HUM130 Chapter 9 Christianity

CHAPTER 9
CHRISTIANITY
“Jesus Christ is Lord”
Christianity is a faith based on the life, teachings, death, and resurrection of Jesus.
He was born as a Jew about two thousand years ago in Roman-occupied
Palestine. He taught for fewer than three years and was executed by the Roman
government on charges of sedition. Nothing was written about him at the time,
although some years after his death, attempts were made to record what he had
said and done. Yet his birth is now celebrated around the world and since the
sixth century has been used as the major point from which public time is meas-
ured, even by non-Christians. The religion centered around him has more fol-
lowers than any other.
In studying Christianity we will first examine what can be said about the life
and teachings of Jesus, based on accounts in the Bible and on historians’ knowl-
edge of the period. We will then follow the evolution of the religion as it spread
to all continents and became theologically and liturgically more complex. This
process continues in the present, in which there are not one but many different
versions of Christianity.
The Christian Bible

The Bibles used by various Christian churches consist of the Hebrew Bible (called
the “Old Testament”), and in some cases non-canonical Jewish texts called the
Apocrypha, and what Orthodox Christians call the Deuterocanonical books, plus
the twenty-seven books of the “New Testament” written after Jesus’s earthly
mission.
Traditionally, the holy scriptures have been reverently regarded as the divinely
inspired Word of God. Furthermore, in Eastern Orthodox Christianity, “the
Gospel is not just Holy Scripture but also a symbol of Divine Wisdom and an
image of Christ Himself.”1 Given the textual complexity of the Bible, some
Christians have attempted to clarify what Jesus taught and how he lived, so that
people might truly follow him.
The field of theological study that attempts to interpret scripture is called
hermeneutics. In Jewish tradition, rabbis developed rules for interpretation. In
the late second and early third centuries CE, Christian thinkers developed two
highly different approaches to biblical hermeneutics. One of these stressed the lit-
eral meanings of the texts; the other looked for allegorical rather than literal
meanings. Origen, an Egyptian theologian (c. 185–254 CE) who was a major pro-
ponent of the allegorical method, wrote:
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Since there are certain passages of scripture which . . . have no bodily [literal] sense
at all, there are occasions when we must seek only for the soul and the spirit, as it
were, of the passage. Who is so silly as to believe that God, after the manner of a
farmer, “planted a paradise eastward in Eden,” and set in it a visible and palpable
“tree of life,” of such a sort that anyone who tasted its fruit with his bodily teeth
would gain life; and again that one could partake of “good and evil” by masticating
the fruit taken from the tree of that name (Gen. 2: 8, 9)? And when God is said to
“walk in the paradise in the cool of the day” and Adam to hide himself behind a
tree, I do not think anyone will doubt that these are figurative expressions which
indicate certain mysteries through a semblance of history and not through actual
events (Gen. 3: 8).2
During medieval times, allowance was made for interpreting scriptural pass-
ages in at least four ways: literal, allegorical, moral (teaching ethical principles),
and heavenly (divinely inspired and mystical, perhaps unintelligible to ordinary
thinking). This fourfold approach was later followed by considerable debate on
whether the Bible should be understood on the basis of its own internal evi-
dence or whether it should be seen through the lens of Church tradition. During
the eighteenth century, critical study of the Bible from a strictly historical point
of view began in western Europe. This approach, now accepted by many Roman
Catholics, Protestants, and some Orthodox, is based on the literary method of
interpreting ancient writings in their historical context, with their intended
audience and desired effect taken into account. In the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries, emphasis shifted to questions about the process of hermeneutics, such
as how to understand ancient texts that came from other cultures, how individ-
ual passages relate to the whole text, how the biblical message is conveyed
through the medium of language, and how it is grasped by people in modern
contexts.
There is very little historical proof of the life of Jesus outside of the Bible, but
extensive scholarly research has turned up some shreds of evidence. The Jewish
historian Josephus (born in approximately 37 CE), who was captured by the
Romans and then defected to their side, wrote extensively about other details of
Jewish history that have been confirmed by archaeological discoveries. He made
two brief references to Jesus that may have been given a positive slant by
Christian copyists, but are nonetheless now regarded as proof that Jesus did exist.
In the Baraitha and Tosefta, supplements to the Jewish Mishnah, there are a few
references to “Yeshu the Nazarene” who was said to practice “sorcery” (healings)
and was “hanged.”
What Christians believe about Jesus’s life and teachings is based largely on
biblical texts, particularly the first four books of the New Testament, which are
called the gospels (good news). On the whole, they seem to have been originally We do not know what
written about forty to sixty years after Jesus’s death. They are based on the oral Jesus, the founder of
transmission of the stories and discourses, which may have been influenced by the world’s largest
the growing split between Christians and Jews. The documents, thought to be religion, looked like.
Rembrandt used a
pseudonymous, are given the names of Jesus’s followers Matthew and John,
young European Jewish
and of the apostle Paul’s companions Mark and Luke. The gospels were first writ- man as his model for
ten down in Greek and perhaps Aramaic, the everyday language that Jesus this sensitive “portrait”
spoke, and then copied and translated in many different ways over the centuries. of Jesus.
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They offer a composite picture of Jesus as seen through the eyes of the Christian
community.
Three of the gospels, Matthew, Mark, and Luke, are so similar that they are
called the synoptic gospels, referring to the fact that they can be “seen together”
as presenting rather similar views of Jesus’s career, though they are organized
somewhat differently. Most historians think that Matthew and Luke are largely
based on Mark and another source called “Q.” This hypothesized source would
probably be a compilation of oral and written traditions. It is now thought that
the author of Mark put together many fragments of oral tradition in order to
develop a connected narrative about Jesus’s life and ministry, for the sake of
propagating the faith.
The other two synoptic gospels often parallel Mark quite closely but include
additional material. The gospel according to Matthew (named after one of Jesus’s
original disciples, a tax collector) is sometimes called a Jewish Christian gospel. It
represents Jesus as a second Moses as well as the Messiah ushering in the
Kingdom of Heaven, with frequent references to the Old Testament. Matthew’s
stories emphasize that the Gentiles (non-Jews) accept Jesus, whereas the Jews
reject him as savior.
Luke, to whom the third gospel is attributed, is traditionally thought to have
been a physician who sometimes accompanied Paul the apostle. The gospel seems
to have been written with a Gentile Christian audience in mind. Luke presents
Jesus’s mission in universal rather than exclusively Jewish terms and accentuates
the importance of his ministry to the underprivileged and lower classes.
The Gospel of John, traditionally attributed to “the disciple Jesus loved,” is of
a very different nature from the other three. It concerns itself less with following
the life of Jesus than with seeing Jesus as the eternal Son of God, the word of God
made flesh. It is seen by many scholars as being later in origin than the synoptic
gospels, perhaps having been written around the end of the first century CE. By
this time, there was apparently a more critical conflict between Jews who
believed in Jesus as the Messiah, and the majority of Jews, who did not recognize
him as the Messiah they were awaiting. The Gospel of John seems to concentrate
on confirming Jesus’s Messiahship, and also to reflect Greek influences, such as a
dualistic distinction between light and darkness. It is also more mystical and
devotional in nature than the synoptic gospels.
The light shines on in the dark, and the darkness has never mastered it.
The Gospel of John, 1: 5
Other gospels circulating in the early Christian church were not included in
the canon of the New Testament. They include magical stories of Jesus’s infancy,
such as an account of his making clay birds and then bringing them to life. The
Gospel of Thomas, one of the long-hidden manuscripts discovered in 1945 by a
peasant in a cave near Nag Hammadi, Egypt, is of particular interest. Some schol-
ars feel that its core may have been written even earlier than the canonical
gospels. It contains many sayings in common with the other gospels but places
the accent on mystical concepts of Jesus:
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Jesus said: I am the Light that is above

them all. I am the All,
the All came forth from me and the All
attained to me. Cleave a (piece of ) wood,
I am there; lift up the stone and you will
find Me there.3
The life and teachings of Jesus

It is not possible to reconstruct from the gospels a single chronology of Jesus’s life
nor to account for much of what happened before he began his ministry.
Nevertheless, the stories of the New Testament are important to Christians as the
foundation of their faith. And after extensive analysis most scholars have con- Jesus is often pictured
cluded on grounds of linguistics and regional history that many of the sayings as a divine child, born
attributed to Jesus by the gospels may be authentic. in a humble stable,
and forced to flee on a
donkey with his parents.
Birth (Monastère Bénédictin
de Keur Moussa,
Most historians think Jesus was probably born a few years before the first year of Senegal, Fuite en
what is now called the Common Era. When sixth-century Christian monks Egypte.)
began figuring time in relationship to the life of Jesus, they may have miscalcu-
lated slightly. Traditionally, Christians have believed that Jesus was born in
Bethlehem. This detail fulfills the rabbinic interpretation of the Old Testament
“The Nativity,” Jesus’s

humble birth depicted
in a 14th-century fresco
by Giotto. (Scrovegni
Chapel, Padua, Italy.)
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John the Baptist is said

to have baptized Jesus
only reluctantly, saying
that he was unworthy
even to fasten Jesus’s
shoes. When he did so,
the Spirit allegedly
descended upon Jesus
as a dove. (Painting
by Esperanza Guevara,
Solentiname,
Nicaragua.)
prophecies that the Messiah would be born in Bethlehem, the home of David the
great king, and in the lineage of David. The gospel of Matthew offers a genealogy
tracing Jesus through David back to Abraham; the gospel of Luke traces his line-
age all the way back to Adam, the son of God. Some scholars suggest that Jesus
was actually born in or near Nazareth, his own home town in Galilee. This region,
whose name meant “Ring of the Gentiles” (non-Jews), was not fully Jewish; it
was also scorned as somewhat countrified by the rabbinic orthodoxy of Judaea.
Both Judaea and Galilee were ruled by Rome at the time.
According to the gospels, Jesus’s mother was Mary, who was a virgin when she
conceived him by the Holy Spirit; her husband was Joseph, a carpenter from
Christianity: Bethlehem. Luke states that they had to go to Bethlehem to satisfy a Roman ruling
Jesus’ Birth that everyone should travel to their ancestral cities for a census. When they had
made the difficult journey, there was no room for them in the inn, so the baby was
born in a stable among the animals. He was named Jesus, which means “God
saves.” This well-loved birth legend exemplifies the humility that Jesus taught.
According to Luke, those who came to pay their respects were poor shepherds to
whom angels had appeared with the glad tidings that a Savior had been born to the
people. Matthew tells instead of Magi, sages from “the east,” who may have been
Zoroastrians and who brought the Christ child symbolic gifts of gold and frankin-
cense and myrrh, confirming his divine kingship and his adoration by Gentiles.
Preparation
No other stories are told about Jesus’s childhood in Nazareth until he was twelve
years old, when, according to the Gospel of Luke, he accompanied his parents on
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their yearly trip to Jerusalem for Passover. Left behind by mistake, he was said to
have been discovered by his parents in the Temple discussing the Torah with the
rabbis; “all who heard him were amazed at his understanding and his answers.”
When scolded, he reportedly replied, “Did you not know that I must be in my
Father’s house?”4 This story is used to demonstrate his sense of mission even as a
boy, his knowledge of Jewish tradition, and the close personal connection between
Jesus and God. In later accounts of his prayers, he spoke to God as “Abba,” a very
familiar Aramaic and Hebrew word for father.
The New Testament is also silent about the years of Jesus’s young manhood. What
is described, however, is the ministry of John the Baptist, a prophet citing Isaiah’s
prophecies of the coming Kingdom of God. He was conducting baptism in the Jordan
From north to south,

