Continuous Time (Sürekli Zaman)

(Zamanda Öteleme veya Kaydırma)

2
 0 t  -1
2 2t  2 - 1  t  0
 1
x(t )  
1  1 0  t 1
 0 t 1 0 1 2
t
t t - 1  -1  t  0
-1 0 1  0
2(t - 1)  2  2t -1  t -1  0  0  t  1

x(t - 1)  
 1 0  t -1  1  1  t  2
 0 t -1  1  t  2

 0 t  1  -1  t  -2
2 2(t  1)  2  2t  4 - 1  t  1  0  -2  t  -1

x(t  1)  
1  1 0  t  1  1  -1  t  0
 0 t 1  1  t  0
t
-2 -1 0
 (Zamanda Ölçekleme)

2
 0 t  -1
2 2t  2 - 1  t  0

x(t )   1
1  1 0  t 1
 0 t 1 t
-1/2 0 1/2
t
-1 0 1
 0 2t  -1  t  -1 / 2
2(2t )  2  4t  2 - 1  2t  0  -1 / 2  t  0

x(2t )  
 1 0  2t  1  0  t  1 / 2
 0 2t  1  t  1 / 2

2  1
 0 t  -1  t  -2
2
 1 1
1  2 ( t )  2  t  2 - 1  t  0  -2  t  0
1  2 2
x( t )  
2 1
t  1 0  t 11 t  2
-2 -1 0 2  2
 1
 0 t 1 t  2
2
 Örnek:
(Zamanda Tersine Çevirme) 2 x(-2t  1)  2 x(-2(t - 1 / 2)) 2
x(t)
1
 0 t  -1
2 2t  2 - 1  t  0
 t
x(t )   -1 0 1
 1 0  t 1
1 2
 0 t 1 x1(t)=x(-t)
t
-1 0 1 1

t
2 -1 0 1 2

1 4 1

t
-1 0 1
t -½ 0 ½
x2(t)=x1(2t)= x(-2t)
 0 - t  -1  t  1 2
2(-t )  2  -2t  2 - 1  -t  0  0  t  1

x(-t )  
 1 -1  t  0
 0 t  -1
x3(t)=2x2(t- ½)= 2x(-2t+1)
t
0 ½ 1
 Discrete Time (Ayrık Zaman)

0 n  -3
2 1 n  -2

2 n  -1
1 1 1 
1 n0
... ... x[n]  
2 0 n 1
n - 1
-3 -2 -1 0 1 3 4 n2

1 n3
-1
0 n4


0 n - 1  -3  n  -2 2
1 n - 1  -2  n  -1

2 n - 1  -1  n  0 1 1 1

1 n -1  0  n  1 ... ...
x[n - 1]   3 n
0 n -1  1  n  2
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 4 5
- 1 n -1  2  n  3
 -1
1 n -1  3  n  4
0 n -1  4  n  5

 0 n  -3
2 1 n  -2

2 n  -1
1 1 1 
1 n0
... ... x[n]  
2 0 n 1
n - 1
-3 -2 -1 0 1 3 4 n2

1 n3
-1
0 n4


0 - n  -3  n  3
1 - n  -2  n  2 2

2 - n  -1  n  1
 1 1 1
1 -n 0 n 0
x[-n]   ... ...
0 - n  1  n  -1 2
- 1
n
- n  2  n  -2 -4 -3 -1 0 1 2 3

1 - n  3  n  -3
0 -1
 - n  4  n  -4
 0 n  -3
1 n  -2
2 
2 n  -1

1 1 1 1 n0
x[n]  
... ... 0 n 1
2 n - 1 n2
-3 -2 -1 0 1 3 4 
1 n3
-1 0
 n4

0 2n  -3  n  -3 / 2  n  -2 (n: tamsayı!)
1 2n  -2  n  -1

2 2n  -1  n  -1 / 2 (n: tamsayı!) 1 1

1 2n  0  n  0 .. . ...
x[2n]   1
0 2n  1  n  1 / 2 (n: tamsayı!) n
- 1 2n  2  n  1 -2 -1 0 2

