Introduction to the Bridge

Engineering
Dr. Muhammad Waseem
National Centre of Excellence in Geology,
University of Peshawar
 Reference Course Book

Design of Highway Bridges

An LRFD Approach, 3rd Edition,
Barker and Puckett (2013)
 Acknowledgment
Part of these Lecture notes have taken from the
Lectures of Prof. Dr. Shazad Rehman course on
Bridge Engineering
 Course Objective
The main purpose of this course from my point view
is to provide students with initial and basic
knowledge about Bridge Engineering both with
theory and hands-on exercises. This course, in my
knowledge has not been offered to the students at
CECOS.
 What is a BRIDGE?

• Bridge is a structure which covers a gap

• Generally bridges carry a road or railway across a
natural or artificial obstacle such as, a river, canal
or another railway or another road
• Bridge is a structure corresponding to the heaviest
responsibility in carrying a free flow of transport
and is the most significant component of a
transportation system in case of communication
over spacings/gaps for whatever reason such as
aquatic obstacles, valleys and gorges etc.
Bridge is the KEY ELEMENT in a
Transportation System
 It Controls the Capacity of the System

If the width of a bridge is insufficient to carry the

number of lanes required to handle the traffic volume,
the bridge will be a constriction to the flow of traffic. If
the strength of a bridge is deficient and unable to carry
heavy trucks, load limits will be posted and truck traffic
will be rerouted.
The bridge controls both the volume and weight of
the traffic carried by the transportation system.
 Highest Cost per Mile of the System

Bridges are expensive. The typical cost per mile of a bridge is many times
that of the approach roads to the bridge.`

Since, bridge is the key element in a transportation system, balance must be

achieved between handling future traffic volume and loads and the cost of
heavier and wider bridge structure.
 If the Bridge Fails, the System Fails
The importance of a Bridge can be visualized by considering the
comparison between the two main components of a highway
system i.e. a road and bridge itself.

EXAMPLE: Suppose in a road there occurs deterioration and

ultimately a crack, thus making a sort of inconvenience but it
wont result in stopping of the flow of traffic as traffic can pass or
otherwise a bypass can be provided. The traffic no doubt will
pass with a slower speed but in case of a bridge its flow is
completely stopped incase of the failure of the bridge, that is the
reason its often called “If the bridge fails the structure fails” as
the function of the structure could no longer be served at all.
 Classification of Bridges

Material Steel Concrete Wood Hybrid

Stone/Brick

Usage Pedestrian Highway Railroad

Span Short Medium Long

Structural Slab Girder Truss Arch

Suspension Cable-Stayed
Form

Structural Arrangement
 Discussion on Classification According To
STRUCTURAL FORM
Distinctive Features of Girder Bridge
Distinctive Features of Arch Bridge
Distinctive Features of Truss Bridge
Distinctive Features of Suspension Bridge
Distinctive Features of Cable-Stayed
Bridges
 Distinctive Features of Girder Bridges

•Widely constructed
•Usually used for Short and Medium spans
•Carry load in Shear and Flexural bending
•Efficient distribution of material is not possible
•Stability concerns limits the stresses and associated economy
•Economical and long lasting solution for vast majority of bridges
•Decks and girder usually act together to support the entire load in
highway bridges
 Distinctive Features of Arch Bridge

•Arch action reduces bending moments ( that is Tensile Stresses )

•Economical as compared to equivalent straight simply supported
Girder or Truss bridge
•Suitable site is a Valley with arch foundations on a DRY ROCK
SLOPES
•Conventional curved arch rib has high Fabrication and Erection
costs
•Erection easiest for Cantilever Arch and most difficult for Tied
Arch
•Arch is predominantly a Compression member. Buckling must be
worked to the detail so as to avoid reductions in allowable
stresses.
 Distinctive Features of Arch Bridge
•Classic arch form tends to favor Concrete as a construction
material
•Conventional arch has two moment resistant components :
The deck and the Arch Rib.
•Near the crown of the arch and the region where Spandrel
Columns are short, undesirable B.M. can occur. By using Pin
ended columns it can be avoided
•Space beneath the arch is less and hence danger for
collision with the Rib, specially on a highway
•Curved shaped is always very pleasing and arch is the most
successful and beautiful structure
 Distinctive Features of Truss Bridge

