STRUCTURAL

Resultants of Force Systems in Two Dimensions

Ry
F3 F1 R Horizontal component
Rx = Fx
Rx Vertical component
=
Ry = Fy
Resultant
F2 R = (Rx)2 + (Ry)2

Forces Resultant

Equilibrium of Rigid Body in Two Dimensions

y
Equation of Equilibrium:

Fx = 0
o x Fy = 0
Mo = 0

Forces

Resultants of Coplanar Force Systems

If the resultant is a force R:

Rx = Fx
Ry = Fy
Mo = 0

If the resultant is a couple CR:

o Fx = 0
Fy = 0
Mo = CR
Forces
 STRUCTURAL
Equilibrium of Rigid Body in Three Dimensions
y Equation of Equilibrium:
Fx = 0 Mx = 0
Fy = 0 My = 0
Fz = 0 Mz = 0
b
y To get components of force in three
F dimension:

a x F F Fy F
= x = = z
z d x y z
d = distance from a to b
x
= (xb -xa )2 (yb -y a )2 (zb -za )2
z
x = xb – xa
y = yb – ya
z = zb – za

Friction
W
Forces acting on a body at rest: P

1. Applied force : P F
2. Weight : W = mg
3. Normal force : N N
4. Friction : F = N
Impending Motion
= coefficient of friction ( to the right )
W
R = resultant of friction and normal forces P
= F2 + N2
F
tan =
= angle of internal friction
R
N
 STRUCTURAL
Reversed Effective Force

Forces acting on a body in motion: W

P
1. Applied force : P REF
2. Weight : W = mg F
3. Normal force : N
4. Friction : F = N N
5. Reversed Effective Force: REF = ma Motion
m = mass of body ( to the right )
a = acceleration of the body

Rectilinear Motion
motion
Equation of motion:
V1 V2
V2 – V1 = at
V22 – V12 = 2ax x
1 2
x = V1t at
2 motion along straight path
V2 = final velocity
V1 = initial velocity
a = acceleration
x = distance
 STRUCTURAL
Rotation About a Fixed Axis

v=R

at = R Tangential velocity : v = R

B
Tangential acceleration : at = R
R an = R Normal acceleration : an = R 2
v2
=
R
R = radius of curve
= angular velocity
= angular acceleration

Curvilinear Motion

Equation of motion:

2 – 1 = t
2 2
2 – 1 = 2
1 2
= 1 t t
2
2 = final angular velocity

1 = initial angular velocity

= angular acceleration
= angular distance
 STRUCTURAL
Projectile Motion (air resistance neglected)

Vy = 0 Horizontal distance
Vx x = Vx t
= Vocos t

Vy Vo h Vx Vertical distance
g x2
Vy y = x tan -
Vx 2 Vo 2 cos2 θ
origin
y Max range of projectile, R

x = Vx t
Max height of projectile, h
R

Motion Diagrams by Area Method

12 m/s2
Velocity after 12 seconds.

4 sec
8 sec

acceleration – time diag

Distance traveld after 12 seconds.

velocity – time diag

distance – time diag

 STRUCTURAL
WORK – ENERGY
Work – Energy Equation:

W = mg U1-2 = T + Vg + Ve
P
U = work done due to external force
x V1 = Force x Distance
1
T = change in kinetic energy
F
h = T2 – T1 = ½m(V22 – V12)
V2 N
T2 = final kinetic energy = ½mV22
2
T1 = initial kinetic energy = ½mV12

Vg = gravitational potential energy

= mgh (positve if vertically upward)

Ve = elastic potential energy (due to spring)

= ½k( 22 - 12)
k = spring constant

IMPULSE – MOMENTUM

Impulse – Momentum Equation:

F ( t) = m( V)
V1 V2
P
F F = external forces on the body
t = time interval
x
m = mass of the body
N W
=
g
V = change in velocity
= V2 – V1
 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 1

Stress & Strain

Shearing stress ( Hollow shaft)
16TD
Ss =
π(D 4 - d 4 )
d D

Angle of Twist (in radians)

stress
TL
=
JG
T = applied torque
L = length
G = modulus of rigidity
strain J = polar moment of inertia
force P
Stress = = π d4
area A J= (solid shaft)
deformation δ 32
Strain = = π (D4 - d 4 )
original length L J= (hollow shaft)
32
Δζ
Modulus of Elasticity, E =
Δε
Relation of Load, Shear and Moment
Diagrams
Axial Deformation