the area covered by Jesus
during his ministry
was no more than
100 miles (161 km).
Yet his mission is now
worldwide, with more
followers than any other
religion.
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River in preparation for the Kingdom of God. Apocalyptic expectations were run-
ning high at the time, with Israel chafing under Roman taxation and rule.
According to all four gospels, at the age of about thirty Jesus appeared before
John to be baptized. John was calling people to repent of their sins and then be spir-
itually purified and sanctified by immersion in the river. He felt it improper to per-
form this ceremony for Jesus, whom Christians consider sinless, but Jesus insisted.
How can this be interpreted? One explanation is that, for Jesus, this became a cer-
emony of his consecration to God as the Messiah. The gospel writer reports,
When he came up out of the water, immediately he saw the heavens opened and the
Spirit descending upon him like a dove; and a voice came from heaven. “Thou art
my beloved Son; with thee I am well pleased.”5
Another interpretation is that Jesus’s baptism was the occasion for John’s publicly
announcing that the Messiah had arrived, beginning his ministry. A third
interpretation is that by requesting baptism, Jesus identified himself with sinful
humanity. Even though he had no need for repentance and purification, he
accepted baptism on behalf of all humans.
After being baptized, Jesus reportedly undertook a forty-day retreat in the
desert wilderness, fasting. During his retreat, the gospel writers say he was
tempted by Satan to use his spiritual power for secular ends, but he refused.
Ministry
In John’s gospel, Jesus’s baptism and wilderness sojourn were followed by his
Christianity: gathering of the first disciples, the fisherman Simon (called Peter), Andrew
Jesus’ Life and (Peter’s brother), James, and John (brother of James), who recognized him as the
Teachings Messiah. Jesus warned his disciples that they would have to leave all their pos-
sessions and human attachments to follow him—to pay more attention to the life
of the spirit than to physical comfort and wealth. This call to discipleship con-
tinues to be experienced by Christians today, and a person’s response makes all
the difference. The great German theologian Dietrich Bonhoeffer (1906–1945),
who, opposing the Nazis, ultimately gave his life for his beliefs, wrote that to
follow Jesus one must leave worldly ties and self-centered ways of thinking
behind: “Only the man who is dead to his own will can follow Christ.”6
Jesus said that it was extremely difficult for the wealthy to enter the kingdom
of heaven. God, the Protector, takes care of physical needs, which are relatively
unimportant anyway:
Is not life more than food, and the body more than clothing? Look at the birds of
the air; they neither sow nor reap nor gather into barns, and yet your heavenly
Father feeds them. Are you not of more value than they? And which of you by
being anxious can add one cubit to his span of life? 7
Jesus taught that his followers should concentrate on laying up spiritual
treasures in heaven, rather than material treasures on earth, which are short-
lived. Because God is like a generous parent, those who love God and want to
follow the path of righteousness should pray for help, in private: “Ask, and it
will be given you; seek, and you will find; knock, and it will be opened to
you.”8
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As Jesus traveled, speaking, he is said to have performed many miracles, such

as turning water into wine, healing the sick, restoring the dead to life, walking on
water, casting devils out of the possessed, and turning a few loaves and fish into
enough food to feed a crowd of thousands, with copious leftovers. Jesus report-
edly performed these miracles quietly and compassionately; the gospels inter-
preted them as signs of the coming Kingdom of God.
The stories of the miracles performed by Jesus have symbolic meanings taken from
the entire Jewish and early Christian traditions. In the sharing of the loaves and
fishes, for instance, it may have been more than physical bread that Luke was talking
about when he said, “and all ate and were satisfied.”9 The people came to Jesus out of
spiritual hunger, and he fed them all, profligate with his love. Bread often signified
life-giving sustenance. Jesus was later to offer himself as “the bread of life.”10 On
another level of interpretation, the story may prefigure the Last Supper of Jesus with
his disciples, with both stories alluding to the Jewish tradition of the Great Banquet,
the heavenly feast of God, as a symbol of the messianic age. The fish were a symbol of
Christ to the early Christians; what he fed them was the indiscriminate gift of himself.
Theological interpretations of the biblical stories are based on the evidence of the
Bible itself, but people also bring their own experiences to them. To William, a
Jesus is said to have

brought Lazarus back
to life four days after he
died and was laid in a
tomb. (Fresco by Giotto,
Scrovegni Chapel,
Padua, Italy.)
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AN INTERVIEW WITH DAVID VANDIVER
Living Christianity
Born into a devout small-town Southern Baptist simply spend the rest of my life pursuing a
family, David Vandiver is now the manager of a comfortable living while ignoring the fact that
wilderness camp in the Appalachian Mountains near millions are living in poverty and oppression.
Washington, D.C., for inner-city African-American “Early in my seminary days, I was married to a
children whose backgrounds are very different from wonderful woman, who lost her life in an automobile
his own. Here he describes the evolution of his accident four months after our wedding. I found
understanding and practice of Christianity. myself doubting the existence of a caring
“Becoming a Christian and a Baptist God. I was plunged into a dark night of the
came as naturally as learning to walk and soul and feared I would never escape it.
talk. The primary values as I grew up were Slowly, as I re-emerged, it began to dawn on
ones of honesty, fairness, and caring for me that my plight was not mine alone; that
others. The great sins were the ones most millions had suffered and were suffering
affecting families—divorce, adultery, and similar losses; that in fact, to love anyone was
irresponsible parenting. It was not until to risk such loss, and that the deeper the love
much later in my life that the vast scope of the greater the loss. My understanding of God
values held by Christians in differing places was transformed. It became clear to me that
in the world came to my attention. I was not aware, anything good and loving in life was a gift, sent as a
for example, that there were Christians who believed precious favor.
God wanted them to influence politics for justice, “When I left seminary, on the one hand, I saw
work for equal rights for all people, protect the that following Jesus would take me out of the
natural environment, or make peace with other mainstream of the world in order to love it fully.
nations and peoples of differing faiths. Our form of On the other hand, I was painfully aware of the
faith did a good job of supporting what was valuable impossibility of loving others unconditionally. What
in society, but did little to tear down what was as a child was an inherent identity that I learned as
destructive. We had no cause to practice tolerance easily as learning to walk became a life-long journey
because we were all so similar, except for the that I would never fully complete.
African-Americans in our town—about twenty per- “Vocationally and geographically, I have found a
cent of the population—who were already Christian home as the manager of a wilderness camp for inner-
and from whom we, as Anglo-Americans, wished to city children from Washington. It is the perfect
stay separated. I grew up with racism all around me. melding of my rural, small-town roots and the passion
“Nonetheless, as a high school youth in the early to serve the poor and oppressed. Many of the children
1970s, I joined my friends in dragging my church who come to our camp have never been out of the
into the foray of the U.S. Civil Rights Movement city. As I watch and listen to them entering this
because I couldn’t see Jesus as one who would keep environment that is foreign to them, they become my
any group of people powerless and poor. Christianity teachers, helping me to understand the fears with
was a voice for the downtrodden and oppressed of which they face the wilderness, and the fears they
the world, and if I was to follow Jesus, I would have confront at home in the city. Each time I am with
to take up their cause for justice in some way. them, I am reminded of how I grew up, unaware of
“The most accessible way for me to take up this the larger world around me. I work to help them find
cause was to enter a path that would lead to a paid the tools that will assist them in loving those they find
vocation as a Christian minister. It guided me to a difficult to love: their enemies, abusers, oppressors,
Religion/Psychology major in college and later to a and those who ignore them. The memories of all those
Masters of Divinity in Pastoral Counseling at a who have given me those tools, and have held up the
Baptist seminary. It was here that I began to consider imperatives of Jesus to love the world, even those
the teachings of Jesus the Christ more deeply. What whom I find difficult to love, inspire me to carry on
did it mean to ‘love my neighbor as myself’? In here in this wilderness of familiar and unfamiliar
practical terms, it came to mean that I could not experiences and people.”
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twentieth-century Nicaraguan peasant, the miracle was not the multiplication of the
loaves but the sharing: “The miracle was to persuade the owners of the bread to share
it, that it was absurd for them to keep it all while the people were going hungry.”11
Jesus preached and lived by truly radical ethics. In contrast to the prevailing
patriarchal society and extensive proscriptions against impurity, he touched
lepers and a bleeding woman to heal them; in his “table fellowship,” he ate with
people of all classes. In a culture in which the woman’s role was strictly circum-
scribed, he welcomed women as his disciples. Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother
of James the younger and Joses, Salome the mother of the disciples James and
John, Mary of Bethany, Martha, Susanna, and Joanna are among those men-
tioned in the gospels. Some of them traveled with Jesus and even helped to sup-
port him and his disciples financially, a great departure from orthodox Jewish
tradition. In addition, wives of some of Jesus’s first male disciples who were mar-
ried apparently accompanied them as they traveled with Jesus (1 Corinthians
9:5). His was a radically egalitarian vision.
He also extended the application of Jewish laws: “You have heard that it was said
to the men of old,” Jesus began, “You shall not kill; and whoever kills shall be liable
to judgment. But I say to you that every one who is angry with his brother shall be
liable to judgment.”12 Not only should a man not commit adultery; it is wrong even
to look at a woman lustfully. Rather than taking revenge with an eye for an eye, a
tooth for a tooth, respond with love. If a person strikes you on one cheek, turn the
other cheek to be struck also. If anyone tries to rob you of your coat, give him your
cloak as well. And not only should you love your neighbor, Jesus says:
Love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you, so that you may be sons of
your Father who is in heaven; for he makes his sun rise on the evil and on the
good, and sends rain on the just and on the unjust.13
The extremely high ethical standards of the Sermon on the Mount (Matthew
5–7) may seem impossibly challenging. Who can fully follow them? And Jesus
said these things to people who had been brought up with the understanding that
to fulfill incompletely even one divine commandment is a violation of the Law.
But when people recognize their helplessness to fulfill such commandments, they
are ready to turn to the divine for help. Jesus pointed out, “With man this is
impossible, but not with God; all things are possible with God.”14
The main thing Jesus taught was love. He stated that to love God and to “love
your neighbor as yourself”15 were the two great commandments in Judaism,
upon which everything else rested. To love God means placing God first in one’s
life, rather than concentrating on the things of the earth. To love one’s neighbor
means selfless service to everyone, even to those despised by the rest of society.
Jesus often horrified the religious authorities by talking to prostitutes, tax-
collectors, and the poorest and lowliest of people. He set an example of loving
service by washing his disciples’ feet. This kind of love, he said, should be the
mark of his followers, and at the Last Judgment, when the Son of Man judges
the people of all time, he will grant eternal life in the kingdom to the humble
“sheep” who loved and served him in all:
Then the righteous will answer him, “Lord, when did we see thee hungry and feed
thee, or thirsty and give thee drink? And when did we see thee a stranger and
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TEACHING STORY
The Good Samaritan

On one occasion a lawyer came forward to put Levite came to the place, and when he saw him
this test question to Jesus: “Master, what must I went past on the other side. But a Samaritan
do to inherit eternal life?” Jesus said, “What is [a person from a region against whom the Jews
written in the Law? What is your reading of it?” of Judaea had developed religious and racial
He replied, “Love the Lord your God with all your prejudice] who was making the journey came
heart, with all your soul, with all your strength, upon him, and when he saw him was moved
and with all your mind; and your neighbor as to pity. He went up and bandaged his wounds,
yourself.” “That is the right answer,” said Jesus; bathing them with oil and wine. Then he lifted
“do that and you will live.” him on to his own beast, brought him to an inn,
But he wanted to vindicate himself, so he said and looked after him there. Next day he produced
to Jesus, “And who is my neighbor?” Jesus two silver pieces and gave them to the innkeeper,
replied, “A man was on his way from Jerusalem and said, ‘Look after him; and if you spend any
down to Jericho when he fell in with robbers, more, I will repay you on my way back.’ Which
who stripped him, beat him, and went off leaving of these three do you think was neighbor to the
him half dead. It so happened that a priest was man who fell into the hands of the robbers?” He
going down by the same road; but when he saw answered, “The one who showed him kindness.”
him, he went past on the other side. So too a Jesus said, “Go and do as he did.”16
welcome thee, or naked and clothe thee? And when did we see thee sick or in prison
and visit thee?” And the King will answer them, “Truly, I say to you, as you did it
to one of the least of these my brethren, you did it to me.”17
Jesus preached that God is forgiving to those who repent. He told a story liken-
ing God to the father who welcomed with gifts and celebration his “prodigal son”
who had squandered his inheritance and then humbly returned home. He told
story after story suggesting that those who considered themselves superior were
more at odds with God than those who were aware of their sins. Those who
sincerely repent—even if they are the hated toll-collectors, prostitutes, or igno-
rant common people—are more likely to receive God’s forgiveness than are the
learned and self-righteous. Indeed, Jesus said, it was only in childlikeness that
people could enter the kingdom of heaven. In a famous series of statements about
supreme happiness called the Beatitudes, Jesus is quoted as promising blessings
for the “poor in spirit,”18 the mourners, the meek, the seekers of righteousness,
the pure in heart, the merciful, the peacemakers, and those who are persecuted
for the sake of righteousness and of spreading the gospel.
Jesus’s stories were typically presented as parables, in which earthly situ-
ations familiar to people of his time and place were used to make a spiritual point.
He spoke of parents and children, of masters and servants, of sowing seeds, of
fishing. For example,
The kingdom of heaven is like a dragnet cast into the sea that brings in a haul of
all kinds. When it is full, the fishermen haul it ashore; then, sitting down, they
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CHRISTIANITY
CE c.4 BCE–30 CE Life of Jesus
50 c.50–60 St. Paul organizes early Christians

c.70–95 Gospels written down
100
c.185–254 Life of Origen, who supports allegorical interpretation of Bible
300
306–337 Constantine emperor of Roman Empire
354–430 Life of St. Augustine, influential formulator of Christian doctrines
379–395 Christianity becomes state religion under rule of Emperor Theodosius
381–Nicene Creed adopted by Council of Constantinople
400
c.480–542 Life of St. Benedict and creation of his monastic rule
500
800 800–1300 Middle Ages in Europe; centralization of papal power
1000
1054 Split between Western and Eastern Orthodox Church
1095–1300 The Crusades
1100
1182–1226 Life of St. Francis of Assisi
1200
1232 The Inquisitions begin suppressing and punishing heretics
1300 1300s Proliferation of monastic orders
1400
1500
1509–1564 Life of John Calvin
1517 Martin Luther posts 95 Theses
1534 Church of England separates from Rome
1545–1563 The Council of Trent; Roman Catholic Reformation
1700 1703–1791 Life of John Wesley, founder of Methodist Church
c.1720–1780 The Enlightenment in Europe
1800
1859 Charles Darwin’s The Origin of Species challenges beliefs in creation by God
1900
1945 Discovery of the Nag Hammadi manuscripts