•The primary member forces are axial loads

•The open web system permits the use of a greater overall
depth than for an equivalent solid web girder, hence
reduced deflections and rigid structure
•Both these factors lead to Economy in material and a
reduced dead weight
•These advantages are achieved at the expense of
increased fabrication and maintenance costs
•Other bridge types have rendered the truss bridge types
less likely to be used due to its high maintenance and
fabrication costs.
•The truss is instead being used widely as the stiffening
structure for the suspension bridges due to its acceptable
aerodynamic behavior since the wind gusts can pass
through the truss as is not with the case in girder, arch
bridges.
 Distinctive Features of Truss Bridge

•It’s a light weight structure it can be assembled

member by member using lifting equipment of small
capacity.
•Rarely aesthetically pleasing complexity of member
intersections if viewed from oblique direction
•In large span structures poor aesthetic appearance of
the truss bridge is compensated with the large scale of
the structure. For moderate spans its best to provide a
simple and regular structure
 Distinctive Features of Suspension Bridge

•Major element is a flexible cable, shaped and supported in such a way that it transfers
the loads to the towers and anchorage
•This cable is commonly constructed from High Strength wires, either spun in situ or
formed from component, spirally formed wire ropes. In either case allowable stresses
are high of the order of 600 MPA
•The deck is hung from the cable by Hangers constructed of high strength ropes in
tension
•As in the long spans the Self-weight of the structures becomes significant, so the use
of high strength steel in tension, primarily in cables and secondarily in hangers leads to
an economical structure.
•The economy of the cable must be balanced against the cost of the associated
anchorage and towers. The anchorage cost may be high where foundation material is
poor
 Distinctive Features of Suspension Bridge

•The main cable is stiffened either by a pair of stiffening trusses or by a system of girders
at deck level.
•This stiffening system serves to (a) control aerodynamic movements and (b) limit local
angle changes in the deck. It may be unnecessary in cases where the dead load is great.
•The complete structure can be erected without intermediate staging from the ground
•The main structure is elegant and neatly expresses its function.
•It is the only alternative for spans over 600m, and it is generally regarded as
competitive for spans down to 300m. However, shorter spans have also been built,
including some very attractive pedestrian bridges
•The height of the main towers can be a disadvantage in some areas; for example, within
the approach road for an AIRPORT
 Distinctive Features of Cable-stayed Bridge

The use of high strength cables in tension leads to economy

n material, weight, and cost..
As compared with the stiffened suspension bridge, the cable
are straight rather than curved. As a result, the stiffness is
greater
The cables are anchored to the deck and cause compressive
orces in the deck. For economical design, the deck must
participate in carrying these forces
All individual cables are shorter than full length of the
superstructure. They are normally constructed of individual
wire ropes, supplied complete with end fittings, prestretched
and not spun.
There is a great freedom of choice in selecting the structural
arrangement
Less efficient under Dead Load but more efficient in suppor
 Distinctive Features of Cable-stayed Bridge

•Aerodynamic stability has not been found to be a problem in

structures erected to date
•When the cables are arranged in the single plane, at the
longitudinal center line of the deck, the appearance of the
structure is simplified and avoids cable intersections when the
bridge is viewed obliquely
 Discussion on Classification According To
SPAN

Small Span Bridges (up to 15m)

Medium Span Bridges (up to 50m)
Large Span Bridges (50-150m)
Extra Large ( Long ) Span Bridges (over 150m)
 Small Span Bridges (up to 15m)

Culvert Bridge
Slab Bridges
T-Beam Bridge
Wood Beam Bridge
Pre-cast Concrete Box Beam Bridge
Pre-cast Concrete I-Beam Bridge
Rolled Steel Beam Bridge
 Large Span Bridges (50 to 150m)

Composite Steel Plate Girder Bridge

Cast-in-place Post-Tensioned concrete Box Girder
Post-Tensioned Concrete Segmental Construction
Concrete Arch and Steel Arch
 Extra Large (Long) Span Bridges
(Over 150m)
Cable Stayed Bridge
Suspension Bridge
 Design Philosophies

In order to ensure safety in the engineering design:

Load < Resistance
What does the statement tells you?
When the effect of different loads reaches the material resistance, potential for
failure exist.

Importance:
In the Bridge design loads are constantly changing due to the live and other
environmental loads. The material resistance also does not remain constant due
to the structure deterioration. These uncertainties are there should be accounted
in the design.
At least you should be aware about the above statement
 DEVELOPMENT OF DESIGN
PROCEDURES
Three distinct procedures employed are:

1. Allowable stress Design (ASD)

2. Load Factor Design (LFD)
3. Load & Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
 ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN

In the ASD method, load and resistance have equal probability of occurrence.