PL
=
AE L Load
P = applied axial load Diag
L = original length
A = cross-sectional area V = shaded area of
E = modulus of elasticity load diagram
V=0
Torsion (circular section) Shear
Diag

M = shaded area of
max M shear diagram

Moment
Shearing stress (solid shaft) Diag
16T
Ss = d
π d3 Note: Moment is maximum at zero shear
 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 2

Moving Loads Stresses in Beams

b
P1 P2 P3 Bending/Flexure Stress c
N.A.
d
Mc
f= for all sections
I
6M
fmax = 2 for rectangular section only
bd
Bending Moment b A

- the bending moment under a particular Shearing Stress

y
load is a maximum when the center of the VQ d N.A.
= for all sections
beam is midway between that load and the Ib
resultant of all loads then on the span. Q=Ay
R I = moment of inertia about N.A.
3V
P1 P2 P3 max = for rectangular section only
2bd

Mohr’s Circle for Stress

R1 R2
L x
Mmax = R2 ( - )
2 2
Shearing Force
- the maximum shearing force occurs at, Actual plane Mohr’s Circle
and is equal to, the maximum reaction. The
max reaction occurs either at the left Rules in Mohr’s circle applied to stresses:
reaction, when the leftmost load is over that 1. On rectangular axes, plot points having
reaction, or at the right reaction, when the coordinates ( x , xy) and ( y , - xy). In plotting
these points, assume tension as plus,
rightmost load is over it.
compression as minus, and shearing stress as
plus when its moment about the center of the
P1 P2 P3
elements is clockwise.
2. Join the points just plotted by a straight line.
The line is the diameter of a circle whose
center is on the axis.
3. The angle between the radii to selected points
R1 R2
on Mohr’s circle is twice the angle between
Vmax = R2 the normals to the actual planes represented
by these points.
 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 3

Moment of Inertia
b

Centroidal Moment of Inertia

h bh 3
Io =
12
d
Transfer Moment of Inertia
I = Io + Ad2

Mohr’s Circle for Moment of Inertia

Rules in Mohr’s circle applied to moment of

inertia:
1. On rectangular I P axes, plot points having
coordinates (Ix , Pxy) and (Iy , -Pxy).
I = centroidal moment of inertia.
2. Join the points just plotted by a straight line.
The line is the diameter of a circle whose
center is on the I axis.
3. The angle between any two radii on Mohr’s
circle is double the actual angle between the
two axes of inertia represented by these two
radii. If the u axis of inertia is located at a
counterclockwise angle relative to the x
axis of inertia, then on Mohr’s circle the u
radius is laid off at a counterclockwise angle
2 from the x axis.
y
Product of Inertia, P
b
Pxy = A x y
x
h
A = area
x = distance from c.g. y
to y-axis x
y = distance from c.g.
to x-axis
 THEORY OF STRUCTURES 1

Determinacy and Stability of Beams and Frames

if r < 3n : unstable
if r > 3n : indeterminate
if r = 3n : determinate, provided no
geometric instability
where: r = no. of reactive components
n = no. of parts

Determinacy and Stability of Trusses

if m + r < 2j : unstable
if m + r > 2j : indeterminate
FRAME
if m + r = 2j : determinate, provided no
geometric instability
where: m = number of bars/members
r = number of reactive components
j = number of joints

The structure is geometrically unstable if:

1. all the reactive components are parallel TRUSS

R1 R2 R3

2. all the reactive components meet at a common point. BEAM

R1 R2 R3
 THEORY OF STRUCTURES 2
Area – Moment Method
elastic curve
THEOREM I : The change in slope between tangents
drawn to the elastic curve at any two points A and B is A B
equal to the product of 1/EI multiplied by the area of the
moment diagram between these two points.
1
θ AB = (area)AB AB
EI

elastic curve
THEOREM II : The deviation of any point B relative to a A B
tangent drawn to the elastic curve at any other point A, in
a direction perpendicular to the original position of the
beam, is equal to the product of 1/EI multiplied by the
moment of area about B of that part of the moment tB/A
diagram between points A and B.
1
t B/A = (area)AB • x B tangent line at A
EI