1948 World Council of Churches formed
1962–1965 The Second Vatican Council
1988 Churches reopened in Russian Federation
2000 2000 Pope John Paul II asks forgiveness for sins of the Roman Catholic Church
2002 Boston’s Roman Catholic Bishop resigns in growing scandal over sexual abuse
by priests
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collect the good ones in a basket and throw away those that are no use. This is how
it will be at the end of time: the angels will appear and separate the wicked from
the just to throw them into the blazing furnace where there will be weeping and
grinding of teeth.19
As we have seen, messianic expectations were running very high among Jews
of that time, oppressed as they were by Roman rule. They looked to a time when
the people of Israel would be freed and the authority of Israel’s God would be
recognized throughout the world. Jesus reportedly spoke to them again and again
about the fulfillment of these expectations: “The time is fulfilled, and the king-
dom of God is at hand; repent, and believe in the gospel”20; “I must preach the
good news of the kingdom of God . . . for I was sent for this purpose.”21 He taught
them to pray for the advent of this kingdom: “Thy kingdom come, Thy will be
done on earth as it is in heaven.”22 However, in contrast to expectations of secu-
lar deliverance from the Romans, Jesus seems to refer to the kingdom as mani-
festation of God’s full glory, the consummation of the world.
Every one who drinks of this water will thirst again, but whoever drinks of the
water that I shall give him will never thirst; the water that I shall give him will
become in him a spring of water welling up to eternal life.
Jesus, as quoted in the Gospel of John, 4:13–14
Jesus’s references to the kingdom, as reported in the gospels, indicate two

seemingly different emphases: one that the kingdom is expected in the future,
and the other that the kingdom is already here. In his future references, as in the
apocalyptic Jewish writings of the time, Jesus said that things would get much
worse right before the end. He seemed to foretell the destruction of Jerusalem by
the Romans that began in 70 CE. But:
then will appear the sign of the Son of man in heaven, and then all the tribes of the
earth will mourn, and they will see the Son of man coming on the clouds of heaven
with power and great glory; and he will send out his angels with a loud trumpet
call, and they will gather his elect from the four winds, from one end of heaven to
the other.23
It was his mission, he said, to gather together everyone who could be saved.
Challenges to the authorities

As Jesus traveled through Galilee, many people gathered around him to be
healed. Herod Antipas, a Jew who had been appointed by the Romans as ruler of
Galilee, had already executed John the Baptist and may have been concerned
that Jesus might be a trouble-maker, perhaps one of the Zealots of Galilee who
were stirring up support for a political uprising against the Romans. Jesus there-
fore moved outside Herod’s jurisdiction for a while, to carry on his work in Tyre
and Sidon (now in Lebanon).
According to the gospels, Jesus was also regarded with suspicion by prominent
Jewish groups of his time—the emerging Pharisees (the shapers of rabbinic
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Judaism), Sadducees (the temple priests and upper class), and the scribes
(specially trained laymen who copied the written law and formulated the oral law
of Judaism). Jesus seems not to have challenged Mosaic law, but rather, its
interpretations in the evolving rabbinic traditions and the hypocrisy of some of
those who claim to be living by the law. It is written in the Gospel of Matthew
that the Pharisees and scribes challenged Jesus’s disciples for not washing their
hands before eating. Jesus responded:
Hypocrites! It was you Isaiah meant when he so rightly prophesied: “This people
honors me only with lip service / while their hearts are far from me. / The worship
they offer me is worthless; / the doctrines they teach are only human regulations.”24
He called the people to him and said, “Listen, and understand. What goes into
the mouth does not make a man unclean; it is what comes out of the mouth that
makes him unclean. . . . For things that come out of the mouth come from the heart,
and it is these that make a man unclean. For from the heart come evil intentions. . . .
But to eat with unwashed hands does not make a man unclean.”25 . . .
“Alas for you, scribes and Pharisees, you hypocrites! You who are like
whitewashed tombs that look handsome on the outside, but inside are full of dead
men’s bones and every kind of corruption. In the same way you appear to people
from the outside like good honest men, but inside you are full of hypocrisy and
lawlessness.”26
Many seemingly anti-Jewish statements in the New Testament are suspected
by some modern scholars as additions or interpretations dating from the period
after Jesus’s death, when rabbinic Judaism and early Christianity were compet-
ing for followers. Nevertheless, more universal teachings are apparent in such
stories attributed to Jesus. For instance, in all times and all religions there have
been those who do not practice what they preach when claiming to speak with
spiritual authority.
Jesus is said to have also confronted the commercial interests in the Temple of
Jerusalem, those who were making a living by charging a profit when exchang-
ing money for Temple currency and selling animals for sacrificial offerings:
So they reached Jerusalem and he went into the Temple and began driving out
those who were selling and buying there; he upset the tables of the money changers
and the chairs of those who were selling pigeons. Nor would he allow anyone to
carry anything through the Temple. And he taught them and said, “Does not
scripture say; ‘My house will be called a house of prayer for all the peoples?’27 But
you have turned it into a robbers’ den.”28 This came to the ears of the chief priests
and the scribes, and they tried to find some way of doing away with him; they were
afraid of him because the people were carried away by his teaching.29
According to the gospel accounts, Jesus appropriated to himself the messianic
prophecies of Second Isaiah. It is written that he privately asked his disciples, “Who
do you say that I am?” Peter answered, “You are the Christ.”30 “Christ” is Greek for
“anointed one,” a translation of the Aramaic word M’shekha or Messiah, which
also means “perfected” or “enlightened one.” His disciples later spoke of him as the
Messiah after he died and was resurrected. And his follower Martha, sister of
Lazarus whom Jesus reportedly raised from the dead, is quoted as having said to
Jesus, “I now believe that you are the Messiah, the Son of God who was to come
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At the Last Supper, Jesus

foretold his death and
instructed his disciples
to maintain mystic
communion with him
through a ceremony
with bread and wine.
(The Last Supper,
attributed to Francisco
Henriques, fl. 1500–18
[detail].)
into the world.”31 Some contemporary biblical scholars have concluded, however,
that Jesus rejected the title of Messiah, for it might have been misunderstood.
According to the gospel tradition, a transcendental phenomenon, the
“Transfiguration,” was witnessed by three disciples. Jesus had climbed a moun-
tain to pray, and as he did:
He was transfigured before them, and his face shone like the sun, and his garments
became white as light. And behold, there appeared to them Moses and Elijah,
talking with him. . . . When lo, a bright cloud overshadowed them, and a voice from
the cloud said, “This is my beloved Son, with whom I am well pleased; listen to
him.”32
The presence of Moses and Elijah (who in Jewish apocalyptic tradition were
expected to return at the end of the world) placed Jewish law and prophecy
behind the claim that Jesus is the Christ. They were representatives of the old
covenant with God; Jesus brought a new dispensation of grace.
Jesus claimed that John the Baptist was Elijah come again. The authorities had
killed John the Baptist, and, Jesus prophesied, they would attack him, too, not
recognizing who he was. John quotes Jesus as saying things like “My teaching is
not mine, but his who sent me”; “I am the light of the world”; “You are from
below, I am from above; you are of this world, I am not of this world”; and
“Before Abraham was, I am.”33 Jesus characterized himself as a good shepherd
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who is willing to lay down his life for his sheep. Foreshadowing the Crucifixion,
he said he would offer his own flesh and blood as a sacrifice for the sake of
humanity. His coming death would mark a “new covenant” in which his blood
would be “poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins.”34
It is possible that such passages defining Jesus’s role were later interpolations
by the early Christians as they tried to explain the meaning of their Master’s life
and death in new terms during the decades when the New Testament was in the
process of formation.
Crucifixion
The anti-institutional tenor of Jesus’s teachings did not endear him to those in
power. Jesus knew that to return to Jerusalem would be politically dangerous.
But eventually he did so, at Passover. He entered the town in a humble way,
riding on a donkey and accompanied by supporters who waved palm branches
and announced him as the Messiah, crying,
“Hosanna! Blessed be he who comes in the name of the Lord! Blessed be the
kingdom of our father David that is coming! Hosanna in the highest!”35
However, Jesus warned his disciples that his end was near. At the Last Supper,
a meal during the Passover season, he is said to have given them instructions for
a ceremony with bread and wine to be performed thenceforth to maintain an
ongoing communion with him. However, one of the disciples would betray him,
he said. This one, Judas, had already done so, selling information leading to
Jesus’s arrest for thirty pieces of silver.
Jesus took three of his followers to a garden called Gethsemane, on the Mount
of Olives, where he is said to have prayed intensely that the cup of suffering
would pass away from him, if it be God’s will, “yet not what I will, but what thou
wilt.”36 The gospels often speak of Jesus’s spending long periods in spontaneous
prayer addressing God very personally as “Abba.” It is possible to interpret Jesus’s
prayer at Gethsemane as a confirmation of his great faith in God’s mercy and
power. In the words of New Testament theologian Joachim Jeremias:
Jesus takes into account the possibility that God may rescind his own holy will . . .
The Father of Jesus is not the immovable, unchangeable God who in the end can
only be described in negations. He is not a God to whom it is pointless to pray. He is
a gracious God, who hears prayers and intercessions, and is capable in his mercy of
rescinding his own holy will.37
Nevertheless, after this period of prayer Jesus said, according to Mark’s gospel, “It
is all over. The hour has come.”38 A crowd including Judas approached with swords
and clubs; they led Jesus away to be questioned by the chief priest, elders, and scribes.
All four gospels include “passion narratives” describing Jesus’s sufferings
during his betrayal, trial, and execution by crucifixion. Matthew and Mark report
a hearing before the high priest, Joseph Caiaphas. The high priest asked Jesus,
“Are you the Christ?” Jesus answered:
You have said so. But I tell you, hereafter you will see the Son of man seated at the
right hand of Power, and coming on the clouds of heaven.39
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Jesus’s Crucifixion was

interpreted by many
later Christians as the
sacrifice of an innocent
lamb as atonement for
the sins of humanity.
Another interpretation
was that God gave
“himself or herself”
in love, drawing the
world into a loving
relationship with the
divine. (Rembrandt, The
Three Crosses, 1653.)
Caiaphas pronounced this statement blasphemy, punishable by death according

