternators.

Auxiliary machines.

Field diverting inductive shunts.

Eddy current clutches.

Transformers/ rectifiers.

Electronic control equipments.

Diesel electric shunting locomotives (350 HP to 700 HP).

Battery operated passenger vans.

Electric trolley buses.

Castings & Forgings:

Sophisticated heavy castings and forgings of creep resistant alloy steel

and other grades of alloy steels and meeting stringent international
specification.
 BHEL BHOPAL

BHEL is an integrated power plant equipment manufacturer and one of the

largest engineering and manufacturing companies in India in terms of
turnover. It was established in 1964, ushering in the indigenous Heavy
Electrical Equipment industry in India - a dream that has been more than
realized with a well-recognized track record of performance. The company
has been earning profits continuously since 1971 -72 and paying dividends
since 1976-77.

BHEL is engaged in the design, engineering, manufacture, construction,

testing, commissioning and servicing of a wide range of products and
services for the core sectors of the economy, viz. Power, Transmission,
Industry, Transportation (Railway), Renewable Energy, Oil & Gas and
Defense. It has 15 manufacturing divisions, two repa ir units, four regional
offices, eight service centers and 15 regional centers and currently
operate at more than 150 project sites across India and abroad. We place
strong emphasis on innovation and creative development of new
technologies. Our research and development (R&D) efforts are aimed not
only at improving the performance and efficiency of our existing products,
but also at using state-of-the-art technologies and processes to develop
new products.

The high level of quality & reliability of our pr oducts is due to adherence to
international standards by acquiring and adapting some of the best
technologies from leading companies in the world including General
Electric Company, Alstom SA, Siemens AG and Mitsubishi Heavy
Industries Ltd., together with technologies developed in our own R&D
centers.

Most of the manufacturing units and other entities have been accredited to
Quality Management Systems (ISO 9001:2008), Environmental
Management Systems (ISO 14001:2004) and Occupational Health & Safety
Management Systems (OHSAS 18001:2007).

BHEL has a share of 59% in India’s total installed generating capacity

contributing 69% (approx.) to the total power generated from utility sets
(excluding non-conventional capacity) as of March 31, 2012.

it has been exporting our power and industry segment products and
services for over 40 years. BHEL’s global references are spread across 75
countries. The cumulative overseas installed capacity of BHEL
manufactured power plants exceeds 9,000 MW across 21 countries
including Malaysia, Oman, Iraq, the UAE, Bhutan, Egypt and New Zealand.
Our physical exports range from turnkey projects to after sales services.

BHEL work with a vision of becoming a global engineering enterprise

providing solutions for a better tomorrow.

BHEL’S greatest strength is our highly skilled and committed workforce of

49,390 employees. Every employee is given an equal opportunity to
develop himself/herself and grow in his/her career. Continuous training
and retraining, career planning, a positive work culture and participative
style of management - all these have engendered development of a
committed and motivated workforce setting new benchmarks in terms of
productivity, quality and responsiveness.

VARIOUS DIVISIONS IN BHEL

Forming block (block I-A)

In this block raw material is brought in the form of plates and get rolled
and forged. The various machines used are Press forging ,Roll bending
etc. This block also consists of 22 crore s vertical rolling machine of
capacity 360 tones ,the only machine in Asia .

Manufacturing of hydro turbine (block – 1)

In this block various hydro turbines are machined, fabricated & assembled
such as guide vanes, butterfly valves ,bevel bearing, inlet and outlet pipes.

BAY 7-8

In this bay ,fabrication of various components takes place and then taken
for heat treatment process in one of the biggest blast furnace in India .

BAY 4-5

In this bay assembly of different components takes place of guide vanes,

runner, valves etc.

Manufacturing of turbo generators (block -2)

In this block assembly of various turbo generators are made, machined

and tested.

Manufacturing of electrical machines (block – 3)

In this block electrical motors like induction and synchronous motors are
assembled and made.

Manufacturing of sw itch gears and rectifiers (block -1)

In this block switch gears and rectifiers are manufactured.

Foundry block

In this block casting of different parts takes place by using shell casting,
sand casting and die casting. Here casting of motor casing and different
parts takes place. Small components of turbine such as guide vane e tc.
are made for testing in hydro lab.