Loading Moment Diagram

M
L M

L PL

L wL2
2
w

L w L2
6
 THEORY OF STRUCTURES 3

Three – Moment Equation

6Aa 6Ab h h
A C
Prismatic Member : MAL1 + 2MB(L1 + L2) + McL2 = - - + 6EI ( + )
L L L L
1 2 1 2

A B C
I I
L1 L2

M L L L M L 6Aa 6Ab h h
A 1 1 2 C 2
Non - Prismatic Member : + 2MB( + )+ =- - + 6E ( A + C )
I I I I I L I L L L
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 2

A B C
I1 I2
L1 L2
Factors in three – moment equation:
6Aa Loading 6Ab
L L
P

(L - a 2 )
Pa 2
(L - b 2 )
a b Pb 2
L L L

w
3
wL wL 3
4 L 4

w
7 8
wL3 wL3
60 60
L

w
8 7
wL3 wL3
60 60
L
 THEORY OF STRUCTURES 4

Moment Distribution

A B C
I 2I
L1 L2

Beam Stiffness
4EI
k =
L
I
k = (Relative Beam Stiffness)
L
Distribution Factor
K
DF =
K
DF = 0 ( Far –end fixed )
DF = 1.0 ( Far –end pinned )

Fixed End Moment ( FEM )

Left End Loading Right End

P
2
Pab a b Pa 2b
- +
L2 L L2

w
2
wL wL 2
- +
12 L 12

w
2
wL wL 2
- +
30 20
L

P
PL PL
- +
8 8
L
 THEORY OF STRUCTURES 5
Conjugate Beam Method

Real Beam Moment Diagram Conjugate Beam

P

L
PL

Theorem I : The slope at a given point of the real beam equals the shear in corresponding point of
the conjugate beam.

Theorem II : The deflection at a given point of the real beam equals the bending moment in
corresponding point of the conjugate beam.

Real Support Conjugate Support

hinge

hinge

hinge
 THEORY OF STRUCTURES 6

P1
Portal Method
V1 2V1 V1

P2

V2 2V2 V2

Portal Method Second Assumption:

The total horizontal shear on each storey is
the sum of all the horizontal forces applied above
that storey. The total horizontal shear on each
Portal Method First Assumption:
storey is distributed between the columns of that
There is a point of inflection at the midpoint
storey so that each interior column carries twice
of all members. At the point of inflection, the
as much shear as each exterior column.
moment is equal to zero. Thus the frame is
V1 + 2V1 + V1 = P1
analyzed as if it has hinges at the midpoint of all
V2 + 2V2 + V2 = P1 + P2
members.
center of rigidity
Cantilever Method P1

P2 F1 F2 F3

c2 c3
c1

Cantilever Method Second Assumption:

The intensity of axial stress in each column
Cantilever Method First Assumption: of a storey is proportional to the horizontal
There is a point of inflection at the midpoint distance of that column from the center of rigidity
of all members. At the point of inflection, the of all the columns of the storey under
moment is equal to zero. Thus the frame is consideration.
analyzed as if it has hinges at the midpoint of all
Mc
members. F= A
I
 THEORY OF STRUCTURES 7

Deflection of Trusses
10
10 10
SUL
c= ∑ AE 5 5

S = member forces due to actual loads

U = memeber forces due to unit load c
applied on point c whose deflection is to be
determine while actual loads are remove. Use joint method to determine the member
L = length of member forces ( S ) due to actual loads
A = cross-sectional area of member
E = modulus of elasticity

c
1
Use joint method to determine the member
forces ( U ) due to unit load at c

SUL
Member S U L A E
AE

SUL
∑ AE
= deflection at c
 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 1
Reinforced Concrete Design

Working Stress Design Method x

b b fc 3

x C
d n.a.
d-x
n As
fs/n T
Mx
Stress of Concrete : fc =
I
fs M (d - x)
Stress of Steel : = I = moment of inertia about n.a.
n I
n = modular ratio

