Vol.

Vol. 13,
15, No.
No. 1
3

FOCUS
Digital Radiography in Industry: Digital
Detector Arrays in Radiographic Testing
by Brad Kraai

Introduction This article explores DDA systems:

application, capability, process controls,
Digital detector array (DDA) systems
image attributes and evaluation, and
within industrial radiography are becoming
personnel qualifications—to hopefully
very common in high performance, critical
promote an increased interest and
margin of safety, and endurance test
enlightenment for potential users.
article inspections. Investment castings,
thermal joints, and a wide variety of other Definitions
test articles are being routinely inspected, Per ASTM E 2736, Standard Guide for
with improved probability of detection Digital Detector Array Radiology, a digital
(POD), and much faster throughput detector array is defined as: “an electronic
than conventional film systems—with device that converts ionizing or penetrating
high levels of user satisfaction. Potential radiation into a discrete array of analog
users within the industrial X-ray imaging signals which are subsequently digitized
community continue to recognize these and transferred to a computer for display
values and exploit this new technology as a digital image corresponding to the
for potential applications, but to do so, radiation energy pattern imparted upon the
a basic understanding of DDA systems input region of the device. The conversion
and application is a necessary foundation. of the ionizing or penetrating radiation
Smooth implementation of this novel into an electronic signal may transpire by
technology can be challenging, and first converting the ionizing or penetrating
consultation should be considered from an radiation into visible light through the use
outside, unbiased, reputable organization. of a scintillating material” (ASTM, 2010a).
There are several integrators, or vendors, While DDAs can be used for real-time or
that are widely recognized as providers of radioscopic techniques, most applications
DDA systems development, installation, for critical test articles employ static
and service—each having its own merits imaging and evaluation. Figure 1 provides
and specialties. a simplified diagram of a DDA.

From NDT Technician Newsletter, Vol. 15, No. 3, pp: 1-6.

Copyright © 2016 The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. TNT · July 2016 · 1
FOCUS | Digital Radiography in Industry

the responsibility of the potential user,

not the integrator or vendor, to ensure
that DDA system performance metrics
are met for a given target application.
X-ray signal Obviously, DDA systems are a considerable
capital expenditure, so once the system
is designed, built, and installed, it must
Test article meet the requirements—resolve the
defects reliably—as intended. This cannot
be overemphasized. Film images are
commonly used as the baseline or referee
for a correlation study with the DDA
imaging techniques, and will often be
Electronics shielding (reduces radiation dose to electronics)
required for process approval.
Gadolinium oxysulfide or cesium iodide (converts X-ray signal to light signal) High levels of automation are possible
Digital data to
Amorphous silicon TFT (converts light signal to electronic signals)
frame buffer
and often used with DDAs. Imaging, from
Electronics (captures electronic signals, organizes and converts to digital data) one acquisition to the next, can be mere
Glass substrate (stable TFT and electronics structure base)
seconds, depending on the type of DDA
and acquisition settings, technique, and
Figure 1. Simplified diagram of a digital detector array (not to scale). TFT = thin film transistor.
level of automation. Fully articulating and
programmable robotics within custom-
built radiation enclosures are becoming
The most popular types of DDAs in use raw or full fidelity image is saved unaltered quite common in turbine blade inspection;
contain an initial and indirect conversion for critical applications. Raw image file size a single blade can be imaged with several
layer (or scintillator)—typically either primarily depends on the resolution, or views in less than a minute. Other
gadolinium oxysulfide terbium doped, pixel pitch, and input region (or array size) automation tactics may include external
or cesium iodide thallium doped—that of the DDA, as well as its bit depth. ingress of test articles into the enclosure by
converts an X-ray signal to visible light As one can see, DDAs are quite conveyors, or manual loading of numerous
or luminescence. This luminescence then sophisticated electronic conversion parts in fixtures or platens. DDA systems
enters the amorphous silicon (αSi) thin devices. Yet, they can provide simplicity with turntables for the test article and a
film transistor diode array (discrete pixel to the radiographic imaging process, as C-arm—with the X-ray tube on one end
locations), whereby the light is converted to consistency and reliability are often the and DDA on the other—are commonly
an electronic voltage (bias change) at each result of a properly engineered, tuned, and used for larger test articles. Other
pixel, which is subsequently “read out” of applied DDA system. sophisticated systems have incorporated
the array in channels and groups during two robots: one for the X-ray tube and the
X-ray exposure. This electronic information Applications
other for the DDA, while the test article
is amplified and then digitized, typically For the purpose of application validation, a remains stationary. System integrators can
through several analog-to-digital converters, potential user must evaluate “representative be creative, and depending on the target
synchronized, and sent to the frame buffer quality indicators,” or, more simply application, will often readily collaborate
within the image processor and system stated, potential test articles with known with the potential user to design and
software. conditions or defects (of a minimum size incorporate optimized article handling and
Gray values for each pixel’s digital and all types likely to be encountered) for imaging for the intended application.
(binary) value are then assigned by a lookup any DDA system under consideration. It must be realized that DDAs are in
table, and a corresponding pixel matrix Quite often, DDA systems are designed fact a consumable, and will eventually
that represents X-ray attenuation from the and built around a target application or require replacement due to performance
initial image acquisition is generated and family: the potential test articles to be issues or degradation. They will and do
considered as the raw or full fidelity image inspected with the DDA system will all fail (unpredictably, in most cases) over
file. This image file also contains meta-data, be related—similar in material type and time. The cumulative effects of radiation
or image tags of process information as material thickness, subject contrast range, exposure and thermal variations within
configured by the system integrator. The and inspection standard criteria. It is the device produce effects that may range