to Jewish law. However, under Roman occupation the Sanhedrin (supreme
Jewish court made up of chief priests, elders, and law teachers) was forbidden to
pass the death sentence. Therefore Jesus was taken to Pontius Pilate, the Roman
governor, for sentencing. To Pilate’s leading question, “Are you King of the
Jews?” Jesus is said to have replied, “You have said so.”40 According to the bibli-
cal accounts, Pilate seems to prefer to let Jesus off with a flogging, for he sees no
reason to sentence him to death. Nevertheless, the crowd demands that he be
killed on the grounds that he is a challenger to the earthly king, Caesar. The
Gospel of John reports extraordinary dialogues between Pilate and Jesus as the
crowd clamors for his execution. For instance, according to the Gospel of John,
Pilate asks Jesus, “What have you done?” and Jesus reportedly replies:
My kingdom does not belong to this world. My kingly authority comes from
elsewhere.” “You are a king then?” said Pilate. Jesus answered, “King is your
word. My task is to bear witness to the truth. For this was I born; for this I came
into the world, and all who are not deaf to truth listen to my voice.” Pilate said,
“What is truth?” and with those words went out again to the Jews.41
At last, unable to pacify Jesus’s critics, Pilate turns him over to his military
guard for execution by crucifixion, a form of death by torture widely used within
the Roman Empire. In this method, the victim was typically tortured or beaten
brutally with whips and then hung or nailed onto a wooden cross to die as a
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hideous example to intimidate the public. The guards put a crown made of thorns
on Jesus’s head and paraded him and his cross to the hill called Golgotha (“Place
of the Skull”). It was probably used frequently for such executions. The accusa-
tion—“This is Jesus, King of the Jews”—was set over his head, and two robbers
were crucified alongside him. The authorities, the people, and even the robbers
mocked him for saying that he could save others when he could not even save
himself.
Jesus hung there for hours until, according to the gospels, he cried out, “My
God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?”42 This is the first line of Psalm 22,
which is actually a great proclamation of the faith in God of one who is perse-
cuted. Then Jesus died. This event is thought to have happened on a Friday some
time between 27 and 33 CE. A wealthy Jewish disciple named Joseph of
Arimathea asked Pilate for Jesus’s body, which Joseph wrapped in a linen shroud
and placed in his own tomb, with a large stone against the door. A guard was
placed at the tomb to make sure that no followers would steal the body and claim
that Jesus had risen from the dead.
Resurrection
That seemed to be the end of it. Jesus’s disciples were terrified, so some of them hid,
mourning and disheartened. The whole religious movement could have died out, as
did other messianic cults. However, what is reported next in varying gospel accounts
seemed to change everything. Some of the women who had been close to Jesus and Christianity:
Resurrection Story
had traveled with him from Galilee visited the tomb on Sunday to prepare the body
for a proper burial, a rite that had been postponed because of the Sabbath. Instead,
they found the tomb empty, with the stone rolled away. Angels then appeared and
told them that Jesus had risen from death. The women ran and brought two of the
male disciples, who witnessed the empty tomb with the shroud folded.
Then followed numerous reports of appearances of the risen Christ to various
disciples. He dispelled their doubts about his resurrection, having them touch his
wounds and even eating a fish with them. He said to them, as recounted in the
gospel of Matthew:
All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me. Go therefore and make
disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son
and of the Holy Spirit, teaching them to observe all that I have commanded you;
and lo, I am with you always, to the close of the age.43
The details of the appearances of the resurrected Jesus differ considerably from
gospel to gospel. However, some scholars think that to have women as the first
witnesses to the empty tomb suggests that there must be some historical truth in
the claims of Jesus’s resurrection, for no one trying to build a case would have
rested it on the testimony of women, who had little status in a patriarchal society.
Feminist scholar Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza finds deep meaning in the presence
of women disciples at the time of Jesus’s death and resurrection. The gospels
mention a woman who anoints Jesus, a sign that she recognizes him as the
Messiah. (According to the gospel of John, this was Jesus’s close follower, Mary
of Bethany, sister of Lazarus.) The reports that it is women who faithfully visit the
tomb suggest that, as Schüssler Fiorenza puts it,
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Whereas according to Mark the leading male disciples do not understand this
BOOKS OF suffering messiahship of Jesus, reject it, and finally abandon him, the women
THE NEW disciples who have followed Jesus from Galilee to Jerusalem suddenly emerge as
TESTAMENT the true disciples in the passion narrative. They are Jesus’ true followers who have
Gospels understood that his ministry was not rule and kingly glory but diakonia, “service”
Matthew (Mark 15:41). Thus the women emerge as the true Christian ministers and
Mark witnesses. The unnamed woman who names Jesus with a prophetic sign-action in
Luke Mark’s Gospel is the paradigm for the true disciple. While Peter had confessed,
John without truly understanding it, “you are the anointed one,” the woman anointing
The Acts of the Jesus recognizes clearly that Jesus’ messiahship means suffering and death.44
Apostles It was the resurrection that turned defeat into victory for Jesus, and discour-
The Letters of Paul agement into powerful action for his followers. As the impact of all they had seen
Romans set in, the followers came to believe that Jesus had been God present in a human
1 and 2 Corinthians life, walking among them.
Galatians
Ephesians*
Philippians
Colossians*
The Early Church
1 and 2* Thessalonians
1 and 2 Timothy*
Persecution became the lot of Jesus’s followers. But by 380 CE, despite strong
Titus* opposition, Christianity became the official religion of the vast Roman Empire. As
Philemon it became the establishment, rather than a tiny, scattered band of dissidents
within Judaism, Christianity continued to define and organize itself.
The General
Epistles
Hebrew From persecution to empire
James
1 and 2 Peter The earliest years of what became the mainstream of Christianity are described
1, 2, and 3 John in the New Testament books that follow the gospel accounts of the life of Jesus.
Jude “The Acts of the Apostles” was presumably written by the same person who
wrote the Gospel of Luke, for the style is the same, both books are addressed to
Revelation
the same person named Theophilus, and Acts refers back to the Gospel of Luke
as an earlier part of a single history of the rise of Christianity. Acts is followed by
*Scholars question
whether these letters letters to some of the early groups of Christians, most of them apparently writ-
were written by Paul ten by Paul, a major organizer and apostle (missionary), in about 50 to 60 CE.
or by others using his
name as a pseudonym, Like the gospel accounts, the stories in these biblical books are examined by
in the custom of the many contemporary scholars as possibly romanticized, idealized documents,
times.
used to convert, to increase faith, to teach principles, and to establish Christian
theology, rather than to accurately record historical facts.
According to Acts, an event called Pentecost galvanized the early Christians into
action. At a meeting of the disciples, something that sounded like a great wind came
down from the sky, and what looked like tongues of fire swirled around to touch each
one’s head. The narrative states that they all began speaking in different languages, so
that all who listened could understand in their own language. Some mocked them,
saying they were drunk, but Peter declared that they had been filled with the Spirit of
God, as the Old Testament prophet Joel had prophesied would happen in the last days
before the onset of the kingdom of God. He testified that the Jesus whom the people
had crucified had been raised up by God, who had made him “both Lord and Christ.”45
Reportedly, 3,000 people were so convinced that they were baptized that day.
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One of the persecutors of Christians was Saul. He was a Pharisee tentmaker

who lived during the time of Jesus but never met him. Instead, after Jesus died,
he helped to throw many of his followers into prison and sentence them to
death. Acts relates that on the way to Damascus in search of more heretics, he
saw a light brighter than the sun and heard the voice of Jesus asking why Saul
was persecuting him. This resistance was useless, said the vision of Jesus, who
then appointed him to do the opposite—to go to both Jews and Gentiles:
to open their eyes, that they may turn from darkness to light and from the power
of Satan to God, that they may receive forgiveness of sins and a place among those
who are sanctified by faith in me.46
This meeting with the risen Christ, and through him, God, was an utterly trans-
formational experience for Paul. He wrote about his previous life,
I count everything sheer loss, because all is so far outweighed by the gain of
knowing Christ Jesus my Lord, for whose sake I did in fact lose everything. I count
it so much garbage, for the sake of gaining Christ and finding myself incorporate in
him, with no righteousness of my own, no legal rectitude, but the righteousness
which comes from faith in Christ, given by God in response to faith. All I care for is
to know Christ.47
Saul was baptized and immediately began promoting the Christian message
under his new name, Paul. His indefatigable work in traveling around the
Mediterranean was of great importance in shaping and expanding the early
Christian church. He was shipwrecked, stoned, imprisoned, and beaten, and
probably died as a martyr in Rome, but nothing short of death deterred him from
his new mission.
Paul tried to convince Jews that Jesus’s birth, death, and resurrection had been
predicted by the Old Testament prophets. This was the Messiah they had been
waiting for, and now, risen from death, he presided as the cosmic Christ, offering
God’s forgiveness and grace to those who repented and trusted in God rather than
in themselves. Some Jews were converted to this belief, and the Jewish auth-
orities repeatedly accused Paul of leading people away from Jewish law and tra-
dition. There was not only one Jewish tradition, however. The Pharisees, for
instance, did not see God as belonging only to Israel, but rather as the parent
watching over and taking care of every individual. They addressed God by new
names, such as Abinu she-Bashamayim (“Our Father Who art in Heaven”), the
same form of address by which Jesus reportedly taught his followers to pray to
God (Matthew 6:9). However, a major difference remained between Jews and
Christians over the central importance given to Jesus. It is possible that Jesus
himself may not have claimed that he was the Messiah, and that it was Paul who
developed this claim. To this day, Jews tend to feel that to put heavy emphasis on
the person of Jesus takes attention away from Jesus’s message and from God.
In Paul’s time, those Jews who emphasized that Jews had been especially
chosen by God were offended by interpretations of Jesus’s life and teachings that
saw Christianity as a universal mission of salvation for all peoples. These
interpretations made the new sect, Christianity, seem irreconciliable with exclu-
sive versions of Judaism, and the gap between the two became deep and bitter.
The New Testament writings reflect the criticisms of the early Christians against
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the large Jewish majority who did not accept Jesus as their Messiah. These
polemics have been echoed through the centuries as anti-semitism.
Paul also tried to sway Gentiles: worshippers of the old gods whose religion
was in decline, supporters of the emperor as deity, ecstatic initiates of mystery
cults, and followers of dualistic Greco-Roman philosophers who regarded matter
as evil and tried to emancipate the soul from its corrupting influence. He taught
them that God did not reside in any idol but yet was not far from them, “For in
him we live and move and have our being.”48 For Gentiles embracing Christianity,
Paul and others argued that the Jewish tradition of circumcision should not be
required of them (as for example in Romans 2:29). As Paul interpreted the gospel,
salvation came by repentant faith in the grace of Christ, rather than by obser-
vance of a traditional law. In Paul’s letter to the church in Rome, he argues that
even Abraham was justified, or accepted by God in spite of sin, because of his
great faith in God rather than by his circumcision.
Christianity spread rapidly and soon became largely non-Jewish in member-
Places visited by the
apostle Paul during his ship. By 200 CE, it had spread throughout the Roman Empire and into
far-reaching missionary Mesopotamia, despite fierce opposition. Many Christians were subjected to
journeys, 46–60 CE. imprisonment, torture, and confiscation of property, because they rejected
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polytheistic beliefs, idols, and emperor worship in the Roman Empire. They were
suspected of being revolutionaries, with their talk of a Messiah, and of strange
cultic behaviors, such as their secret rituals of symbolically drinking Jesus’s blood
and eating his flesh. Persecution did not deter the most ardent of Christians; it
united them intimately to the passion and death of Christ. In addition to martyr-
dom, many early Christians embraced a life of ascetic self-denial by fasting, wear-
ing coarse clothes, renouncing sexuality, spending hours in prayer and
contemplation, and serving others. They sought to be living sacrifices, giving up
the pleasures of the material world for the sake of loving and serving God.
With the rise of Constantine to imperial rule early in the fourth century CE,
opposition turned to the official embracing of Christianity. Constantine said that
God showed him a vision of a cross to be used as a standard in battle. After he
used it and won in 330 CE, he instituted tolerance of Christianity alongside the
state cult, of which he was the chief priest. Just before his death, Constantine was
baptized as a Christian.
By the end of the fourth century CE, people of other religions were stripped of
all rights, and ordered into Christian churches to be baptized. Some paid outward
service to Christianity but remained inwardly faithful to their old traditions. As
Christianity became the favored religion, many converted for secular reasons.
By the end of the fifth century CE, Christianity was the faith claimed by the
majority of people in the vast former Roman Empire. It also spread beyond the
empire, from Ireland in the west to India and Ceylon (Sri Lanka) in the east.
Evolving organization and theology

During its phenomenal growth from persecuted sect to state religion throughout
much of the ancient world, Christianity was developing organizationally and the-
ologically. By the end of the first century CE, it had a bureaucracy that carried on
the rites of the Church and attempted to define mainstream Christianity.
One form that was judged to be outside the mainstream was Gnostic
Christianity, which appeared as a movement in the second century CE.
Gnosticism means mystical perception of knowledge. The Nag Hammadi library
found in Egypt presents Jesus as a great Gnostic teacher. His words are inter-
preted as the secret teachings given only to initiates. “He who is near to me is near
to the fire,” he says in the Gospel of Thomas.49 The Gnostics held that only spiri-
tually mature individuals could apprehend Jesus’s real teaching: that the
Kingdom of Heaven is a present reality experienced through personal realization
of the Light.
When the New Testament canon of twenty-seven officially sanctioned texts
was set and translated into Latin in the fourth century, the Gnostic gospels were
not included. Instead, the Church treated possession of Gnostic texts as a crime
against church law because the Christian faith community felt that Jesus had not
taught an elitist view of salvation and had not discriminated against the material
aspect of creation.
What became mainstream Christianity is based not only on the life and teach-
ings of Jesus, as set forth in the gospels selected for the New Testament, but also
on the ways that they have been interpreted over the centuries. One of the first
and most important interpreters was Paul. His central contribution—which was
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The Nag Hammadi

manuscripts found in
Egypt were buried about
400 CE. They contain
copies and translations
of early Christian texts
condemned as heretical
by the Church.
as influential as the four gospels in shaping Christianity—was his interpretation

of Jesus’s death and resurrection.
Paul spoke of agape—altruistic, self-giving love—as the center of Christian con-
cern. He placed it above spiritual wisdom, asceticism, faith, and supernatural
“gifts of the Spirit,” such as the ability to heal, prophesy, or spontaneously speak
in unknown tongues. Love was applied not only to one’s neighbors but also to
one’s relationship with the divine. It was love plus gnosis—knowledge of God,
permeated with love—that became the basis of contemplative Christianity, as it
was shaped by the “Fathers” of the first centuries.
Let all that you do be done in love.