Steam turbine block

In this block construction and assembly of steam turbine and governors

take place. Here construction of many low pressure ,intermediate pressure
and high pressure steam turbine takes place.

Hydro labs

Here models of different turbine components are made and tested for there
working and efficiency.
 INTRODUCTION
Water turbines are highest efficiency prime movers, which converts the kinetic and
potential energies possessed by water into mechanical power. The turbine is then
coupled to generator to produce electric power.

It is of 2 types

 Impulse turbine
 Reaction turbine

In an impulse turbine water is supplied to the runner at atmospheric pressure

possessing kinetic energy only. The flow through the runner is entirely at atmospheric
pressure ,the force exerted by the water being due to change in direction of flow only.

In a reaction turbine water supplied to the runner posses energy which is partly
kinetic and partly pressure. Both type of energies are converted into work in the
runner resulting in drop of pressure and drop of absolute velocity of water.

Types of Hydraulic Turbines And Their Application

Following are different types of turbines manufactured in BHEL

 Pelton Turbines
 Francis Turbines
 Kaplan Turbines

PELTON TURBINE

fig.1. Pelton wheel with the shaft.

It is the most common form of impulse turbine, named after Pelton of California, USA.
This machine is suitable for high head{3oo metre and above} and low discharge.
Following table gives the detail of main component of Pelton turbine.

Components Manufacturing Material Function

Sr. no. process
1 Runner Casting Cast stainless Converts the
steel hydraulic
energy of jet
into
mechanical
energy
2 Shaft Forged Steel forging Transmits
rotational
energy of
runner to the
generator
rotor
3 Distribution Fabrication, Steel plate, Distributes
piping casting cast steel water
uniformly to
the nozzles
4 Housing Fabrication Steel plate Houses the
nozzle
runners etc
and also
provides a
 protective
lining.
5 Spear, nozzle Forge, cast steel forging, To control
cast stainless rapidly and
steel accurately
the water
quantity
reaching the
runner
6 deflector Fabrication Steel plates To deflect the
with stainless main jet in
steel lining the event of
sudden load
changes
7 bearings Fabrication Steel plate Guides the
rotating shaft
8 Braking jets Fabrication pipe Supplies
water jet in
deflection
opposite to
the nozzles at
the event of
stopping the
machine

9 Pressure Fabrication pipe To relief the

relief valve pressure from
the down
stream of
main inlet
valve when
valve is
closed

10 Spear Fabrication Steel plate To operate

servomotor the spear
11 Deflector Fabrication Steel plate To operate
servomotor the deflector
KAPLAN TURBINE
It is the axial flow reaction turbine named in honor of Prof. Dr. Victor Kaplan of
Bruenn, Germany. It is suitable for low heads{15 metre-80 meter} and large quantity
of flow and has high efficiency at par load operation.
 FRANCIS TURBINE
It is the mixed flow type of reaction turbine named after James Bichens Francis of
England. This turbine is suitable for medium head{ 40metre-500 meter} and medium
quantities of flow.
The reaction turbine can have vertical or horizontal shaft. The following table gives
the detail of main component of reaction turbine and their function etc.

sr. COMPONENT MANUFACTURING MATERIAL FUNCTION

no. PROCESS
1 Runner Cast Cast Transform the
stainless hydraulic energy
steel into mechanical
energy
2 Shaft Forging Forged Transmit
steel rotational energy
to the generator
3 Speed ring Fabrication/casting Steel plate, To transfer the
cast steel load of whole
machine to the
foundation and
guide the water
to the guide
vanes
4 Spiral casing Fabrication/casting Steel plate, To distribute the
cast steel water equally to
the part of the
guide apparatus
5 Pivot ring Fabrication/casting Steel plate/ Houses the
cast steel bottom bearing
of the guide
vane
6 Draft tube Fabrication Steel plate Convey the
discharge water
from the runner
to the tail race
and recover from
kinetic energy
7 Guide vane Fabrication/casting Steel plate/ To control the
cast steel direction and
quantity of water
reaching the
runner
8 Regulating ring Fabrication Steel plate To swivel all the
guide vanes
together with the
help of
interconnected
linkage system
9 Guide vanes Fabrication Steel plate Transforms the
servo motor hydraulic energy
of pressurized oil
 into mechanical
movement of
guide vane
10 Main shaft Fabrication Steel plate Prevent the
gland leakage through
the gap between
stationary top
cover and
rotating shaft
11 Guide bearing Fabrication Steel plate Guide the
rotating shaft
12 Pit liner Fabrication Steel plate To prevent the
water leakages
inside the turbine
pit

VALVES

BHEL is engaged in design, manufacture and commissioning of butterfly, rotary,

spherical pressure relief valve and cooling water valves. These valves are used in
hydropower stations.