Beams Subjected to Bending by Ultimate Strength Design Method

a. Singly – Reinforced Rectangular Beam
a
b 0.85f ’c 2 c= 0.003

a C = 0.85f’c ab c
d n.a.
d – a/2
d-c

T = f s As s

Mode of Failure
1. Under-Reinforced Beam : fs = fy Ultimate Moment Capacity
fy Mu = Mn
when min < < max or > =
s y
Es Mn = nominal moment ( use the diag )
1.4
min = minimum reinforcement ratio or Mu = f’c bd2 ( 1 – 0.59 )
fy
ρ fy
As =
= actual reinforcement ratio f 'c
bd
max = 0.75 bal maximum reinforcement ratio
0.85f c′ β 600
bal = balanced reinforcement ratio
f y (600 + f y )
 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 2

= 0.85 – 0.008 (f’c – 30 )

max = 0.85
min = 0.65

2. Over-Reinfoced Beam : fs fy ; fs = sEs

Ultimate Moment Capacity
when > max or <
s y
Mu = Mn
Mn = nominal moment ( use the diag )
3. Balanced Design Beam : fs = fy
when = max or s = y

b. Doubly – Reinforced Rectangular Beam

a
b 0.85f ’c 2 c= 0.003
d’ d’
a C1 = 0.85f ’c ab C2 = f ’s A’s c
d n.a.
d – a/2 d -d’
d-c

T1 = fy As1 T2 = fy As2 s

Case I : Steel in Tension Yield, fs = fy

Steel in Compression Yield, f’s = fy Ultimate Moment Capacity
Mu = Mn
0.85f c β d 600
' ' Mn = nominal moment ( use the diag )
’
when ’ or s > y & s > y = M1 + M2
f y d(600 - f y )
As
= actual reinforcement ratio of steel in tension
bd
A 's
’
= actual reinforcement ratio of steel in compression
bd

Case II : Steel in Tension Yield, fs = fy

’
Steel in Compression does not Yield, f’s fy ; f’s = s Es

0.85f ' c β d ' 600 ’

when ’< or s > y & s < y
f y d(600 - f y )
 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 3
c. Reinforced T - Beam

1. Neutral Axis lie on the Flange a

b 0.85f ’c 2

t a C = 0.85f’c ab
Ultimate Moment Capacity
d Mu = Mn
d – a/2 Mn = nominal moment
( use the diagram )

T = f y As
bw
2. Neutral Axis lie on the Web y
b 0.85f ’c

t a C = 0.85f’c Ac Ultimate Moment Capacity

d Mu = Mn
d–y Mn = nominal moment
( use the diagram )

T = f y As
bw

Shear and Web Reinforcement by Ultimate Strength Design Method

Shear Strength of Concrete for Non-Prestressing Members, Vc

a. For members subjected to shear and flexure
1 '
Vc = f c bwd ( approximate, NSCP section 5.11.3.1.1 )
6
1 Vu d
Vc = f c' 120 w bd ( more detailed calculation NSCP section 5.11.3.2.1)
7 Mu
However Vc shall not greater than Vc = 0.3 f ' c b w d
Vu d
shall not be greater than 1.
Mu
Vu & Mu = ultimate shear and moment respectively occurring simultaneously at section considered
 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 4
b. For members subjected to axial compression
Nu f 'c
Vc = ( 1+ ) bwd ( NSCP section 5.11.3.1.2)
14Ag 6
NSCP section 5.11.3.2.2 : For member subject to axial compression the equation
1 Vu d
Vc = f c' 120 w bd may be used to compute shear strength of concrete with
7 Mu
Vu d 4h - d
Mm substituted for Mu and not then limited to 1, where Mm = Mu – Nu
Mu 8
However, Vc shall not be taken greater than

0.3 N u
Vc = 0.3 f ' c b w d 1+
Ag

bw = width of compression face of member, web width or diameter of circular section

d = effective depth
h = overall depth of member
Ag = gross area of section
Nu = factored axial load normal to cross section occuring simultaneously wit Vu

c. For members subjected to axial tension

0.3 N u f 'c
Vc = ( 1+ ) bwd ( NSCP section 5.11.3.2.3)
Ag 6
where Nu is negative for tension.

Spacing of Web Reinforcement ( stirrups )