Dead, Live and different Environmental loads are applied to the structures.
They have different probability of occurrences. In the ASD Uncertainties is not
considered!
 ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN

• Safety in the design was obtained by specifying that the effect of the load
should produce stresses that were a fraction of the yield stress fy, say one-
half. This value will be equivalent to providing a safety factor of two,i.e.,

F.O.S = Resistance, R = fy = 2
Effect of load, Q 0.5fy
• Since the specification set limits on the stresses , so this became known as
allowable stress design.
• ASD methods were developed for design of statically determinate metallic
structures.
• The stresses in the members are zero before application of the load ( Not
true for thin elements of rolled beams)
 ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN
• For steel bridge design, the required net area of a tension member is selected by :

required Anet = effect of the load = T

allowable stress ft

• For compression members, the required area is given by :

required Agross = effect of the load = C
allowable stress fc

• For beams in bending, a required section modulus ‘S’ is determined as :

required S = effect of the load = M
allowable stress fb
 SHORTCOMINGS OF ALLOWABLE
STRESS DESIGN
ASD is not suited for design of modern structures due to the following
shortcomings:
1. The resistance concept is based on the elastic behavior of homogeneous
materials.
2. It does not give reasonable measure of strength which is more fundamental
measure of resistance than as allowable stress.
3. The safety factor is applied only to the resistance and loads are considered
to be deterministic (i.e., without variation).
4. Selection of a safety factor is subjective and it does not provide a measure
of reliability interms of probability of failure.
 LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
LFD was introduced to refine the ASD philosophy.
Loads are multiplied by the load factors and load combination factors, which
are generally greater than unity.
The factored loads are combined to produced maximum load effect in the
member.
Uncertainty is considered for the material resistance and factors less than unity
are multiplied to the resistance to achieve it.
ϒ(ΣβDL DL+ΣβLLLL)< φRn
Where:
ϒ= Load factor applied to all the loads
βDL = Load combination coefficients for Dead Load
βLL = Load combination coefficients for Live Load
 LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
Advantages:
Load factor is applied to each load combination to account for likely hood of the
its occurrence simultaneously.
In this method consideration is given to the fact that different loads has
different levels of uncertainty. Larger load factors are used for loads with
large uncertainty.

Disadvantages:
It is not as simply as ASD.
 LOAD & RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN
To overcome the deficiencies of ASD, LRFD is LFD design, LRFD method was
developed which is based on:
a) The strength of material
b) Consider variability not only in resistance but also in the effect of loads.
c) Provide a measure of safety related to probability of failure.
d) LRFD achieves relatively uniform levels of safety for different limit states.
Thus the safety criteria is:

ΦRn ≥ η Σ γ Qi
Where Φ is the resistance factor, Rn is the nominal resistance, γ is the
statistically based load factor and Qi is the effect of load and η is the load
modification factor.
This equation involves both load factors and resistance factors.
Reliability theory is used to derive different load and resistance factors in LRFD.
 LOAD & RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN

In the general equation for LRFD method of design

ΦRn ≥ η Σ γi Qi
η is the load modification factor that takes into its account the ductility, redundancy
and operational importance of the bridge.It is given by the expression

η = ηd ηr ηi ≥ 0.95
Where ηd is the ductility factor, ηr is the redundancy factor and ηi is the operational
importance factor.
LOAD & RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN
LOAD & RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN
 PROBABILITY OF FAILURE
Failure is defined as the realization of one of a
number of pre-defined limit states.

The probability of failure can be determined if the

mean and standard deviations of the resistance and
load distribution functions are known.
 PROBABILITY OF FAILURE
Consider the probability density functions for the
random variables of load Q and Resistance density
functions for a hypothetical example limit state.
As long as the resistance R is greater than the effects
of the load Q, there is a margin of safety for the
limit state under consideration.
 Probability of Failure

Probability of Survival,

ps = P (R > Q)

Probability of Failure,

pf = 1- P (R < Q)
Probability of Failure
Normal and Lognormal
Distributions
Probability of Failure
 LIMIT STATES
Limit State:
“A limit state is a condition beyond which a structural system or
structural component ceases to fulfill the function for which it is
designed”.

Bridges shall be designed for specified limit states to achieve the objectives of
constructability, safety and serviceability.