MAIN INLET VALVE

Most of the turbine are provided with the valve just upstream of the turbine. This form
a vital safety factor in the event of damage to the plant and is required for inspection
and dismantling of turbine. The valve may be dispensed on turbine having very short
penstock such as those situated at the foot of water compounding dam.

TYPES OF MIV

a) Rotary or spherical valve

b) Butterfly valve
i. Rotary valves are used above 200 mt. height.
ii. Below 100 mt. head, butterfly valve are used.
iii. 100 mt.-200 mt., butterfly valve with flow guide is used.
iv. Butterfly valve are simpler in design.

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS OF VALVE

Valves are designed to open under balanced conditions and to closed against full
flow in emergency. Valves are opened by oil and are closed by weight and oil in
emergency. The following table gives the details of main component and their
application
Valve door Casting/ fabrication
Valve body Casting/ fabrication
Trunnion Forging/casting
Lever Casting/ fabrication
 GOVERNOR
The governor regulates the speed and power of the turbine by controlling the quantity
of water reaching the runner. The energy required to bring about changes of flow is
derived from oil pressure servo motor which are controlled through one or more
relays by the speed sensitive device. They are of two types
1. Hydro mechanical type
2. Electro hydraulic type
If the demand of power is more than the supply power than the grid frequency will dip
and vice-versa. Hence governor functions are to bring the turbine speed to the rated
r.p.m., hence controlling the speed of prime mover. Helps in synchronization of
generator with grid frequency, controlling the active power of machines, and
controlling the grid frequency of network.

SOME IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF HYDRO TURBINES

1. Specific speed(𝑵𝒔 )
Specific speed is defined as the speed at which the turbine runs, so to
produce power under head.
𝑵√𝑷
𝑵𝒔 = 𝟓/𝟒
𝑯
where N=speed of machine in r.p.m.
P=turbine output
H=net head

2. Cavitations
Cavitation is the formation and then immediate implosion of cavities in a
liquid – i.e. small liquid-free zones ("bubbles") – that are the consequence of
forces acting upon the liquid. It usually occurs when a liquid is subjected to
rapid changes of pressure that cause the formation of cavities where the
pressure is relatively low.
Cavitations is a significant cause of wear in some engineering contexts. When
entering high pressure areas, cavitations bubbles that implode on a metal
surface cause cyclic stress through repeated implosion. This results in surface
fatigue of the metal causing a type of wear also called "cavitations". The most
common examples of this kind of wear are pump impellers and bends when a
sudden change in the direction of liquid occurs. Cavitations is usually divided
into two classes of behaviour: inertial (or transient) cavitations and non-inertial
cavitations.
Non-inertial cavitations is the process in which a bubble in a fluid is forced to
oscillate in size or shape due to some form of energy input, such as an
acoustic field. Such cavitations is often employed in ultrasonic cleaning baths
and can also be observed in pumps, propellers, etc.Since the shock waves
formed by cavitations are strong enough to cause significant damage to
moving parts, cavitations is usually an undesirable phenomenon. It is
specifically avoided in the design of machines such as turbines or propellers,
and eliminating cavitations is a major field in the study of fluid dynamics.
 FABRICATION
Fabrication in BHEL takes place in BAY 7-8 in BLOCK 1.Fabrication process is
basically welding or joining process which is achieved by oxy acetylene and carbon
dioxide gas. After fabrication process work is taken for heat treatment in heat
treatment furnace.
Stresses in work are removed in heat treatment furnace. In heat treatment furnace
compressed air and argon gas is used to heat material, the material is fitted using
jigs and fixtures to avoid unnecessary contraction and expansion of work metal.
 CASTING
Casting is a manufacturing process by which a liquid material is usually poured into a
mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to
solidify. The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out
of the mold to complete the process.