Vc
b
when Vu > web reinforcement are required
2
Vu = shear force at distance “d” from face of support
Av fy d d h
Spacing of stirrups : S =
Vs
Vu = ( Vc + Vs ) ; = 0.85 ; Vs = shear strength of stirrups
Maximum spacing of stirrups, smax
1 d
when Vs < f 'c bw d ; smax = or 600 mm (whichever is smaller)
3 2
1 d
when Vs > f 'c bw d ; smax = or 300 mm (whichever is smaller)
3 4
Minimum area of stirrups
bS
min Av =
3f y
 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 5

Torsional Moment Strength provided by Concrete by Ultimate Strength Design Method

NSCP section 5.11.6.6.1 : Torsional moment strength Tc shall be computed by

where : Vu = factored shear force at critical section

Tu = factored torsional moment at the critical section
'
f c
( ) Σx 2 y
Tc = 15
Ct =
bwd
0.4 Vu
2
Σx 2 y
1+ x = the shorter overall dimension of a rectangular section
C t Tu
y = the longer overall dimension of a rectangular section

Development and Splices of Reinforcement

1. Development of Deformed Bars in Tension : see NSCP section 5.12.2

2. Development of Deformed Bars in Compression : see NSCP section 5.12.3

Development Length, ld = basic development, ldb multiplied by modification factors

Reinforced Concrete Columns

L L

h D

h
Tied Column Spiral Column
 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 6
Short Columns
-the strength is governed by the strength of the Axially Loaded Spiral Column, = 0.75
materials and the geometry of the cross section. Pu

Tied Column – the reinforcement consists of

longitudinal bars and separate ties.

Spiral Column – the reinforcement consists of

longitudinal bars enclosed by a closely spaced
spiral.
L
Axially Loaded Tied Column, = 0.70
Pu

D Dc

Ultimate Axial Load, Pu

Pu = 0.85 Ag [ 0.85 f’c (1 - g) + fy g ]

4 As (Dc - d b )
Spacing of Spiral, S =
ρsDc 2
h vol of spriral re inf orcement
ρs =
vol of concrete core
h Ag f 'c
ρs = 0.45 [ -1]
Ultimate Axial Load, Pu Ac fy
Pu = 0.80 Ag [ 0.85 f’c (1 - g) + fy g ] Ag = gross cross sectional area of column
Ac = area of concrete core
Spacing of Lateral Ties, S (use the smallest value)
a. not more than 16 bar diameter ACI Code 7.10.4
b. not more than 48 tie diameter Spirals shall consist of a continuous bar or wire not
c. least dimension of column less than 10mm and the clear spacing between turns
of the spiral must not exceed 75 mm nor less than 25
Minimum Lateral Ties mm.

10 mm for logitudinal bars 32mm or smaller

12 mm for logitudinal bars larger than 32mm
 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 7

Compression Plus Bending Strength of

Columns ( use interaction diagram) ACI Moment Magnifier Method for Slender
Columns ( see NSCP Section 5.10.11.5)
Pu

Mu SPREAD FOOTING
C.S. for punching
Column Footing
C.S. for beam shear

h
Slender Columns
-the strength may be significantly reduced by
lateral deflections.
C.S. for bending

ACI Provisions:
1. For compression members in non-sway
frames, the effects of slenderness may be
neglected when klu /r 34 – 12 M1/M2
where M1/M2 is not taken less than -0.5.
2. For compression members not braced
against sidesway, the effects of
slenderness may be neglected when klu/r is
less than 22.
k = effective length factor
lu = unsupported length taken as the clear distance
between floor slabs, beams.
M1 = smaller factored end moment of the compression
member, positive if the member is bent in single
curvature and negative if bent in double curvature.
M2 = larger factored end moment of the compression
member, always positive.
r = radius of gyration
 STEEL DESIGN 1
Wall Footing C.S. for beam shear

Structural Steel Design

Riveted or Bolted Connection

1. Shearing Stress of Bolts or Rivets, Ss

2. Bearing Stress between Plate and Bolts, Sb

C.S. for bending

Dimension of Footing 3. Tearing Stress of Plate, St

column load
Required Area =
effective soil pressure

Shear on Footing
1 '
Allowable Punching Shear Stress, p fc
3
1 '
Allowable Beam Shear Stress, = fc
6

Bending on Footing
Mu = f’c bd2 ( 1 – 0.59 )
 STEEL DESIGN 2

Gross and Net Areas ( see Section 4.14 NSCP 1992 )