Generally the limit states that are considered in bridge design are:

1. Service limit state

2. Fatigue and fracture limit state

3. Strength limit state

4. Extreme Event limit state

 SERVICE LIMIT STATE
This limit state refers to restrictions on stresses, deflections and
crack widths of bridge components that occur under regular
service conditions.[A1.3.2.2]

• For the limit state the resistance factors Φ = 1.0 and nearly all
the load factors γi are equal to 1.0.

• There are three service limit conditions given in the table to

cover different design situations.

Note: Service Limit State is material specific. The load conditions are nominal
conditions expected during the normal operation of the Bridge.
 SERVICE LIMIT STATE
Service I:
This service limit state refers to the load combination
relating to the normal operational use of the bridge with 90 km/h
wind.

Service II:
This service limit state refers to the load
combination relating only to steel structures and is intended to
control yielding and slip of slip critical connections.

Service III:
This service limit state refers to the load
combination relating only to tension in pre-stressed concrete
structures with the objective of crack control.
Note: Service II due to vehicle loads
Service I is for crack and compression stress in pre-stressed members
 SERVICE LIMIT STATE

• Service IV:
This load combination refers to the crack control
in the pre-stressed columns. It is generally
applicable to the substructure design. It is based
on the wind speed of 84 miles/h.
 FATIGUE AND FRACTURE LIMIT STATE
• This limit state refers to restrictions on stress range caused by a design
truck.

• The restrictions depend upon the stress range excursions expected to occur
during the design life of the bridge.[A1.3.2.3].

• This limit state is used to limit crack growth under repetitive loads and to
prevent fracture due to cumulative stress effects in steel elements,
components, and connections.

• For the fatigue and fracture limit state, Φ = 1.0

• Since, the only load that causes a large number of repetitive cycles is the vehicular
live load, it is the only load effect that has a non-zero load factor in the table 3.1
 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE

• This limit state refers to providing sufficient strength or resistance to satisfy the
inequality
ΦRn ≥ η Σ γi Qi

• This limit state include the evaluation of resistance to bending, shear, torsion, and
axial load.

• The statically determined resistance factor Φ will be less than 1.0 and will have
values for different materials and strength limit states.
 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE
Strength-I:
This strength limit is the primary load combination
relating to the full live load use of the bridge without wind. It is
applied to almost all the bridges. Most checks against failure
will occur in this limit state

Strength-II:
This strength limit is specific the basic load
combination relating to the use of the bridge by permit/ special
vehicles without wind.

Strength-III:
This strength limit is the basic load combination
relating to the bridge exposed to wind velocity exceeding 90
km/h (55 m/h). Significant vehicular load is not considered.
 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE
Strength-IV:
This strength limit is the basic load combination
relating to very high dead load/live load force effect ratios in the
superstructure of the bridge. Load factor for DC is higher than
DC for other load combinations.

Strength-V:
This strength limit is combination of Strength I and
Strength III in which wind and live load affect the Bridge. Live
Loads are reduced from Strength I. Wind loads are reduced
from Strength III.
 EXTREME EVENT LIMIT STATE

This load effect refers to the structural survival of a bridge

during a major earthquakes or floods or when collided by a
vessel, vehicle, or ice flow[A1.3.2.5].

These loads are specified to be applied separately, as the

probability of these events occurring simultaneously is very low.
 EXTREME EVENT LIMIT STATE
Extreme Event -I:
This extreme event limit state is the load
combination relating to earthquake. This limit state also include
water load and friction.

Extreme Event -I:

This extreme event limit state is the load
combination to ice load, collision by vessels, vehicles and to
certain hydraulic events with reduced live loads.
 GRAVITY LOADS
Gravity loads are the loads caused by the weight
of an object on the bridge and applied in a
downward direction toward the center of the
earth. Such loads may be:

A. Permanent Gravity Loads

B. Transient Gravity Loads
 A. Permanent Gravity Loads
Permanent gravity loads are the loads that remain on the bridge
for an extended period of time or for the whole service life.
Such loads include:

1. Dead load of structural components and non

structural attachments --------------------------------------- (DC)

2. Dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities --- (DW)

3. Dead load of earth fill ---------------------------- (EV)

4. Earth pressure load ------------------------------- (EH)

5. Earth surface load --------------------------------- (ES)

6. Downdrag ------------------------------------------ (DD)

 B. Transient Gravity Loads
As the name implies these loads change with time and may be applied from
several directions or locations.

Such loads are highly variable.

Transient loads typically include gravity load due to the vehicular, rail or
pedestrian traffic as well as lateral loads such those due to wind, water, ice, etc.