Metal
Metal casting is one of the most common casting processes. Metal patterns
are more expensive but are more dimensionally stable and durable. Metallic
patterns are used where repetitive production of castings is required in large
quantities.
The raw materials used for casting are ferrous and non ferrous alloys in BHEL
. pig iron plates,cast iron plates ,steel are generally used.In case of die casting
,aluminium is used ,it is generally used to make turbine components like guide
vane models etc.
All the raw material are molted in furnace called INDUCTION FURNACE. The cast
iron and steel is melted at 1600℃ and then collected in a ladle which is kept at
700 ℃ .Then this molten metal is poured into the mould to get the desired shape of
metal.

After the cast material gets cooled it is shoted by using steel shots in the furnace
and further goes for grinding which removes excess of material in the cast. The
new material is then send for machining.
MOLDS, PATTERNS, CORES, AND GATING
A mold is formed into the geometric shape of a desired part. Molten metal is then
poured into the mold, the mold holds this material in shape as it solidifies. A metal
casting is created.
Moulds can be classified as either open or closed. A closed mold is a container,
like a cup, that has only the shape of the desired part. The molten material is
poured directly into the mold cavity which is exposed to the open environment.

This type of mould is rarely used in manufacturing production, particularly for metal
castings of any level of quality. The other type of mould is a closed mould, it
contains a delivery system for the molten material to reach the mould cavity where
the part will harden within the mold. A very simple closed mould is shown. The
closed mould is by far, more important in manufacturing metal casting operations.
 There are many different metal casting processes used in the manufacture of
parts. Two main branches of methods can be distinguished by the basic nature of
the mould they employ. There is expendable mould casting and permanent mould
casting. As the name implies expendable moulds are used for only one metal
casting while permanent moulds are used for many. When considering
manufacturing processes there are advantages and disadvantages to both.

Expendable Mold Permanent Mold

Can produce one metal casting Can manufacture many metal

only castings
Made of sand, plaster, or other Usually made of metal or
similar material. Binders used to sometimes a refractory ceramic
help material hold its form. Mould has sections that can
Mould that metal solidifies in must open or close permitting
be destroyed to remove casting removal of the casting
More intricate geometries are Need to open mould limits part
possible for casting shapes

Patterns:
Expendable moulds require some sort of pattern. The interior cavities of the mould
in which the molten metal will solidify are formed by the impression of this pattern.
Pattern design is crucial to success in manufacture by expendable mould metal
casting. The pattern is a geometric replica of the metal casting to be produced. It is
made slightly oversize to compensate for the shrinkage that will occur in the metal
during the casting's solidification, and whatever amount of material that will be
machined off the cast part afterwards. Although machining will add an extra
process to the manufacture of a part; machining can improve surface finish and
part dimensions considerably. Also increasing the machine finish allowance will
help compensate for unknown variables in shrinkage, and reduce trouble from
areas of the metal casting that may have been originally too thin or intricate.

Pattern Material:
The material from which the pattern is made is dependent upon the type of mold
and metal casting process, the casting's geometry and size, the dimensional
accuracy required, and the number of metal castings to be manufactured using the
pattern. Patterns can be made from wood, like pine (softwood), or mahogany
(hardwood), various plastics, or metal like aluminum, cast iron, or steel. In most
manufacturing operations, patterns will be coated with a parting agent to ease their
removal from the mold.

Cores:
For metal castings with internal geometry cores are used. A core is a replica,
(actually an inverse), of the internal features of the part to be cast. Like a pattern
the size of the core is designed to accommodate for shrinkage during the metal
casting operation, and machine allowance. Unlike a pattern a core remains in the
mold while the metal is being poured. Hence a core is usually made of a similar
 material as the mold. Once the metal casting has hardened the core is broken up
and removed much like the mold. Depending upon the location and geometry of
the core within the casting, it may require that it is supported during the operation
to prevent it from moving or shifting. Structural supports that hold the core in place
are called chaplets. The chaplets are made of a material with a higher melting
temperature than the casting's material, and become assimilated into the part
when it hardens. Note that when manufacturing a metal casting with a permanent
mold process the core will be a part of the mold itself.