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from image quality degradation all the resolutions (discrete pixel dimensions recommended 3 × 3 pixel matrix in the
way to failure. There are no guarantees or “pixel pitch”) currently available, the IQI hole decreases in turn. Higher M
of a DDA’s usable duration. Inadvertent contrast sensitivity for these devices is factors increase pixel density for a specific
or unintentional exposure to the DDA remarkable—provided noise is controlled. dimension within the image, thereby
should be avoided. Recent developments in Due to inherent DDA resolution, promoting higher POD. Higher M factors
hardened electronics have increased DDA geometric magnification (M) techniques applied within techniques will decrease the
resistance to exposure effects. Shielding are often employed, which amplify image field of view, resulting in decreased
of the electronics around the periphery discontinuity size and enhance POD throughput for larger test articles as
of the DDA must be provided by the via a higher number of pixels under the compared to the DDA input region.
integrator, and should be analyzed by the potential discontinuity or feature within Another primary consideration for any
DDA manufacturer for warranty viability. the test article. It is a relatively simple geometrically magnified technique is image
Moreover, users of DDA systems must matter to calculate for a specific number unsharpness (Uimg), wherein a reduced
contemplate detector failure or sub-par of pixels under a known dimension at effective focal spot size (EFSS) is often
imaging contingency and warranty when geometric magnification, and quite often, necessary at higher magnifications. Uimg
negotiating procurement. the calculation is applied to determine calculations take into account the
As mentioned previously, the DDA pixel density within an essential image geometric unsharpness (Ug) of the
and its supportive software are very quality indicator (IQI) hole dimension. technique, (where [M – 1] × EFSS = Ug),
complex. This DDA system complexity The minimum recommendation is three the geometric magnification factor
can be very intimidating, so a word of pixels, so by using the basic spatial (M = source-to-detector distance / source-
advice: complexity of the entire DDA resolution (SRb) or effective pixel size of to-object distance), and the SRb of the
system should be held to a minimum— the DDA, and the specified IQI hole size DDA. Uimg can also be evaluated by
configurations should be limited to fit the (d), minimum geometric magnification can imaging, at the source side of the area
needs of the user. During DDA system be calculated by the following equation of interest, a unique IQI—the duplex
design and development, it is vital that (Figure 2). wire gage (Figure 3)—to determine
the potential user recognize excessive which specific wire pairs merge within
complexity for what it can be—and often SR b the acquired image: Uimg then being
(1) Mmin = 4.25 ×
is—the enemy of execution. Careful d regarded as that specific wire diameter and
analysis of all DDA system features and its adjacent space combined. Uimg and
For example, if SRb = 215 µm
their intricacy may reveal unwanted or geometric magnification are both important
(0.008 in.) and d = 508 µm (0.020 in.),
unwarranted complication. technique parameters that must be well
Mmin = 1.7987X (1.8X). Obviously, as
understood and evaluated prior to DDA
Capabilities the SRb value decreases (for higher
system build.
resolution DDAs having a finer pixel
While DDAs are challenged for image Several techniques exist for minimizing
pitch), the Mmin required to achieve the
spatial resolution, due to the finite noise: acquired image noise can never

SRb
(effective IQI hole ø – d
pixel size)

Figure 2. A 3 × 3 pixel matrix in image quality indicator (IQI) hole—calculation for minimum Figure 3. Duplex wire gage.
magnification.