Engineer should be able to depict…

____ which of these loads is appropriate for the bridge under consideration

____ magnitude of the loads

____ how these loads are applied for the most critical load effect.
 B. Transient Gravity Loads
For transient load each code has described the following criterion:

 Design lanes

 Vehicular Design loads

 Fatigue Loads

 Pedestrian Loads

 Deck and Railing Loads

 Multiple Presence

 Dynamic Effects

 Centrifugal Forces
 DESIGN LANE
Number of lanes a bridge may accommodate must be established.

Two such terms are used in the lane design of a bridge:

a) Traffic lane
b) Design Lane.

Traffic Lane:
The traffic lane is the number of lanes of traffic that the traffic
engineer plans to route across the bridge. A lane width is associated with a
traffic lane and is typically 3.6 m.

Design Lane:
Design lane is the lane designation used by the bridge engineer for
the live load placement.
The design lane width may or may not be the same as the traffic lane.
 DESIGN LANES
According to AASHTO specifications,
•AASHTO uses a 3m design lane and the vehicle is to be
positioned within that lane for extreme effect.
•The number of design lanes is defined by taking the integral
part of the ratio of the clear roadway width divided by
3.6m.[A3.6.1.1.1]
•The clear width is the distance between the curbs and/or
barriers.
 VEHICULAR DESIGN LOADS
•A study by the transportation Research Board (TRB) was used as the basis for the AASHTO
loads TRB (1990).
•Loads that are above the legal weight and are /or length limits but are regularly allowed to
operate were cataloged. Those vehicles that were above legal limits but were allowed to
operate routinely due to grandfathering provisions are referred to as ‘Exclusion Vehicles’.
•These exclusion trucks best represents the extremes involved in the present truck traffic.
•For analysis, simpler model was developed which represents the same extreme load
effects as the exclusion vehicles.
This model consists of three different loads:
1.Design truck
2.Design tandem
3.Design Lane
 VEHICULAR DESIGN LOADS
Design Truck:
According to AASHTO design specifications(1996), the design truck is a model that
resembles the semitrailor truck. as shown in the figure.[A3.6.1.2].

Variable Spacing
The variable spacing provide a more
satisfactory loading for continuous
spans and the heavy axle loads may
be so placed on adjoining spans as to produce maximum –ve moments.
This design truck has the same configuration since 1944 and is commonly referred to
as HS20-44(denoting Highway Semitrailer 20 tons with year of publication 1944).
 DESIGN TANDEM
The second configuration is the design tandem and is illustrated in the figure.It
consists of two axles weighing 110kN each spaced at 1.2m.

TANDEM: A tandem can be defined as two closely spaced and mechanically

interconnected axles of equal weight.

 DESIGN LANE LOAD
The third load is the design lane load that consists of a uniformaly distributed load of 9.3
N/mm and is assumed to occupy a region 3m transversly. This load is same as uniform pressure
of 64 lbs/ft² applied in a 10ft (3m) design lane.

The load of design truck and design tandem must each be superimposed with the load effects
of the design lane load. This combination of load and axle loads is a major deviation from the
requirements of the earlier AASHTO standard specifications where the loads were considered
separately.
 FATIGUE LOADS

• A bridge is vulnerable to repeated stressing or fatigue.

• When the load is cyclic the stress level is below the nominal
yield strength.

This load depends upon:

1. Range of live load stress
2. Number of stress cycles under service load conditions.
 FATIGUE LOADS

1. Under service load conditions, majority of trucks do not exceed the legal
weight limit. So it would be unnecessary to use the full live load model.
Instead it is accommodated by using a single design truck with the variable
axle spacing of 9m and a load factor of 0.75 as prescribed in
table.[A3.4.1.1].
2. The number of stress load cycles is based on traffic surveys. In lieu of
survey data, guidelines are provided in AASHTO [A3.6.1.4.2]. The average
daily truck traffic (ADTT) in a single lane may be estimated as
ADTTSL = p(ADTT)
Where p is the fraction of traffic assumed to be in one lane as defined in
table4.3.
 PEDESTRIAN LOADS
• The AASHTO pedestrian load is 3.6 x 10-3 MPa, which is applied to sidewalk that are integral
with a roadway bridge.
• If load is applied on bridge restricted to pedestrian or bicycle traffic , then a 4.1 x 10-3 MPa is
used.
• The railing for pedestrian or bicycle must be designed for a load of 0.73 N/mm both
transversely and vertically on each longitudinal element in the railing system.[A13.8 and A18.9].
• In addition as shown in the figure , the railing must be designed to sustain a single
concentrated load of 890 N applied to the top rail in any direction and at any location.
 DECK & RAILING LOAD
• The deck must be designed for the load effect due to design truck or design tandem ,
whichever creates the most extreme effect.
• The deck overhang, located outside the facia girder and commonly referred to as the
cantilever is designed for the load effect of a uniform line load of 14.6 N/mm located 3m from
the face of the curb or railing as shown in the figure.