The Mold:
A typical mold is shown in figure 3.

When manufacturing by metal casting consideration of the mold is essential. The

pattern is placed in the mold and the mold material is packed around it. The mold
contains two parts, the drag (bottom), and the cope (top). The parting line between
the cope and drag allows for the mold to be opened and the pattern to be removed
once the impression has been made.
 The core is placed in the metal casting after the removal of the pattern. Figure 5
shows the pattern impression with the core in place.

Now the impression in the mold contains all the geometry of the part to be cast.
This metal casting setup, however, is not complete. In order for this mold to be
functional to manufacture a casting, in addition to the impression of the part, the
mold cavity will also need to include a gating system. Sometimes the gating
system will be cut by hand or in more adept manufacturing procedures the gating
system will be incorporated into the pattern along with the part. Basically a gating
system functions during the metal casting operation to facilitate the flow of the
molten material into the mold cavity.

Elements of a Gating System:

POURING BASIN:

This is where the molten metal employed to manufacture the part enters the mold.
The pouring basin should have a projection with a radius around it to reduce
turbulence.

DOWN SPRUE:

From the pouring basin the molten metal for the casting travels through the down
sprue. This should be tapered so its cross-section is reduced as it goes downward.

SPRUE BASE:

The down sprue ends at the sprue base. It is here that the casting's inner cavity
 begins.

INGATE/CHOKE AREA:

Once at the sprue base the molten material must pass through the ingate in order
to enter the inner area of the mold. The ingate is very important in flow regulation
during the metal casting operation.

RUNNERS:

Runners are passages that distribute the liquid metal to the different areas inside
the mold.

MAIN CAVITY:

The impression of the actual part to be cast is often referred to as the main cavity.

VENTS:

Vents help to assist in the escape of gases that are expelled from the molten metal
during the solidification phase of the metal casting process.

RISERS:

Risers are reservoirs of molten material. They feed this material to sections of the
mold to compensate for shrinkage as the casting solidifies. There are different
classifications for risers.
Top Risers: Risers that feed the metal casting from the top.
Side Risers: Risers that feed the metal casting from the side.
Blind Risers: Risers that are completely contained within the mold.
Open Risers: Risers that are open at the top to the outside environment.

Figure 6 illustrates the difference between top risers and side risers.
Figure 7 shows a mold with all its features, ready for metal casting.

Shell Mould Casting

Shell mold casting or shell molding is a metal casting process in manufacturing
industry in which the mold is a thin hardened shell of sand and thermosetting
resin binder backed up by some other material. Shell molding was developed as
a manufacturing process in Germany in the early 1940's.

Shell mold casting is particularly suitable for steel castings under 20 lbs;
however almost any metal that can be cast in sand can be cast with shell
molding process. Also much larger parts have been manufactured with shell
molding. Typical parts manufactured in industry using the shell mold casting
process include cylinder heads, gears, bushings, connecting rods, camshafts
and valve bodies.

The Process
The first step in the shell mold casting process is to manufacture the shell mold.
The sand we use for the shell molding process is of a much smaller grain size
than the typical greensand mold. This fine grained sand is mixed with a
thermosetting resin binder. A special metal pattern is coated with a parting
agent, (typically silicone), which will latter facilitate in the removal of the shell.
The metal pattern is then heated to a temperature of 350F-700F degrees,
(175˚C-370˚C).
The sand mixture is then poured or blown over the hot casting pattern. Due to
the reaction of the thermosetting resin with the hot metal pattern a thin shell
forms on the surface of the pattern. The desired thickness of the shell is
dependent upon the strength requirements of the mold for the particular metal
casting application. A typical industrial manufacturing mold for a shell molding
casting process could be .3in (7.5mm) thick. The thickness of the mold can be
controlled by the length of time the sand mixture is in contact with the metal
casting pattern.

The excess "loose" sand is then removed leaving the shell and pattern.
The shell and pattern are then placed in an oven for a short period of time, (minutes),
which causes the shell to harden onto the casting pattern.