1 Corinthians 16:14
The cross, with or without an image of Jesus crucified on it, became a central
symbol of Christianity. It marked the path of suffering service, rather than politi-
cal domination, as the way of conquering evil and experiencing union with a
compassionate God. To participate in Jesus’s sacrifice, people could repent of their
sins, be baptized, and be reborn to new life in Christ. In the early fifth century CE
the bishop Augustine, one of the most influential theologians in the history of
western Christianity, described this spiritual rebirth thus:
Where I was angry within myself in my chamber, where I was inwardly pricked,
where I had sacrificed, slaying my old man and commencing the purpose of a new
life, putting my trust in Thee—there hadst Thou begun to grow sweet unto me and
“hadst put gladness in my heart.”50
Rowan Williams, the twenty-first-century theologian and Archbishop of the
Anglican Church, explains this repentance and spiritual resurrection as:
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the refusal to accept that lostness is the final human truth. Like a growing thing
beneath the earth, we protest at the darkness and push blindly up in search of
light, truth, home—the place, the relation where we are not lost, where we can live
from deep roots in assurance. “Because I live, you will live also.”51
The expectation of the coming of God’s kingdom and final judgment of who
would go to heaven and who to hell, so fervent in the earliest Christianity, began
to wane as time went by and the anticipated events did not happen. The notion
of the Kingdom of God began to shift to the indefinite future, with emphasis
placed on a preliminary judgment at one’s death. There was nevertheless the con-
tinuing expectation that Christ would return in glory to judge the living and the
dead and bring to fulfillment the “new creation.” This belief in the “Second
Coming” of Christ is still an article of faith today for some Christians; others
regard it as symbolizing pointing to the certainty of God’s coming rule of love and
peace.
Another early doctrinal development was the doctrine of the Holy Trinity.
Christians believed that the transcendent, invisible God—the Father—had
become immanent in the person of Jesus, God the Son. Furthermore, after his
The Holy Trinity,

depicted in a famous
Russian Orthodox icon
by Rublev, is a
distinctively Christian
view of God. God is One
as a communal
plurality, an endless
circle sharing the love
intrinsic to the Godhead,
inviting all to be healed
and saved by this love.
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physical death Jesus promised to send the Holy Spirit to his followers. This makes
three “persons” within the one divine being: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. The
Father is envisioned as the almighty transcendent creator of heaven and earth.
The Son is the incarnation of the Father, the divine in human form, who returned
at the ascension to live with the Father in glory, though he remains fully present
in and to his “mystical body” on earth—the community of believers. The Holy
Spirit or Holy Ghost is the power and presence of God, actively guiding and sus-
taining the faithful.
Although Jesus had spoken in parables with several levels of meaning, the evolv-
ing Church found it necessary to articulate some of its beliefs more openly and sys-
tematically. A number of creeds, or professions of faith, were composed for use in
religious instruction and baptism, to define who Jesus was and his relationship to
God, and to provide clear stands in the face of various controversies. The Emperor
Constantine was particularly concerned to bring doctrinal unity among the Christian
churches which he had legalized and whose beliefs he was promoting throughout his
widespread empire. One major controversy concerned the teachings of Arius, a
leader of the congregation in Alexandria. The issue was the relationship between
God and Jesus. The Christians worshipped Jesus, but at the same time came from
monotheistic Jewish tradition, in which God alone is worshipped. Was Jesus there-
fore somehow the same as God? To Arius, the “Son of God” is a metaphor; it does not
mean that Jesus has the same status as God, for Jesus was a human being. Opponents
of this belief argued that Jesus is properly worshipped as the incarnation of God.
Constantine convened a general council of the elders of all area churches in
Nicea in 325 CE to settle this critical issue. After decades of controversy, Arius’s
beliefs were ultimately rejected in the framing of the Nicene Creed, traditionally
dated to another council held in Constantinople in 381 CE (and thus sometimes
referred to as the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed). It is still the basic profession
of faith for many Christian denominations in both East and West, including all
Orthodox churches, and has been proposed as a basis for unifying all Christians:
We believe in one God, the Father, the almighty, maker of heaven and earth, of all
that is, seen and unseen. We believe in one Lord, Jesus Christ, the only Son of God,
eternally begotten of the Father, God from God, Light from Light, true God from
true God, begotten not made, of one Being with the Father. Through him all things
were made. For us men and for our salvation he came down from heaven; by the
power of the Holy Spirit he became incarnate of the Virgin Mary, and was made
man. For our sake he was crucified under Pontius Pilate; he suffered death and was
buried. On the third day he rose again in accordance with the Scriptures; he
ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the Father. He will come
again in glory to judge the living and the dead, and his kingdom will have no end.
We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life, who proceeds from the
Father (and from the Son). With the Father and the Son he is worshipped and
glorified. He has spoken through the Prophets. We believe in one holy, catholic, and
apostolic Church. We acknowledge one baptism for the forgiveness of sins. We look
for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come. Amen.
As we will see later, the small phrase “and from the Son” was added to the creed
by the Western part of the Church in the early Middle Ages and became a major
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point of disagreement between the Western Church and the Eastern Christian
churches, which did not add it.
Christology—the attempt to define the nature of Jesus and his relationship to
God—received further official clarification during the Council of Chalcedon in
451. This council issued a statement that allows considerable leeway in
Christological interpretations by declaring that Jesus is of “two natures”—per-
fectly divine and also perfectly human. The Council of Chalcedon defined Jesus
as:
perfect in divinity and humanity, truly God and truly human, consisting of a
rational soul and a body, being of one substance with the Father in relation to his
divinity, and being of one substance with us in relation to his humanity, and is like
us in all things apart from sin (Hebrews 4:15). He was begotten of the Father
before time in relation to his divinity, and in these recent days was born from the
Virgin Mary, the Theotokos [Mother of God], for us and for our salvation.
Early monasticism
Alongside the development of doctrine and the consolidation of church structure,
another trend was developing. Some Christians were turning away from the world
to live in solitary communion with God, as ascetics. There had been a certain
amount of asceticism in Paul’s writings. He himself was celibate, as he believed
that avoiding family entanglements helped one to concentrate on the Lord.
By the fourth century CE, Christian monks were living simply in caves in the
Egyptian desert with little regard for the things of the world. They had no central
organization but tended to learn from the examples of sincere monks. Avoiding
emphasis on the supernatural powers that often accompany the ascetic life, they
told stories demonstrating the virtues they valued, such as humility, submission,
and the sharing of food. For example, an earnest young man was said to have
visited one of the desert fathers and asked how he was faring. The old man sighed
and said, “Very badly, my child.” Asked why, he said, “I have been here forty
years doing nothing other than cursing my own self each day, inasmuch as in the
prayers I offer, I say to God, ‘Accursed are those who deviate from Your
commandments.’”52 The young seeker was moved by such humility and made it
his model.
The carefree man, who has tested the sweetness of having no personal possessions,
feels that even the cassock which he wears and the jug of water in his cell are a
useless burden, because these things, too, sometimes distract his mind.
A Desert Father 53
The desert monks were left to their own devices at first. In Christian humility,
they avoided judging or trying to teach each other and attempted to be, at best,
harmless. But by the fifth century CE, the monastic life shifted from solitary,
unguided practice, to formal spiritual supervision. Group monasteries and struc-
tures for encouraging obedience to God through an abbot or abbess were set up,
and rules devised to help monks persevere in their calling. The Rule of St.
Benedict became a model for all later monastic orders in the West, with its
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Map showing the emphasis on poverty, chastity, and obedience to the abbot, and its insistence that
approximate distribution each monastery be economically self-sufficient through the labor of the monas-
of Christians in the tics. The Benedictines have been famous over the centuries for their practice of
world today.
hospitality to pilgrims and travelers, and are today active participants in inter-
religious monastic dialogue.
The Eastern Orthodox Church

Christianity’s history has been marked by internal feuds and divisions. One of the
deepest schisms occurred in 1054, when the Roman Catholic Church, whose fol-
lowers were largely in the West, and the Eastern Orthodox Church split apart.
The history of the Orthodox Church

Late in the third century CE, the Roman Empire had been divided into two: an
eastern section and a western section. In the fourth century CE, Constantine
established a second imperial seat in the east, in Constantinople (now Istanbul,
Turkey). It was considered a “second Rome,” especially after the sack of Rome
by the Goths in 410. The two halves of the Christian world grew apart from
each other, divided by language (Latin in the west, Greek in the east), culture,
and religious differences.
In the western half, religious power was becoming more and more centralized
in the Roman pope and other high officials. The Byzantine east was organized
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into a number of sees. The five major sees were those of Rome, Constantinople,
Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. But this distinction was for organizational
purposes; spiritually, all bishops, regardless of the status of the cities with which
they are associated, are to today thought to be equal as successors to the original
apostles, equally empowered to perform the sacraments and teach the faith.
Rome was accorded a “primacy of honor” but not supreme jurisdiction.
The east did not recognize the Roman pope’s claim to universal authority in
the Church. By the early Middle Ages, there were also doctrinal disagreements.
In its version of the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed, for example, the Western
Church added the filioque, a formula professing that the Holy Spirit came from the
Father “and from the Son”; the Eastern Church retained what is considered the
more original text, professing that the Holy Spirit proceeds only from the Father.
In 1054, leaders of the eastern and western factions excommunicated each
other over the disagreement about the Holy Spirit, and also over the papal claim,
celibacy for priests (not required in the Eastern Church, which requires celibacy
for bishops only), and whether the eucharistic bread should be leavened or
unleavened. To the Eastern Church, the last straw was its treatment by crusaders.
From 1095 to about 1290, loosely organized waves of Christians poured out of
Europe in what were presented as “Holy crusades” to recapture the holy land of
Palestine from Muslims, to defend the Byzantine Empire against Muslim Turks,
and in general to wipe out the enemies of Christianity. It was a tragic and bloody
time. One of the many casualties was the already tenuous relationship between
the Eastern and Western Churches. When crusaders entered Constantinople in
1204, they tried to intervene in local politics. Rebuffed, they were so furious that
they ravaged the city. They destroyed the altar and sacred icons in Hagia
Sophia, the awesome Church of the Holy Wisdom (later taken over as a Muslim
mosque), and placed prostitutes on the throne reserved for the patriarch of the
region. Horrified by such profanity, the Orthodox Church ended its dialogue with
Rome and proceeded on its own path, claiming to be the true descendant of the
apostolic Church. Despite periodic attempts at reconciliation the Eastern and
Western Churches are still separate.
The Russian Orthodox Church