TNT · July 2016 · 3

FOCUS | Digital Radiography in Industry

be fully eliminated, and is composed of the law of Poisson exists, where noise will scale of film—that is, 1.50 to 4.00 H&D
signal and system noise. Common noise increase by the square root of the variable (Hurter and Driffield), or ~250 usable
reduction tactics include frame averaging, signal increase (exposure). That being said, radiographic optical densities. The usable
DDA calibration, X-ray beam filtration, higher exposure or signal provides higher range of the DDA will always be less
X-ray beam collimation, and exposure SNR, albeit with an increase in exposure than the full scale or bit depth, but is still
optimization. The averaging of frames time or image acquisition, and effectually significant. This long scale enables the
basically provides better statistics for a higher dose to the DDA. High SNR very low contrast sensitivity mentioned
the raw image data, by adding the pixel results in extremely low contrast sensitivity previously—provided noise is controlled.
signal value for each individual pixel capability for DDA techniques: quite The long scale also provides adequate image
through all frames captured, dividing by often well below 0.5%, particularly for quality through a wider thickness range in
the number of frames, and assigning the thinner areas of interest within test articles. one exposure. Another advantage of DDAs
averaged value to that pixel for the raw This high SNR also contributes to high is this very high dynamic range as compared
image. Averaging more frames impacts contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR), as measured to short scale imagers, mainly film.
throughput, increases dose to the DDA, within an image of a conventional IQI. As can be clearly seen, there are
and typically only presents improved Figure 4 illustrates a CNR measurement multiple variables that must be evaluated
statistics at a threshold. DDA calibrations, on a 0.05 IQI, 127 µm (0.005 in.) T, on a and correlated during DDA system
or normalizing, are a necessary function 1.27 mm (0.05 in.) thick base material. As consideration and design. Resolution and
of the DDA imaging process. Most users important technique attributes, SNR and contrast performance for any radiographic
apply calibration techniques for DDA offset CNR measurement can be accomplished imaging system are the primary objectives,
and gain per the integrator or vendor’s with specific tools within most imaging and the requirements for the inspection
recommendation. Offset is basically dark software. High CNR values are not application must be recognized and
or inherent noise within the DDA, and possible without high SNR values, and understood. The characterizations of
gain is inconsistencies in pixel responses these two metrics can be used to validate performance within any DDA system are
(amplitude or gain) during exposure. one another—provided measurements are various, but can be boiled down to system
Without normalization, any DDA would consistent and controlled. SRb, allowable or required geometric
basically be unusable for an application. magnification, Uimg, and contrast sensitivity
It is extremely important that the user through the material type and thickness
establish DDA normalization protocol and range to be inspected. Many other
evaluate its efficacy. X-ray beam filtration considerations exist, more or less depending
is often employed, thereby attenuating on the target application, that are beyond
certain portions of the soft radiation the scope of this article. Realistically, at the
spectrum, which in turn reduces noise beginning, middle, and end of the day, the
and improves signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). required performance of the DDA system
Experimentation is key, and SNR can be is just this: to consistently and reliably
evaluated during system validation and detect and accurately portray substandard
technique development. Applying filtration defects for the selected application and its
also reduces dose to the DDA, which technique.
may increase its lifespan. Collimation,
or restricting the X-ray beam to only Process Controls
illuminate the input region of the DDA, Any DDA system’s performance must be
will also lower signal noise and reduce dose monitored for instability and degradation.
Figure 4. Contrast-to-noise ratio Most users apply a duplex plate phantom
to the DDA’s electronics. Besides fixed
measurement on an image quality
collimators, there are also programmable (DPP) and specialized software to enable
indicator of 29.5; this translates to
X-ray beam shuttering mechanisms that 0.8% contrast sensitivity. consistency within the measurements
can be completely closed (for X-ray system required for stability and performance.
warm-up) or opened/closed, as appropriate, The DPP (Figure 5) must be of the
for the imaging technique. Proper exposure The available DDAs are normally 14-bit same material group as the inspection
ensures optimized signal capture within (214) or 16-bit (216), 0 to 16 383 or 0 to application, with a thin and thick section
the DDA, and a translation to low contrast 65 535 possible pixel values, respectively: closely matching the thinnest and
sensitivity. Within any signal amplification, very long scale as compared to the limited thickest sections of the test article(s).