The gross area of a member at any point shall be determined by summing the products of the
thickness and the gross width of each elements as measured normal to the axis of the member.
In case of a chain of holes extending across a part in any diagonal or zigzag line, the net width of
the part shall be obtained by deducting from the gross width the sum of the diameters of all the
holes in the chain, and adding, for each gage space in the chain, the quantity s2/4g . The critical net
area, An is obtained from that chain which gives the least width multiplied by the thickness of the
member.

g
s

Riveted or Bolted Connection - Eccentric Connections

Brackets

P
e

due to direct shear due to eccentricity

 STEEL DESIGN 3

Welded Connection – Fillet Welds ( see Section 4.14.6.2 NSCP 1992 )

Welded Connection - Eccentric Connections

P
e

due to direct shear due to eccentricity

 STEEL DESIGN 4

Axially Loaded Compression Members Bending Stress: Beams – Laterally Supported

P Mc M
Actual Bending Stress : fb = =
I S
M = moment
I = moment of inertia
S = section modulus

Allowable Bending Stress : Fb

(see Section 4.5.1.4 NSCP 1992 )

1. Compact Section : Fb = 0.66 Fy

Flange Width – Thickness ratio
bf 170
<
2tf Fy
Web Depth – Thickness Ratio
d 1680
P <
Actual Axial Stress : fa = tw Fy
A
Allowable Axial Stress: Fa 2. Non - Compact Section : Fb = 0.60 Fy
- see Section 4.5.1.3.1 NSCP 1992 Flange Width – Thickness ratio
bf 170
>
Bending & Shear Stresses on Beams 2tf Fy
3. Partially Compact Section :
bf Fb is between 0.60 Fy to 0.66Fy

Bending Stress: Beams – Laterally Unsupported

d
Mc M
Actual Bending Stress : fb = =
I S
tw M = moment
I = moment of inertia
S = section modulus
Shear Stress
V
Actual Shear Stress : fv = for Wide Flange Allowable Bending Stress : Fb
d tw
(see Section 4.5.1.4.5 NSCP 1992 )

Allowable Shear Stress : Fv = 0.40 Fy

 STEEL DESIGN 5

Combined Stresses
Web Crippling & Vertical Buckling
Axial Compression and Bending
fa Cmx fbx Cmy fby
+ + ≤ 1.0
Fa fa fa
(1 - ' )Fbx (1 - ' )Fby
F ex F ey
fa f fby
+ bx + ≤ 1.0
0.60Fy Fbx Fby

fa
when ≤ 0.15
Fa
fa f fby
+ bx + ≤ 1.0
Fa Fbx Fby
Web Crippling
12 π 2 E
F’e =
kL
Actual web crippling stress: 23( ) 2
r
R
For interior loads : Fa = axial compressive stress that would be permitted
tw ( N + 2k )
if axial force alone existed
R Fb = compressive bending stress that would be
For end - reactions :
tw ( N + k ) permitted if bending moment alone existed
Allowable web crippling stress = 0.75 Fy fa = computed axial stress
fb = computed bending stress at point under
consideration
Vertical Buckling
Cm = a coefficient whose value shall be taken as:
Actual vertical buckling stress: 1. For compression members in frames subject to joint
R translation (sidesway), Cm = 0.85
For interior loads : f=
d 2. For restrained compression members in frames
tw ( N + )
2 braced against joint translation and not subject to
R transversed loading between their support in the
For end - reactions : f =
d plane of bending
tw ( N + )
4 M1
d 2 Cm = 0.60 – 0.40 but not less than 0.40
Allowable vetical buckling stress = 128 – 0.01( ) M2
tw where: M1/M2 is the ratio of the smaller to larger
moments at the ends of that portion of the member
R = concentrated load or reaction, in N unbraced in the plane of bending under
tw = thickness of web, in mm consideration. M1/M2 is positive when the member is
N = length of bearing bent in double curvature, negative when bent in
single curvature.
k = distance from outer face of flange to web toe
3. For compression members in frames braced against
of fillet, in mm
joint tranlation in plane of loading and subject to
transverse loading between their supports.
For members whose ends are restrained… Cm = 0.85
For members whose ends are unrestrained… Cm = 1.0