When the Muslim Ottoman Turks took Constantinople in the fifteenth century,
Russia became more prominent in the Orthodox Church, calling itself the “third
Rome.” The Orthodox Church had spread throughout the Slavic and eastern
Mediterranean countries.
Russian Orthodox Christianity was closely associated with Russian national his-
tory since its adoption by Vladimir I in 988. But it was severely repressed by the
Soviet government during the twentieth century. Lenin saw institutionalized
religion as a divisive, backward force in society, an apology for oppression, which
should wither away in the socialist state. Following the 1917 Revolution, anti-
Church propaganda was broadcast, and many intellectuals who sincerely wanted
the good of society left the Church. Lenin proclaimed that all church property
belonged to the State, and church properties were seized. Thousands of monaster-
ies and churches were taken over during the Revolution, and in the early 1920s
thousands of priests, nuns, and lay Christians were killed. During the 1930s more
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RELIGION IN PRACTICE
Russian Orthodox Kenoticism
A great mystical spiritual tradition emerged on the food and drink that he wanted, and paid him
Russian soil. The kenotic pattern of loving and for the journey.
world-directed monastic work was set by the In the thirteenth century, Russia suffered from
eleventh-century saint Theodosius, who attempted Mongolian invasions. Even though the Tartar
to imitate the poverty and self-sacrificing humility Mongol khans nominally protected the Christians’
of Jesus. He ate nothing but dry bread and herbs, freedom of religious practice when they themselves
spent his nights in prayer and his days in work. adopted Islam, spiritual and social life were in
He dressed in the rough clothes of a peasant, disarray. Monasticism shifted from urban settlements
patiently bore insults, worked with his own to the wilderness of the great forests of northern
hands—chopping wood, spinning thread, baking Russia. Hermit monks lived there in silence and
bread, comforting the sick—and refused to present solitary prayer until so many of the faithful gathered
himself as an authority, even though he became that thriving communities developed around them.
the revered leader of this monastic community. One of the most celebrated of the forest monks
It is recorded that once, after Theodosius had was St. Sergius. As a boy, Sergius retreated to the
visited a distant prince, the prince sent his own forest and built a small chapel for his intense
coach to take the saint home in comfort. The devotions. Despite his noble lineage, he dressed like
coachman, seeing Theodosius’s crude clothing, a peasant and did manual work. Even when he was
assumed he was a beggar, and asked him to mount abbot of the community that grew up around him,
the horse so that the coachman could sleep. The he was asked by one of his monks to build a cell,
saint humbly did so and thus drove the coach all for which labor he was given a bit of moldy bread.
night, with the coachman sleeping inside. When In his contemplations, Sergius was said to be graced
St. Theodosius became too sleepy to drive, he with visions of Mary, Mother of Christ, and of
dismounted and walked; when he became weary angels, fire, and light. He was nonetheless socially
of walking, he rode again. As the morning sun engaged with the national effort to resist foreign
rose, the noblemen of his area recognized him, rule, and his blessing of the first victorious battle
dismounted, and bowed to him, whereupon the of Russians against the Tartars set the precedent
saint gently said to the coachman, “My child, it for the future close links between Church and State
is light. Mount your horse.” The coachman was in Russia. The relics of St. Sergius’s body still lie
amazed and terrified as he saw the great reverence undecayed in the huge and ornate Holy Trinity
paid to the saint as they proceeded. Rather than Lavra near Moscow in Zagorsk where once he had
chastizing him, Theodosius led him by the hand to built his simple chapel. Among his followers were
the refectory, ordered that he should be given all seventy famous saints of Russia.
monasteries and churches were closed, and great numbers of clergy were impris-
oned. Bishops who refused to accept Soviet control issued what is called the
Solovky Memorandum, which stated in part:
The Church recognizes spiritual principles of existence; communism rejects them.
The Church believes in the living God, the Creator of the world, the leader of its life
and destinies; communism denies his existence. Such a deep contradiction in the
very basis of their Weltanschauungen [world views] precludes any intrinsic
approximation or reconciliation between the Church and state, . . . because the very
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EASTERN ORTHODOX CHURCH

• Patriarchate of Constantinople • Self-governing local churches
(Turkey, Mt. Athos) (Russia, Serbia, Rumania, Bulgaria,
• Patriarchate of Alexandria Georgia, Cyprus, Greece, Poland,
(Egypt, Africa) Albania, Finland, Czech Republic)
• Patriarchate of Antioch • Plus archbishops or metropolitans
(Syria, Lebanon) in the Americas, Australia, India,
• Patriarchate of Jerusalem and European countries
soul of the Church, the condition of her existence and the sense of her being, is that
which is categorically denied by communism.54
The bishops were imprisoned in the Solovky labor camp; many were killed
there. It is estimated that some 40,000 priests were killed from 1918 to 1940.
Out of almost 80,000 churches and chapels in the Russian Empire in 1914, only
a few hundred or a thousand remained by the beginning of World War II. Under
Khrushchev, a new campaign against religion was unleashed, and perhaps two-
thirds of the remaining Orthodox churches were closed.
Nevertheless, the Orthodox Church did not die, for it was deeply rooted
in the minds and hearts of the people, and was closely linked to national
identity. In the mid-1980s, the Russian Orthodox Church had an estimated 50
million members. Most of those who dared to worship publicly were the
babushkas—the faithful old women who were apparently not regarded as
politically dangerous.
After decades of severe oppression, the Russian Orthodox Church witnessed a
great change in government policy in 1988, the celebration of its first millennium
in Russia and Ukraine. Mikhail Gorbachev’s government approached the
Orthodox Church leaders, asking their help in Perestroika and returning some
church buildings, which had been turned into museums or warehouses. Some
1,700 churches were reopened in 1988 and 1989, and each was immediately
filled with worshippers again. Seminaries where new clergy are trained report a
great increase in enrolment. Late in 1989, Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev
ended seven decades of suppression of religion, pronouncing the right of the
Soviet faithful to “satisfy their spiritual needs.”55
Nevertheless, many people are disillusioned with the contemporary Russian
Orthodox Church because of its politics. As in all other institutions in the former
Soviet Union, its staff included many KGB agents, and some of these people seem
to have remained in their positions after the fall of the Soviet Union. Some
church leaders felt that they had to make compromises in order to survive at all
as a religion under Soviet rule. Now the Russian Orthodox Church has very
powerful influence in government policy and is strongly supported by political
leaders from all parties, including communists. Indeed, President Vladimir Putin,
a former KGB officer, in 2000 praised the Orthodox Church’s contribution to
Russia’s post-Soviet spiritual rebirth, and stated: “I believe that together (with the
Church) we will achieve the spiritual revival of a strong, prospering Russia in the
twenty-first century.”56 In the same year, the Orthodox Church declared the last
Tsar a martyr and a saint because he was shot by a firing squad of Bolsheviks,
described as enemies of the Church. The ceremony canonizing Tsar Nicholas and
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A very visible symbol of

the official recognition
of the Russian Orthodox
Church is the huge
reconstructed Christ the
Savior Temple, which
now looms over the
landscape of central
Moscow.
his family was held in the huge new Christ the Savior Temple in Moscow, which
had been torn down by Stalin and has been rebuilt on the same site.
Since the early days of the Soviet Union, there have also been Orthodox
Christians who refused to collaborate or compromise with the government. At
the risk of their jobs and lives, some Christian laypeople and priests began to wor-
ship secretly in what became known as catacomb churches, just as the early
Christians had worshipped in underground catacombs to evade persecution.
Father Alexey Vlasov, a catacomb priest, explains:
Members of this catacomb Church were risking their lives by worshipping. They
tried to live by the Ten Commandments and live by love within society. It was not
their intention to oppose the Orthodox Church but to bring Christ’s love into
society.57
Even today, some Orthodox Christians continue to worship in secret rather
than subject their congregations to the registration requirements of the state and
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disapproval of the official Church. Bishop Feodor, bishop of underground

Christians in Moscow, Riga, and the Far East, objects to the assertive power of the
Russian Orthodox Church:
If the Church has pride, it has no holy power. We are all brothers in Adam and in
Christ. We are all baptized by God. This is true for each Christian. If you cannot
love your brother who is next to you, how can you love one you cannot see, such as
Christ, who has not been with us for two thousand years? 58
The Orthodox world today

There are now fifteen self-governing Orthodox Churches worldwide, each having
its own leader, known as patriarch, metropolitan, or archbishop. The majority of
Orthodox Christians now live in Russia, the Balkan states, and eastern Europe,
in formerly communist countries where the teaching and propagation of
Christianity had been severely restricted. Autocephalous (independent) churches
there include the large Church of Russia, which is dominated by the
Patriarchate of Moscow, plus the Churches of Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania,
Albania, Poland, and the Czech Republic. The original and still central
Patriarchate of Constantinople is based within Turkey, as a small minority within
a Muslim country, which now has no Orthodox seminaries. This Patriarchate also
includes islands in the Aegean and the precipitous Mount Athos peninsula. The
latter was historically a great center of Orthodox monasticism, but its population
Contemporary Russian
Orthodox worship in
Sergeyev Posad before an
elaborate iconostasis,
where St. Sergius of
Radonezh once built a
small chapel in the forest
to worship the Holy
Trinity.
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of monks declined considerably in the twentieth century when emigration of

monks was prohibited by communist regimes. Now women are agitating to be
allowed to enter Mount Athos, where even the presence of female animals is
banned. Traditionalists maintain that Mount Athos is the only truly monastic
community left in the world and should continue its antique ways unchanged
and undistracted; women counter that the ban on women is degrading, a “sexist,
anti-democratic decision taken by men, not by God.”59
The Patriarchate of Alexandria is based in Egypt and includes all of Africa,
where Orthodoxy arose independently in Uganda and has been embraced
with considerable enthusiasm. The Patriarchate of Antioch consists mostly of
Orthodox Christian Arabs in Syria and Lebanon. The Patriarchate of Jerusalem is
charged with guarding the Holy Places of Christianity.
The Greek Orthodox Church dominates religious life in Greece and is assisting
in the revival of interest in the classical books and arts of Orthodox spirituality. In
the Church of Cyprus, the archbishop is also traditionally the political leader of
the people. The Church of Sinai consists of only one monastery.
Extensive emigration, particularly from Russia during the first few years of
communist rule, has also created large Orthodox populations in Western coun-
tries. Some retain direct ties to their home patriarchate, such as the New York-
based Archdiocese of the Greek Orthodox Church in North and South America.
Alongside that, the Orthodox Church in America was granted its independence
in 1970, and now claims over four million members in a country where
Protestantism and Roman Catholicism are the predominant forms of Christianity.
Missionary activity by the Russian Orthodox Church also established Orthodoxy
in China, Korea, Japan, and among the indigenous peoples in Alaska.
Most icon painters,

such as this monk at
Mt. Athos, Greece, use
the ancient Byzantine
style in creating sacred
icons, which represent
Christian stories and
open windows to the
divine.
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Distinctive features of Orthodox spirituality