• The gravity load for the deign of deck system are outlined in AASHTO[A3.6.1.3.3].
• The vehicular gravity loads for decks may be found in AASHTO [A3.6.1.3].
 MULTIPLE PRESENCE

Trucks will be present in adjacent lanes on roadways with multiple design lanes but it is unlikely
that three adjacent lanes will be loaded simultaneously with the three heavy loads.

Therefore, some adjustment in the design load is necessary. To account for this effect AASHTO
[A3.6.1.1.2] provides an adjustment factor for the multiple presence. A table for these factors is
provided.
 DYNAMIC EFFECTS
Dynamics : The variation of any function with respect to
time.
Dynamic Effects : The effects i.e., deformation or stress
resultant due to the dynamic loads.

• Due to the roughness of the road, the oscillation of the suspension

system of a vehicle creates axle forces. These forces are produced by
alternate compression and tension of the suspension system.
• This phenomenon which is also known as IMPACT is more precisely
referred to as dynamic loading.
• These axle forces exceed the static weight during the time the
acceleration is upward and is less than the static weight when the
acceleration is downward.
 DYNAMIC EFFECTS
• As the dynamic effects are not consistent & is well portrayed by Bakht
& Pinjarker (1991 ) & Paultre (1992 ). It is most common to compare the
static & dynamic deflection.
• A comparison of static and dynamic deflections is illustrated in the
fig.4.12.
 DYNAMIC EFFECTS
From this figure dynamic effect is the amplification factor applied to the
static response.

This effect is also called dynamic load factor, dynamic load allowance or
impact factor and is given by,

IM = Ddyn
Dstat
Here Dstat is the maximum static deflection and Ddyn is the additional
defection due to the dynamic effects.
 DYNAMIC EFFECTS
According to AASHTO specifications, DLA is illustrated in table 4.7[A3.6.2].
 DYNAMIC EFFECTS
Paultre(1992) outlines various factors used to increase the static loads to account for dynamic
load effect. The following illustration shows various bridge design specifications from around
the world.
 CENTRIFUGAL FORCES
As a truck moves along a curvilinear path, the change in the direction of the velocity causes a
centrifugal acceleration in the radial direction. This acceleration is given by,
ar = V² ….4.1
r
Where ‘ V ’ is the truck speed and ‘ r ’ is the radius of curvature of the truck movement.
Since F= ma , so substituting ar in the Newton’s second law of motion,

Fr = m V² …..4.2
r
Where Fr is the force on the truck.

Since mass m = W
g
 CENTRIFUGAL FORCES
So, we can substitute ‘ m ‘ in eq.4.2 to obtain an expression similar to that given by AASHTO,
Fr = V² W
rg

Fr = CW

Where C = 4 v²
3 Rg
Here v is the highway design speed(m/s), R is the radius of the curvature of traffic
lane(m), and F is applied at the assumed centre of mass at a distance 1800 mm above the deck
surface.[A3.6.3]
Because the combination of design truck with the design lane load gives a load approximately
four thirds of the effect of the design truck considered independently, a four third factor is used
to model the effect of a train of trucks.
Multiple presence factor may be applied to this force as it is unlikely that all the lanes will be
fully loaded simultaneously.
 BRAKING FORCES
•Braking forces are significant in bridge loads consideration. This force is transmitted to the deck
and taken into the substructure by the bearings or supports.
•This force is assumed to act horizontally at 1800 mm above the roadway surface in either
longitudinal direction.
•Here , the multiple presence factor may be applied as it is unlikely that all the trucks in all the
lanes will be at the maximum design level.

•The braking force shall be taken as 25% of the axle weights of the design truck or the design
tandem placed in all lanes.
 PERMIT VEHICLES AND MISCELLANEOUS
CONSIDERATIONS
•Transportation agencies may include vehicle loads to model characteristics of their particular
jurisdiction.
For example the Department of Transportation in California (Caltrans) uses a different load
model for their structures as shown in the fig.4.19.