1 2n  3  n  3 / 2 (n: tamsayı!) -1
0 2n  4  n  2

 2 0 n  -3
1 n  -2

1 1 1 2 n  -1
... ... 
2 1 n0
n x[n]  
-3 -2 -1 0 1 3 4 0 n 1
- 1 n2
-1 
1 n3
0 1 2 n  -3  n  -6 0
1 1 2 n  -2  n  -4 n-5  n4
 n-3
2 1 2 n  -1  n  -2 Genlik değeri
 n-1 tanımlanmamış
1 1 1 2 n  0  n  0
x[ n]   n1 aradaki n’ler için
2 0 1 2 n  1  n  2 n3
- 1 1 2 n  2  n  4 x[½n]0
 n5
1 1 2 n  3  n  6 n7
0 1 2 n  4  n  8

2

1 1 1
... ...
4 n
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-1
Örnek:
2 0 n  -3
1 n  -2

1 1 1 2 n  -1
... ... 
2 1 n0
n x[n]  
-3 -2 -1 0 1 3 4 0 n 1
- 1 n2
-1 
1 n3
0 n4


4
2  0  0 3n - 1  -3  n  -1
2  1  2 3n - 1  -2  n  -1 / 3

2  2  4 3n - 1  -1  n  0

2  1  2 3n - 1  0  n  1 / 3
2 x[3n - 1]   ... ...
2  0  0 3n - 1  1  n  2 / 3 1 n
2  (-1)  -2 3n - 1  2  n  1 -1 0 2

2  1  2 3n - 1  3  n  4 / 3
2  0  0 3n - 1  4  n  2 -2

 RoC

jIm{z}
z=x+jy q =arctan(y/x)
jy
z x=Re{z} x=|z|cos(q)
q y=Im{z} y=|z|sin(q)
Re{z}
z=|z|ejq=|z|{cos(q)+jsin(q)}
x
|z|=(x2+y2)1/2
Complex z-plane
=
 : RoC

y
Zero z  x  jy  z e j
(Sıfır)
x x  cos()
  z  x 2
 y 2
1
Pole y  sin() 
(Kutup)
e j  cos()  j sin()
( )
Problem
k
Telekomünikasyon Trafiği Gelişimi
Haberleşme
Servislerindeki
Artış
 Concept and Model of Communications

Electronic Communications: Telephone, wireless phone, TV, radar, etc.

General Communication Model

Transmission
Source Transmitter Receiver Destination
System

Microphone Transformer Line/Cable Transformer Speaker

Telephone Encoder Fiber/Air Decoder Earphone
Computer Compress Satellite Uncompress Computer
Scanner Modulator Network Demodulator Printer

Basic Communication Criteria: Performance, Reliability, Security

Important Reasons for Modulation:

• Ease of Radiation: c=l×f

• Simultaneous Transmission of Several Signals

FDM/TDM

• Effecting the Exchange of SNR with B

Signal-to-Noise Ratio: S_
N
Channel Capacity Channel Bandwidth
 Modulation

Carrier: Acos(2πfct+φ) where fc is called carrier frequency

Modulation: change or modify values of A, fc, φ according to input signal m(t)
- modify A  A[m(t)]: Amplitude Modulation (AM)
- modify fc  fc[m(t)]: Frequency Modulation (FM)
- modify φ  φ[m(t)]: Phase Modulation (PM)

m(t) modulated signal: s(t)

Modulator

Acos(2πfct+φ)
Neden
Sayısal
Haberleşme?

• Sayısal sinyaller analog sinyallere göre gürültü ve parazit sinyallerinden

daha az etkilenirler.
• Sayısal sinyallerdeki bozulmalar tekrar ediciler (regenerative repeaters)
tarafından giderilebilir.

• Hata sezme (error detection) ve düzeltme (correction) teknikleri sayesinde az hata

oranlı sinyal iletimi yapılabilir.

• Sayısal sinyallere parazit ve karıştırıcı sinyal etkilerinden korunabilmek için

güvenlik ve kriptolama gibi sinyal işleme teknikleri uygulanabilir.