4 · Vol. 15, No. 3

 qualify all acquired images to the previous
qualifier. If the qualifier does not present
the required level of image quality, all
previous images to the last viable qualifier
are then considered invalid. The user must
assess the reprocessing risk and possible
burden associated with qualifier frequency
and application.
Not unlike any nondestructive testing
process, practices for process controls
must demonstrate system repeatability and
reliability, providing confidence and value
for the user and customer.
Figure 5. Duplex plate phantom—used for digital detector array system stability
measurements. Ti6Al4V titanium alloy 19 to 1.27 mm (0.75 to 0.05 in.) including duplex
Image Attributes and Evaluation
wire gage. Any digital image is a matrix of pixels,
each pixel having a relative value and X,
Y coordinate address (where X = column
ASTM E 2737, Standard Practice for Digital uncorrectable bad pixels—referred to
position and Y = row position)—pixels
Detector Array Performance Evaluation as cluster kernel pixels (CKPs)—may
are also defined as the smallest component
and Long-term Stability is typically increase the risk of missed defects to the
of the image that may be altered. The
requisite as a process control mechanism point that DDA replacement is necessary.
acquired DDA image, being of very
(ASTM, 2010b). The performance Avoiding imaging within the area of
long scale, requires image processing or
attributes measured can include: spatial the DDA that contains CKPs is also an
alteration across the matrix, to render
resolution, contrast sensitivity, SNR, acceptable practice but normally involves
discontinuity or feature visibility with
signal levels, offset, burn-in, lag, and bad reprogramming for test article positioning
human vision. There are many different
pixel distribution. Most users apply the and possible reductions in usable field
processing techniques than can be applied:
core image quality tests, and by using of view. DDA bad pixel and CKP
spatial filters, window/level adjustments,
statistical process controls, upper and lower considerations are all about management,
and electronic magnification (zoom) being
thresholds of ±3σ are determined during through mapping the DDA and evaluating
most often utilized. Any image processing
a prescribed baseline period. Bad pixel the bad pixel distribution list, and most
techniques must be validated, documented,
distribution includes mapping and listing for importantly the presence of CKPs, at
and controlled—it could be said that there
pixels that are outside of a specific standard, predetermined intervals or as necessary. The
is a viewing technique as well as an imaging
as defined within ASTM E 2597, Standard DDA system user or agent should evaluate
technique due to the variety of tools at the
Practice for Manufacturing Characteristics of the bad pixel map and distribution list of
technician’s disposal. Image discontinuities,
Digital Detector Arrays (ASTM, 2014). All the purchased DDA upon system buyoff
features, and attributes can be analyzed
DDAs have bad pixels, and DDAs may be and also evaluate the DDA for bad pixels
or quantified with various tools contained
graded according to the percentage of bad upon system delivery.
within most software platforms. Line or
pixels within the device upon manufacture. Ongoing production image quality is
area profiles, linear measurements, regions
Connected bad pixels or clusters, bad lines most often verified by the use of a qualifier
of interest for SNR/CNR measurements
or segments (columns or rows), and their image, or image capture of a specific
or local image processing, histograms,
presence within a DDA will increase over quality indicator (conventional IQIs or
and other implements are available for
time. Most of these pixels in the DDA are other) at a prescribed frequency, due to
these purposes. Annotation tools are
correctable by interpolation within the the automated inspection environment.
used to identify and characterize image
DDA software; those bad pixels without It is not necessary, nor practical in most
indications, and can either be saved as
enough good neighbors (five minimum cases, to include an IQI within each image
an overlay, or placed permanently within
are required per ASTM E 2597) cannot acquisition. Qualifier images are acquired
the image provided they do not mask or
be corrected and must remain in the and evaluated at a prescribed frequency,
obscure an area of interest. Training and
production image, and are therefore usually at a minimum of once per shift as
experience, and scripted work instructions,
considered image artifacts. Depending determined by the user and approved by
complement the accuracy and consistency
on the application, an escalation of these the end user or customer, and these images
of image evaluation activities.