•In all such cases, the characteristics of truck loads should be based on survey data. If such data
is not available or achievable, then professional judgment should be used.
 LATERAL LOADS
Following forces are considered under lateral loads:

• Fluid forces

• Seismic Loads

• Ice Forces
 FLUID FORCES
• Fluid forces include
1. Water forces and
2. Wind forces.
• The force on a structural component due to a fluid
flow (water or air) around a component is established
by Bernoulli’s equation in combination with empirically
established drag coefficients.
 WIND FORCES
• The velocity of the wind varies with the elevation above the
ground and the upstream terrain roughness and that is why
pressure on a structure is also a function of these parameters.
• If the terrain is smooth then the velocity increases more rapidly
with elevation.
• The wind force should be considered from all directions and
extreme values are used for design.
• Directional adjustments are outlined in AASHTO[A3.8.1.4].
• The wind must also be considered on the vehicle.This load is
1.46 N/mm applied at 1.8 m above the roadway
surface.[A3.8.1.3].
 WATER FORCES
• Water flowing against and around the substructure
creates a lateral force directly on the structure as well
as debris that might accumulate under the bridge.
• If the substructure is oriented at an angle to the
stream flow, then adjustments must be made. These
adjustments are outlined in the AASHTO [A3.7.3.2].
• Scour of the stream bed around the foundation should
also be considered as it can result in the structural
failure. AASHTO [A2.6.4.4.1] outlines an extreme limit
state for design.
 SEISMIC LOADS

• Depending on the location of the bridge site, the

anticipated earthquake/seismic effects can govern the
design of the lateral load resistance system.

• In many cases the seismic loads are not critical and

other lateral loads such as wind govern the design.
 PROVISIONS FOR SEISMIC LOADS
• The provision of the AASHTO specifications for seismic design
are based on the following principles[C3.10.1]:

1. Small to moderate earthquakes should be resisted within the

elastic range of the structural components without significant
damage.

2. Realistic seismic ground motion intensities and forces are used

in the design procedures.

3. Exposure to shaking from large earthquakes should not cause

collapse of all or part of the bridge. Where possible damage
should be readily detectable and accessible for inspection and
repair.
 ICE FORCES
• Forces produced by ice must be considered when a
structural component of a bridge, such as a pier, is
located in water and the climate is cold enough to
cause the water to freeze.
• Due to the freeze up and break up of ice in different
seasons ice forces are produced.
• These are generally static which can be horizontal
when caused by thermal expansion and contraction or
vertical if the body of water is subject to changes in
water level.
• Relevant provisions are given in AASHTO section 3.9.
 FORCES DUE TO DEFORMATION
In bridge we have to consider the following forces due to deformation:

1. Temperature

2. Creep and Shrinkage

3. Settlement
 TEMPERATURE
Two types of temperature changes must be included in the analysis of the
superstructure.
i. Uniform temperature change
ii. Gradient or non-uniform temperature change

Uniform temperature change:

In this type of temperature change, the entire superstructure changes temperature by a
constant amount. This type of change lengthens or shortens the bridge or if the
supports are constrained it will induce reactions at the bearings and forces in the
structure. This type of deformation is illustrated in the figure.
 TEMPERATURE
Gradient or Non-uniform temperature change:
In this type the temperature change is gradient or non-uniform heating or cooling of the
superstructure across its depth. Subjected to sunshine, bridge deck heats more than the girder
below. This non-uniform heating causes the temperature to increase more in the top portion of
the system than in the bottom and the girder attempts to bow upward as shown in the figure.
 TEMPERATURE
The temperature change is considered as a function of climate. AASHTO defines two climatic
conditions, moderate and cold.
Moderate climate is when the number of freezing days per year is less than 14. A
freezing day is when the average temperature is less than 0C.

Table 4.21 gives the temperature ranges. The temperature range is used to establish the change
in temperature used in the analysis.
 CREEP & SHRINKAGE

The effects of creep and shrinkage can have an effect on the structural
strength, fatigue and serviceability.

Creep is considered in concrete where its effects can lead unanticipated

serviceability problems that might lead to secondary strength.