• Sayısal devreler analog devrelere göre daha esnek, daha dayanıklı, ve daha az
maliyetli olarak tasarlanabilir.
Sayısal Haberleşme Alıcı-Verici Birimi
Sayısal Haberleşme Çoklu-Atlama Kanalı

Sayısal Tekrarlayıcı
 Modulator, Demodulator & Modem
Modulator accepts bit sequence and modulates a carrier.
Demodulator accepts a modulated signal and regenerates bit sequence.
Modem is a single device which includes both modulator and demodulator.

Multiplexing, Multiplexer & Demultiplexer

Multiplexing is a technique that allows simultaneous transmissions of multiple
signals across a single data link.

Da D
CompA1 CompA2
Db 1 shared link: rate D E
CompB1 M CompB2
D ≥ Da+Db+Dc U
CompC1 Dc X CompC2

Multiplexer Demultiplexer
 FDM – Frequency Division Multiplexing

- A set of signals are put in different frequency positions of a link/medium.

- Bandwidth of the link must be larger than the sum of signal bandwidths.
- Each signal is modulated using its own carrier frequency.
- Examples: radio, TV, satellite, etc.

A1 1 Mod 1 1 Dem 1 A2
f1

B1 2 Mod 2
+ 2 Dem 2 B2
f2

C1 3 Mod 3 3 Dem 3 C2
f3
 TDM – Time Division Multiplexing

- Multiple data streams are sent in different time in single data link/medium.
- Data rate of the link must be larger than a sum of the multiple streams.
- Data streams take turn to transmit in a short interval.
- Widely used in digital communication networks.

CompA1 D CompA2
E
CompB1 … C1 B1 A1 C1 B1 A1 … M CompB2
U
CompC1 X CompC2
For no aliasing:

Bit rate:
R=n.fs=(bit sayısı/örnek veri)x(örnek veri/sn )=bit/s=bps

Bandwidth of PCM waveform:

m 255 Quantizer
 6-dB Law:

Depends on:
 input waveshapes
 quantification characteristics
A-tipi sıkıştırma eğrisinin parçalı gösterimi

Amaç; giriş genliğinin herhangi bir değeri için belirli sınırlar içinde kalan bir kuantalama
hatası elde etmektir.

Lokal kuantalama
seviye (adım) sayısı: M
Information / Hz: 1 Hertz can transmit a maximum of 2 pieces of information per second.
2 bits / sec / Hz

Relationship between Transmission Speed and Noise

0 1 0 0 1 0

t t

Transmission s(t)
Encoder System/Channel + Decoder
Bandwidth=B
Maximum Signal Rate Noise n(t)
Channel Capacity

Shannon Theorem (1948):

For a system/channel bandwidth B and signal-to-noise ratio S/N, its channel capacity is,
C = Blog2(1+S/N) bits/sec (bps, bit rate)
C is the maximum number of bits that can be transmitted per second with a Pe=0.
To transmit data in bit rate D, the channel capacity of a system/channel must be
C≥D
 Channel Capacity

Shannon theorem C = Blog2(1+S/N) shows that the maximum rate or channel

Capacity of a system/channel depends on bandwidth, signal energy and noise
intensity. Thus, to increase the capacity, three possible ways are

1) increase bandwidth; 2) raise signal energy; 3) reduce noise.

Shannon theorem tell us that we cannot send data faster than the channel
capacity, but we can send data through a channel at the rate near its capacity.

Examples
1. For an extremely noise channel S/N  0, C  0, cannot send any data regardless of bandwidth

2. If S/N=1 (signal and noise in a same level), C=B

3. The theoretical highest bit rate of a regular telephone line where B=3000Hz and S/N=35dB.
10log10(S/N)=35  log2(S/N)= 3.5x log210
C= Blog2(1+S/N) =~ Blog2(S/N) =3000x3.5x log210=34.86 Kbps
If B is fixed, we have to increase signal-to-noise ratio for increasing transmission rate.