Over the centuries, the individual Orthodox Churches have probably changed
less than have the many descendants of the early Western Church. There is a
strong conservative tradition, attempting to preserve the pattern of early
Christianity. Even though the religious leaders can make local adaptations suited Christianity:
to their region and people, they are united in doctrine and sacramental Orthodox Easter
observances. Any change that will affect all churches is decided by a synod—a
council of officials trying to reach common agreements, as did the early Church.
Although women are important in local church affairs, they cannot be ordained
as priests or serve in hierarchical capacities.
In addition to the Bible, Orthodox Christians honor the writings of the saints
of the Church. Particularly important is a collection called the Philokalia. It con-
sists of texts written by Orthodox masters between the fourth and fifteenth cen-
turies. “Philokalia” means love of the exalted, excellent, and beautiful, in other
words, the transcendent divine source of life and truth. The Philokalia is essen-
tially a Christian guide to the contemplative life for monks, but it is also for
laypeople. A central practice is called “unceasing prayer”: the continual remem-
brance of Jesus or God, often through repetition of a verbal formula that gradu-
ally impresses itself on the heart. The most common petition is the “Jesus prayer”:
“Lord Jesus Christ, Son of God, have mercy on me, a sinner.” The repetition of
the name of Jesus brings purification of heart and singularity of desire. To call
upon Jesus is to experience his presence in oneself and in all things.
The Orthodox Church has affirmed that humans can approach God directly.
Some may even see the light of God and be utterly transformed by it:
He who participates in the divine energy, himself becomes, to some extent, light:
he is united to the light, and by that light he sees in full awareness all that remains
hidden to those who have not this grace; . . . for the pure in heart see God . . . who,
being Light, dwells in them and reveals Himself to those who love Him, to His
beloved.60
Another distinctive feature of Orthodox Christianity is its veneration of icons.
These are stylized paintings of Jesus, his mother Mary, and the saints. They are
created by artists who prepare for their work by prayer and ascetical training.
There is no attempt at earthly realism, for icons are representations of the reality
of the divine world. They are beloved as windows to the eternal. In addition to
their devotional and instructional functions, some icons are reported to have great
spiritual powers, heal illnesses, and transmit the holy presence. Believers enter
into the grace of this power by kissing the icon reverently and praying before it.
Some of the major icons in an Orthodox church are placed on an iconostasis,
a screen separating the floor area for the congregation from the Holy of Holies,
the sanctuary that can be entered only by the clergy. On either side of the open-
ing to the altar are icons of Jesus and the Virgin Mary (“Mother of God,” often
venerated as Protectress and Ruler of Russia).
Orthodox choirs sing the divine liturgy in many-part harmony, producing an
ethereal and uplifting effect as the sounds echo and re-echo around each other.
Everything strives toward that beauty to which the Philokalia refers.
Archimandrite Nathaniel of the Russian Othodox Pskova-Pechorsky Monastery,
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Christians light candles

around a Christmas
tree in Bucharest,
Romania, December 25,
1989, as communism
collapsed.
which has been a place of uninterrupted prayer for almost six hundred years
despite eight hundred attacks on its walls and numerous sieges, speaks of the
ideal of beauty in Orthodox Christianity:
The understanding of God is the understanding of beauty. Beauty is at the heart of

our monastic life. The life of prayer is a constant well of beauty. We have the beauty
of music in the Holy Liturgy. The great beauty of monastic life is communal life in
Christ. Living together in love, living without enmity, as peaceful with each other as
one dead body is peaceful with another dead body, we are dead to enmity.61
Medieval Roman Catholicism

In the West, from the sixth to tenth centuries CE, the old Roman Empire gradu-
ally fell to non-Christian invaders. Islam also made spectacular advances in areas
previously converted to Christianity. Arabs took Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia,
Egypt, North Africa, and part of Spain. However, the Angle and Saxon invaders
of England were slowly converted to Christianity, with whole tribes joining the
faith at the behest of their chiefs. By the fourteenth century, most of central and
western Europe was claimed for Christianity, and missionaries spread the faith to
isolated areas of Asia.
The Holy Roman Empire became politically decentralized into feudal
kingdoms, with the Christian Church the major force uniting Europe. The chief
factors sustaining Christianity through these chaotic centuries were its centralized
organization under the Western pope and Eastern Orthodox Byzantine leaders
and the periodic refreshing of its spiritual wellsprings through monasticism and
mysticism.
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Papal power
During the late first and early second centuries CE, some men and women had fol-
lowed a charismatic Christian life, leaving home to preach, baptize, prophesy, and
perhaps die as martyrs; others had moved toward an institutionalized patriarchal
Church. By the beginning of the second century CE, a consolidation of spiritual
power had begun with the designation of specific people to serve as clergy and
bishops (superintendents) to administer the church affairs of each city or region.
While some women served as deacons ministering to women, the clergy and
bishops had to be male, with wife and children. The bishops of the chief cities of
the Roman Empire had the greatest responsibilities and authority, with the great-
est prestige being held by the Bishop of Rome, eventually known as the pope. By
the fifth century CE, Pope Leo I argued that all popes were apostolic successors to
Peter, the “rock” on which Jesus in Matthew’s gospel said he would found his
Church. The Roman emperor passed an edict that all Christians were to recognize
the authority of the Bishop of Rome, the successor to Peter.
The young Catherine

of Siena, “mother of
thousands of souls,”
had a vision in
which Christ, in
the company of the
Virgin Mary and
other saints, gave
her a wedding ring,
the sign of the
mystical marriage.
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The strongest of church administrators during these early centuries was

Gregory I (“the Great”), who died in 604 CE. Wealthy by birth but ascetic by
choice, he devoted his personal fortune to founding monasteries and feeding
the poor. Suffering from health problems and longing for the quiet life of a
monk, he was reluctantly convinced to be pope at a time of pestilence, floods, and
military invasions. Even in this setting, he managed to provide for the physical
needs of the poor, promote the discipline of the clergy (including the Western
ideal that priests should be celibate in order to concentrate on piety and ministry
without family obligations and to avoid the economic loss of having to share
church property with wives and children if priests and bishops were to marry),
revamp the liturgy (Gregorian chanting is named after him), and to re-establish
the Church as a decent, just institution carrying high spiritual values.
Pope Gregory also sent missionaries to convert England to Christianity. They
were ultimately successful in gradually turning the people from worship of
indigenous deities to worship of Jesus and the saints of the Church, partly
because of the royal protection the missionaries and converts won and partly
because rather than destroying the old religious shrines, Gregory instructed the
missionaries to replace the old idols with relics of martyrs and saints—bits of
bone, cloth, even dirt from their graves—which they carried to England. Worship
of goddesses of the area was thus deflected to devotion to holy women from far
away, whose deep spirituality was thought to be so strong that it was present in
their relics.
The papacy began to wield tremendous secular power. Beginning in the eighth
century, the approval of the papacy was sought as conferring divine sanction on
feudal kings. In the ninth century the Church produced documents old and new
believed to legitimate the hierarchical authority of the papacy over the Church,
and the Church over society, as the proper means of transmitting inspiration from
the divine to humanity. Those who disagreed could be threatened with
excommunication. This exclusion from participation in the sacraments was a
dread ban, cutting a person off from the redemption of the Church (blocking
one’s entrance to heaven in the afterlife), as well as from the benefits of the
Church’s secular power. Crusades were launched under the auspices of the
Church, with war used ostensibly in defense of the faith, with no humane
restraints on the treatment of the “infidel.”
Late in the eleventh century, Pope Gregory VII set forth unprecedented claims
for the papacy. The pope, he asserted, was divinely appointed and therefore could
be ruled by no human. The pope had the right to depose emperors; the princes
of the world should kiss his feet.
This centralization of power became a major unifying element in Europe of the
Middle Ages. Kingdoms broke up between 800 and 1100 as Vikings invaded from
the north and Magyars from the east. For the sake of military protection, peas-
ants gave up their freedom to feudal lords. The feudal lords in turn began to war
among themselves. In the midst of the ensuing chaos, people looked to the pope
as an orderly wielder of power.
Church and states were at times locked in a mutual struggle for dominance,
with popes alternately supporting, dominating, and being deposed by secular
rulers. The power of the papacy was also somewhat limited by the requirement
that the pope be elected by a council of cardinals. The position could not become
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The Rider on the White

Horse. After Jerusalem
fell in 1077 to Turkish
forces, who then denied
Christian pilgrims access
to the city, Western popes
launched a series of
Crusades to recover what
Christians considered
their Holy Land where
Jesus had walked. The
Crusaders’ military
expeditions were
considered holy missions,
carrying the cross and
the Bible.
hereditary. But it was nonetheless open to intrigue, scandal, and power-monger-

ing.
The thirteenth century saw the power of the papacy placed behind the
Inquisition, an ecclesiastical court set up in 1229 to investigate and suppress
heresy. This instrument of terror was based on Augustine’s concept that heretics
should be controlled for the sake of their own eternal salvation, out of love for
their souls. But whereas Augustine saw fines and imprisonment as reasonable
coercion to help people change their minds, in some cases the medieval
Inquisitors had them tortured and burned to deter others from dangerous views.
For example, in northern Italy and southern France a sect arose that was later
called Cathari (“the pure”), for its members lived ascetically, emphasizing poverty
and mutual aid. Though similar to Christianity in organization and worship, the
movement denied that Jesus was the incarnation of God, and saw spirit as good
but matter as bad. Such beliefs were proclaimed heretical by the papacy; the
Cathari sect, attacked by the Inquisition, disappeared.
Though strong, the papacy was often embroiled in its own political strife.
During the fourteenth century, the popes left their traditional seat in turbulent
Rome for the more peaceful climate of Avignon, France. There they built up an
elaborate administrative structure, increasingly involved in worldly affairs. After
the papacy was persuaded to return to Rome, a would-be reformer, Pope Urban
IV, turned to terror tactics to get his way. At one point he had five cardinals tor-
tured and killed. Many people refused to follow him; for a while they followed
an “anti-pope” they established in Avignon.
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Intellectual revival and monasticism

Although the papacy was subject to abuses, mirrored on a lesser scale by the
clergy, Christian spirituality was vigorously revived in other quarters of medieval
society. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries great universities developed
in Europe, often from cathedral schools. Theology was considered the greatest
of the sciences, with church ideals permeating the study of all areas of life.
Soaring Gothic cathedrals were built to uplift the soul to heavenly heights, for
God was perceived as being enthroned in the heavens, far above the workaday
world.
The yearning for spiritual purity was particularly pronounced in monasticism.
It was largely through monks and nuns that Christian spirituality survived and
spread. Monasteries also became bulwarks of Western civilization. In Ireland, par-
ticularly, they were the centers of larger communities of laypeople and places of
learning within illiterate warring societies.
During the twelfth century many new monastic orders appeared in the midst
of a massive popular re-invigoration of spiritual activity. A major influence was a
community in Cluny, France. Its monks specialized in liturgical elaborations and
prayer, leaving agricultural work to serfs. An alternative direction was taken by
the Cistercians, Gregorians, and Carthusians. They returned to St. Benedict’s Rule
of combining manual work and prayer; “to labor is to pray,” said the monks. The
Carthusians lived cloistered lives as hermits, meeting each other only for worship
and business matters. Despite such austere practices, people of all classes flocked
to monastic life as a pious refuge from decadent society.
It is not only prayer that gives God glory but work. . . . He is so great that all things
give Him glory if you mean they should.
Gerard Manley Hopkins 62
In contrast to monks and nuns living cloistered lives, mendicant friars, or

brothers, worked among the people. In 1215, the Dominican Order was instituted
primarily to teach the faith and refute heresies. A famous Dominican scholar,
Thomas Aquinas, created a monumental work, Summa Theologiae, in which
rational sciences and spiritual revelations were joined in an immense, consistent
theological system. Aquinas was much influenced by the recovery of classical
writings of Aristotle that had been preserved by Muslims and returned to Europe
through Spain.
Franciscans, following the lead of the beloved St. Francis of Assisi (see below),
wandered about without personal property or established buildings, telling
people about God’s love and accepting charity for their meager needs. The men-
dicant Dominicans and Franciscans, still noted as missionaries today, became one
of the major features of medieval Christianity.
In addition to organized orders of nuns, there was a grassroots movement
among thirteenth-century German and Flemish women to take private vows of
chastity and simplicity. These women, who were called “beguines,” lived frugally
by their own work. Because they were not organized into a religious order, they
chose their own lifestyles, intending simply to live “religiously.” At times perse-
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cuted because it did not fit into any traditionally sanctioned pattern, the move-
ment persisted, drawing tens of thousands of women. Eventually they built small
convents for themselves; by the end of the fourteenth century, there were 169
beguine convents in Cologne, the heart of the movement.
Medieval mysticism
Mysticism also flowered during the Middle Ages, renewing the spiritual heart of
the Church. Especially in cloistered settings, monks and nuns sat in contem-
plation of the meanings of the scriptures for the soul. Biblical stories of battles
between heroes and their enemies were, for instance, interpreted as the struggle
between the soul and one’s baser desires. Beyond this rational thought, some
engaged in quiet non-conceptual prayer, simply resting receptively in the pres-
ence of God.
In thirteenth-century Italy, there was the endearing figure of St. Francis of
Assisi (1182–1226). The carefree, dashing son of a merchant, he underwent a
radical spiritual transformation. He traded his fine clothes for simple garb and
“left the world”63 for a life of total poverty, caring for lepers and rebuilding dilap-
idated churches, since in a vision Jesus spoke to him from the cross, saying: Statues of St. Francis
“Repair my Church.” Eventually Francis understood that his real mission was to often show birds perched
rebuild the Church by re-emphasizing the gospel and its commands of love and on him, representing his
poverty. A band of brothers and then of sisters, led by the saintly Clare, gathered kinship with the natural
around him. The friars preached, worked, begged, tended lepers, and lived a world.
simple life of penance and prayer while wandering from town to town. This asce-
tic life was permeated with mystical joy, one of St. Francis’s hallmarks. He was
also known for his rapport with wild animals and is often pictured with birds rest-
ing lovingly on his shoulders. Two years before his death, Francis received the
“stigmata,” replicas on his own body of the crucifixion wounds of Jesus. This mir-
acle was interpreted as a sign of the saint’s union with Christ by suffering, prayer,
holiness, and love.
The flowering of English mysticism during the fourteenth century was exem-
plified by Julian of Norwich (1342–c. 1416). As a girl, she had prayed that when
she reached the age of thirty (the age at which Jesus began his public mission)
she would have an illness that would bring her an understanding of his Passion
(the sufferings of his final days). As requested, she did indeed become so ill when
she was thirty that she almost died. During this crisis, she had visions and con-
versations with Christ, which revealed the boundless love with which he contin-
ually offers himself for humanity. Her writings delve into the perennial problem
of reconciling the existence of evil with the experience of a loving God, whom
she sometimes referred to as “God our Mother.”
An anonymous fourteenth-century English writer contributed a volume
entitled The Cloud of Unknowing. Christianity then and now largely follows what
is called the affirmative way, with art, liturgy, scriptures, and imagery to aid devo-
tion. But the author of The Cloud spoke to those who were prepared to undertake
the negative way of abiding in sheer love for God, with no thoughts. God cannot
be known through ideas or physical images; “a naked intent toward God, a desire
for him alone, is enough.”64 In the silence of wordless prayer, the light of God may
pierce the cloud of human unknowing that obscures the divine from the seeker.
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Fourteenth-century Italy witnessed a period of unprecedented degradation