TNT · July 2016 · 5

FOCUS | Digital Radiography in Industry

is the revision of the user’s written practice

for qualification and certification of DDA
personnel. Most users are making the
transition from film-based radiography,
so initially, the radiographic testing (RT)
Level 3 must be considered for DDA
Level 3. Formal training is required, and
any experience gained toward qualification
includes, but may not be limited to, DDA
system design and application studies,
vendor demonstrations, and technical
conferences. Experience should be
accumulated under supervision or guidance
of an examiner, instructor, or outside Figure 7. Full automated digital detector
Figure 6. Digital viewing environment. agency. RT Level 2 promotion to DDA array (DDA) system: 225 kVp µ-focus tube
(left); 200 µm amorphous silicon DDA
Level 2 begins with 40 h of formal training
(center); fully articulating robot and gripper
and the required hours of on-the-job (top); and “pigeon hole” casting carrier
The digital image display should be a high training/experience (OJT/OJE). The formal (right).
performance, medium to high resolution, training should be administered by an
liquid crystal display (LCD) or LCD/light- experienced, requirement and application
emitting diode type. Typically, medical savvy instructor, and should occur prior to, efficiency, investment returns, and user
grade monochrome displays are incorporated or in conjunction with, OJT or OJE. The satisfaction that DDA systems are capable
into the DDA system viewing workstation. OJT/OJE should be well organized and of providing. h
High luminance (brightness), as measured in delivered under structured planning and
candelas per square meter (cd/m2) at 100% documentation. Technicians can then be ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Figure 7 was provided by X-R-I Testing, Troy,
digital driving level (full white) is warranted, fully qualified by examinations as required
Michigan; and Pinnacle X-Ray Solutions,
to promote high visible and quantified by the employer’s written practice and Suwanee, Georgia.
contrast. A video test pattern, most often the subsequently certified. An audition period
Society of Motion Picture and Television or secondary review of a newly certified REFERENCES
Engineers’ SMPTE RP-133 or an approved DDA Level 2’s image evaluation is often ASTM, ASTM E 2597, Standard Practice
for Manufacturing Characteristics of Digital
variant, is presented and evaluated for spatial appropriate, and may be required by the
Detector Arrays, ASTM International, West
precision, visible contrast, and measured end user or customer. Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, 2014.
contrast performance of the display Starting from scratch would require
ASTM, ASTM E 2736, Standard Guide for
(SMPTE, 1999). a similar regimen as film radiographer Digital Detector Array Radiology, ASTM
The digital image viewing ambient qualification and certification for the DDA International, West Conshohocken,
environment requirements are basically Level 2. Pennsylvania, 2010a.
identical to those of radiographic film ASTM, ASTM E 2737, Standard Practice for
viewing, but the evaluation of soft copy
Conclusion Digital Detector Array Performance Evaluation
Increased radiographic inspection and Long-term Stability, ASTM International,
images has proven to be much more West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, 2010.
consistent, ergonomic and less rigorous throughput, higher POD and disposition
accuracy, reduction in consumable costs, SMPTE, SMPTE RP-133, Specifications for
than hard copy image handling and Medical Diagnostic Imaging Test Pattern for
viewing, resulting in higher levels of and the anticipated solid return on Television Monitors and Hardcopy Recording
technician confidence, performance, and investments for DDA system users can Cameras, Society of Motion Picture and
contentment (Figure 6). be realized with proper understanding, Television Engineers, Inc., White Plains, New
planning, and implementation (Figure 7). York, 1999.
Personnel Qualification Potential users must decide if outside
AUTHOR
Potential users of DDA systems also assistance is necessary—at the beginning Brad Kraai: X-Ray Industries, Inc., an
have the challenge of fully qualifying of the DDA system selection process— Applus RTD Co., NDT Training, Consulting
technicians and Level 3s for this new instead of during or after. This proactive & Services Group; e-mail brad.kraai@
approach can facilitate the process xrayindustries.com.
imaging process—the beginning of which

6 · Vol. 15, No. 3