Once the baking phase of the manufacturing process is complete the hardened
shell is separated from the casting pattern by way of ejector pins built into the
pattern. It is of note that this manufacturing technique used to create the mold in
the shell molding process can also be employed to produced highly accurate
fine grained mold cores for other metal casting processes.

Two of these hardened shells, each representing half the mold for the casting
are assembled together either by gluing or clamping.
 The manufacture of the shell mold is now complete and ready for the pouring of
the metal casting. In many shell molding processes the shell mold is supported
by sand or metal shot during the casting process.

Properties and Considerations of Manufacturing by Shell Mold Casting

The internal surface of the shell mold is very smooth and rigid. This allows for an
easy flow of the liquid metal through the mold cavity during the pouring of the
casting, giving castings very good surface finish. Shell Mold Casting enables the
manufacture of complex parts with thin sections and smaller projections than
green sand molds.
Manufacturing with the shell mold casting process also imparts high dimensional
accuracy. Tolerances of .010 inches (.25mm) are possible. Further machining is
usually unnecessary when casting by this process.
Shell sand molds are less permeable than green sand molds and binder may
produce a large volume of gas as it contacts the molten metal being poured for
the casting. For these reasons shell molds should be well ventilated.
The expense of shell mold casting is increased by the cost of the thermosetting
resin binder, but decreased by the fact that only a small percentage of sand is
used compared to other sand casting processes.
Shell mold casting processes are easily automated
The special metal patterns needed for shell mold casting are expensive, making
it a less desirable process for short runs. However manufacturing by shell
casting may be economical for large batch production.
 STEAM TURBINE
1. PURPOSE
This manual can be used for preliminary selection, steam and cooling water
planning for steam turbines in basic and detail engineering stages. This manual
does not for designing steam turbine and the related parts.

2. STEAM TURBINE TYPES

Steam turbine types based on blade geometry and energy conversion process
are impulse turbine and reaction turbine.

2.1. Impulse Turbine

Thermal energy of steam is converted to kinetic energy in turbine nozzle. Kinetic
energy to be converted to blade become mechanical energy and transferred
through rotor, shaft and coupling to the load. Enthalpy drop is high for each
moving blades. See fig. 1. and fig. 2.
Impulse blade applies in Curtis and Rateau turbines such as the following typical
- Curtis turbine contain 1 row of nozzle for 2 row of impulse blades
- Rateau turbine contain 1 row of nozzle for 1 row of impulse blades, can be 1
pair up to several pair.
-1 Curtis + Rateau rows constructed in one rotor.

2.2. Reaction Turbine

In reaction turbine, there is no nozzle to convert steam energy to mechanical
energy. Moving blades work due to differential pressure of steam between front
and at behind of moving blades. See fig. 1 and fig. 2.
In general, reaction turbine is not stand alone, but works at behind impulse
turbine whether constructed in one rotor or at separated rotor, but still connected
by coupling. The purpose of impulse turbine is to control speed and reduce
steam enthalpy to specified level. Reaction turbine is just receiving steam
condition from impulse blades. Typical pairs of reaction and impulse turbines
are;
- 1 Curtis + Several rows of Rateau + Reaction rows
- 1 Rateau + Reaction rows
- Several rows of Rateau + Reaction rows

3. STEAM TURBINE OPERATING RANGE

The following criteria are used for selection steam turbine type
3.1. Curtis (Stand alone or Single Stage)
a. Compact .
b. Power is relative small ( up to 2000 kW).
c. Speed is relative low ( up to 6000 rpm, except for special design up to 12000
rpm).
d. Enthalpy drop is high.
3.2. Rateau (Multi rows)
a. Efficiency is higher than Curtis
b. Power is high ( up to 30,000 kW)
c. Generally, speed is higher than Curtis (up to15000 rpm)
d. Enthalpy drop for each row lower than Curtis but still high, higher than Reaction
 SOME MACHINES USED IN BHEL
 Lathe
 Turret lathe
 Vertical boring machine
 Horizontal boring machine
 Plano milling machine
 Rolling machine
 Power press machine
 Embossing
 Spot welding machine
 Seam welding machine
 Gas cutting machine
 Gang drilling machine
 Milling machine
 Shaper machine
 Universal milling machine
 Grinding machine
 Indexing machine
Etc.