Creep and shrinkage are highly dependent on material and the system
involved.
 SETTLEMENT

•Settlements occur usually due to elastic and inelastic deformation of

the foundation.
•Elastic deformation include movements that affect the response of the
bridge to other loads but do not lock in permanent actions.
•This type of settlement is not a load but rather a support characteristic
that should be included in the structural design.
•Inelastic deformations are movements that tend to be permanent and
create locked in permanent actions.
 SETTLEMENT

•Such movements may include settlement due to consolidation,

instabilities, or foundation failures. Some such movements are the
results are the loads applied to the bridge and these load effects may be
included in the bridge design.
•Other movements are attributed to the behavior of the foundation
independent of the loads applied to the bridge.
•These movements are treated as loads and are called imposed support
deformations.
•Imposed support deformations are estimated based on the
geotechnical characteristics of the site and the system involved. Detailed
suggestions are given in AASHTO, section 10.
 COLLISION LOADS

Collision loads include:

1.Vessel Collision load

2.Rail Collision Load
3.Vehicle Collision Load
 COLLISION LOADS
Vessel Collision load:
On bridge over navigable waterways the possibility of vessel
collision with the pier must be considered. Typically, this is of
concern for structures that are classified as long span bridges.
Vessel collision loads are classified in AASHTO [A3.14].

Rail Collision Load:

If a bridge is located near a railway, the possibility of collision of
the bridge as a result of a railway derailment exists. As this
possibility is remote, the bridge must be designed for collision
forces using extreme limit states.

Vehicle Collision Load:

The collision force of a vehicle with the barrier, railing and parapet
should be considered in bridge design.
 Influence Lines
• Influence lines is particularly useful in the
analysis of the moving loads ( Traffic Loads) in
Bridge Engineering.
Definition:
From the previous lecture, we know the different
types of loads are acting over the bridge. The loads
are present in combination or individually. The
responsibility of the Bridge Engineer is to design
and analyze bridge for the critical effects of these
loads.
Sign Convention
Influence Lines For Determinate
Structures
Influence Lines For Determinate
Structures
Influence Lines For Determinate
Structures
Influence Lines For Determinate
Structures

RA, VB and MB are to be determined?

Influence Lines For Determinate Structures
Muller Breslau Principle (Betti’s Theorum)
Muller Breslau Principle (Betti’s Theorum)

An influence function/Line for an action maybe established by removing the constraint associated
with the action and imposing a unit displacement. The displacement at every point in the structure i
The Influence function.
“ The structure displaced shape is the Influence Function”
Muller Breslau Principle (Betti’s Theorum)
 Statistically Indeterminate Beams
Two ways:
(1) Unit loads Traversed over the Beam
(2) Muller Breslau method for construction of
the qualitative influence lines.

Refer to the notes for the construction of the

qualitative Influence Lines.
Statistically Indeterminate Beams
Statistically Indeterminate Beams
 AASTHO VEHICLE LOADS
• The live loads position over the bridge are
uncertain.
• The loads are placed at more than one
locations and loads effects are calculated.
Maximum and minimum effects are noted and
used in the analysis.
AASTHO VEHICLE LOADS
AASTHO VEHICLE LOADS
AASTHO VEHICLE LOADS
AASTHO VEHICLE LOADS
AASTHO VEHICLE LOADS
AASTHO VEHICLE LOADS
AASTHO VEHICLE LOADS
AASTHO VEHICLE LOADS
AASTHO VEHICLE LOADS
Influence Lines for Indeterminate
Structures
Statistically Indeterminate Beams
Influence Lines for Indeterminate Structures
Influence Lines for Indeterminate
Structures
Influence Lines for Indeterminate
Structures
Influence Lines for Indeterminate
Structures
Influence Lines for Indeterminate
Structures
 Influence Lines for Indeterminate
Structures

To SAP 2000, Influence Lines for Indeterminate

Structures, Same Example in the SAP 2000
Influence Lines for Indeterminate
Structures
 Influence Lines for Indeterminate
Structures (SAP2000)

• Define/Construct Model ( No Need to Define

Material Properties)
• Define Lanes
• Define Vehicle
• Define Vehicle Classes
• Define Load Cases
Integration of Influence Function
Integration of Influence Function
Integration of Influence Function
Integration of Influence Function
 Superstructure Analysis

Flat Girder Model

Slab Girder Bridge

3D Model
Beam Line Model
Beam Line Model
 AASTHO Method for Superstructure
Analysis
• These distributions factors may be used for
bridges with fairly regular geometry. It is limited
to system with:
a) Constant cross-section
b) Number of beams are four or more girders
c) Girders with same stiffness
d) Roadway cantilever portion not exceeding 3.0 ft
e) Plan curvature is small
f) Cross-section is consistent with section shown in
the Table on the next slide
AASTHO Method for Superstructure
Analysis
 To the Book Page 179
Example 11.1 and 11.2
Lever Method
Lever Method
Lever Method
Lever Method
Lever Method