among the clergy, while the papacy occupied itself with organizational matters in
Avignon. In this spiritual vacuum, laypeople gathered around saintly individuals to
imbibe their atmosphere of genuine devotion. One of the most celebrated of these
was the young Catherine of Siena. In her persistent efforts to restore spiritual purity
and religious discipline to the Church, she gained the ear of Pope Gregory XI, help-
ing to convince him to return to Rome. She was called “mother of thousands of
souls,” and people were said to be converted just by seeing her face.
The Protestant Reformation

Despite the genuine piety of individuals within the Catholic Church, some who
clashed with its authority claimed that those in power seemed often to have lost
touch with their own spiritual tradition. With the rise of literacy and printing in
the late fifteenth century, many Christians were rediscovering early Christianity
and comparing it unfavorably with what the Roman Catholic Church had made
of it. Roman Catholic fund-raising or church-building financial activities were
particularly criticized. These included indulgences (remission of the punishment
for sin by the clergy in return for services or payments), the sale of relics, pur-
chases of masses for the dead, spiritual pilgrimages, and the earning of spiritual
“merit” by donating to the Church.
Salient among the reformists was Martin Luther (1483–1546). Luther was a
monk, priest, and Professor of Biblical Studies at the University of Wittenberg. He
struggled personally with the question of how one’s sins could ever be totally
atoned for by one’s own actions. The Roman Catholic Church’s position was that
to be forgiven of post-baptismal sins, people should repent and then confess their
sins to a priest and be pardoned. In addition, the punishment after death due to
sins could be remitted either for the performance of prescribed penances or
through the granting of an indulgence. Indulgences could even be purchased to
make sure that the souls of those who had died repentant were freed from
Purgatory (the intermediate place of purifying suffering for those who died in a
state of repentance and grace but who were not yet sufficiently stainless to enter
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heaven). The Castle Church at Wittenberg housed an immense collection of

relics, including what were believed to be hairs from the Virgin Mary and a thorn
from the “crown” of thorns placed on Jesus’s head before he was crucified. This
relic collection was deemed so powerful that those who viewed them on the
proper day and contributed sufficiently to the Church could receive indulgences
from the pope freeing themselves or their loved ones from almost two million
years in Purgatory.
By intense study of the Bible, Luther began to emphasize a different approach.
Both Paul and Augustine could be interpreted as saying that God, through Jesus,
offered salvation to sinners in spite of their sins. This salvation was offered by
God’s grace alone and received solely by repentant faith. The good works and
created graces prescribed by Catholics to earn merit in heaven were not part of
original Christianity, Luther argued. Salvation from sin comes from faith in God,
which itself comes from God, by grace. This gift of faith brings justification (being
found righteous in God’s sight) and then flowers as unselfish good works, which
characterize the true Christian:
From faith flows love and joy in the Lord, and from love a joyful, willing and free
mind that serves one’s neighbor willingly and takes no account of gratitude or
ingratitude, of praise or blame, of gain or loss. . . . As our heavenly father has in
Christ freely come to our help, we also ought freely to help our neighbor through
our body and its works, and each should become as it were a Christ to the other.65
In 1517 Luther invited the university community to debate this issue with him,
by the established custom of nailing his theses to the door of the church. He
apparently had no intention of splitting with the Church. But a papal bull
(decree) of June 15, 1520 excommunicated him.
Cut off from Rome, Luther sought support from the secular princes of
Germany. For reasons sometimes more political than spiritual, many came over
to his side and helped to enforce his ideas. Although there were some attempts at
compromise by followers of both Luther and Rome, conciliatory efforts collapsed.
Luther’s evolving theology took him farther and farther from the institutions of
the Roman Catholic Church. He did not think that the Bible supported the Roman
Catholic tradition that pope, bishops, priests, and monks should have spiritual auth-
ority over laypeople; instead, he asserted that there is “a priesthood of all believers.”
He also felt that the sacred rites, or sacraments, of the Church were ways of nour-
ishing faith instituted by Jesus and that they included only baptism and the
eucharist (also known as the Lord’s Supper, Holy Communion, or mass).
Another major reformer who eventually broke with Rome was the Swiss priest
Ulrich Zwingli (1484–1531). He rejected practices not mentioned in the Bible,
such as abstaining from meat during Lent, veneration of relics and saints, reli-
Martin Luther’s political
gious pilgrimages, and celibacy for monks and priests. Zwingli asserted that the influence and prolific
Lord’s Supper should be celebrated only as a memorial of Jesus’s sacrifice; he did writings led to a deep
not believe in the myserious presence of Jesus’s blood and body in the conse- split in the Western
crated wine and bread. He even questioned the spiritual efficacy of rituals such as Church, severing
masses for the dead and confession of one’s sins to a priest: Protestant reformers
from the Roman
It is God alone who remits sins and puts the heart at rest, so to Him alone ought we Catholic Church. (Lucas
to ascribe the healing of our wounds, to Him alone display them to be healed.66 Cranach the Elder,
Martin Luther, 1533.)
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The ideals of these reformists were adopted by many Christians. The freedom
of scriptural interpretation opened numerous options. Protestantism, as the new
branch of Christianity came to be called, was never as monolithic as the Roman
Catholic Church had been. Reform movements branched out in many directions,
leading over time to a great proliferation of Protestant denominations (organ-
ized groups of congregations).
A major seat of Protestantism developed in Geneva, under John Calvin
(1509–1564). He shared the reform principles of salvation by faith alone, the
exclusive authority of the Bible, and “the priesthood of all believers.” But Calvin
carried the doctrine of salvation by faith to a new conclusion. To him, the appro-
priate response to God is a zealous piety and awe-struck reverence in which one
“dreads to offend him more than to die.”67 Human actions are of no eternal sig-
nificance because God has already decided the destiny of each person. By grace,
some are to be saved; for God’s own reasons, others are predestined to be damned
eternally. Although there was therefore nothing that people could do about it,
their behavior would reveal which fate awaited them.
Although only God absolutely knew who was saved, there are three signs which
humans could recognize: profession of faith, an upright life, and participation in the
sacraments. Calvin felt that the Church has the right to chastise and, in some extreme
Intense emotional situations, excommunicate those who seemed to violate the sanctity of the Church.
intimacy with Jesus Calvin envisioned a holy commonwealth in which the Church, government, and cit-
is displayed during a
service at Mount Vernon izens all cooperate to create a society dedicated to the glory and mission of God.
Baptist Church in Calvin’s version of Christianity made its followers feel that they should fear no
Indianapolis. one except God. Convinced that they were predestined to do God’s will, they
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were impervious to worldly obstacles to the spread of their faith. Calvinism

became the state religion of Scotland and also had a following in England.
Concurrently, the Church of England separated from the Church of Rome when
Henry VIII declared the English Church’s independence from the Church of Rome.
His daughter Elizabeth I finalized the breach with Rome in the Elizabethan
Settlement of 1559. Now called Anglicanism, this form of Christianity is in com-
munion with Old Catholics and also shares some similarities with the Protestant
churches. The Anglican Church retains many of the Roman Catholic rituals but
rejects the authority of the Roman Catholic pope (referring instead to its
Archbishop of Canterbury as its spiritual leader) and allows priests to marry. One
of its thirty-seven autonomous Churches is the Protestant Episcopal Church in the
United States, a name referring to its being a Church with bishops. Another off-
shoot of the Church of England is Methodism. It originated with the evangelist
John Wesley (1703–1791), who emphasized personal holiness and methodical
devotions. He travelled an average of 8,000 miles (12,874 km) a year by horseback
to promote “vital practical religion and by the grace of the life of God to beget, pre-
serve, and increase the life of God in the souls of men.”68
Martin Luther’s reformation of the German Church led directly to present-day
Lutheranism. It maintains a strong emphasis on liturgy and sacraments and is
currently practiced mostly in Germany, Scandinavia, the Baltics, and the north-
eastern United States. As the Protestant Reformation progressed, political entities
in Europe chose specific forms of Christianity as their official religions. Spain,
France, and Italy remained largely Roman Catholic. Northern Germany was
largely Lutheran. Ireland split between Catholicism and Protestantism, leading to
wars that continue today. The two major Reformed Churches that sprung from
Calvinism were the Scottish movement called Presbyterianism (in which the con-
gregation is governed by presbyters, who rank second below bishops, ministers,
and elders) and Congregationalism (which emphasizes the independence of each
local church and the “priesthood” of all members). Some Polish and Hungarian
communities adopted a form of Unitarianism, which rejected original sin, the
Trinity, and Jesus’s divinity in favor of a simple theism and imitation of Jesus.
Some Protestant groups that were outlawed by the Church of England emi-
grated to new colonies in North America. One of the largest of these groups is the
Baptists, a denomination in which people are baptized as conscious adult believers
rather than as infants. Quakers (formally known as the Religious Society of
Friends) date from the seventeenth-century followers of George Fox. They tra-
ditionally worshipped without any liturgy or minister, in the hope that as they sat
in worshipful silence, God would speak through any one of their members.
During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, yet more Protestant churches
sprang up in the United States, including evangelical churches—those emphasiz-
ing salvation by personal faith in Jesus, personal conversion, the importance of
the Bible, and preaching instead of ritual. Seventh Day Adventists believe that the
Second Coming of Christ will soon occur, and they regard the Bible as an absolute
guide to faith and spiritual practice in anticipation of the return of Jesus.
Jehovah’s Witnesses criticize other Christian Churches as having developed false
doctrines from the second century onward, and they urge people to leave these
“false religions” and prepare for a coming time when all who do not hold true
belief will be destroyed.
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A Quaker (“Society of
Friends”) meeting, in
York, England, in which
worshippers sit silently,
awaiting direct
experience of the inner
light of God.
Protestant missionary societies and evangelists were also active in carrying the
gospel to Asia and Africa, where many independent denominations have
evolved, and to South America, where Protestant groups are gaining strongholds
in areas that had formerly been largely Roman Catholic since the Spanish con-
quests of these countries. This multi-culturalism and contemporary evangelism
will be examined in detail at the end of this chapter.
Despite the great diversity among Protestant denominations, most share
several characteristics that distinguish them somewhat from Orthodoxy and
Roman Catholicism, though the Catholic Church’s positions are now much closer
to those of Protestants as a result of the profound changes introduced in 1962 by
the Second Vatican Council. Both take the Bible as their foundation, but differ on
how it is to be interpreted. Protestants tend to follow Martin Luther in believing
that the individual’s conscience and reason are the ultimate guides to under-
standing the scripture. This is in contrast to Roman Catholics who assert the auth-
ority of church tradition and the infallibility of the Vatican’s pronouncements
about essentials of the faith, and Orthodox, who regard the Bible as a “verbal
icon” of Christ and thus tend to focus more on venerating it than on interpreting
it. A second point that has divided Protestants and Roman Catholics is the
Protestant belief that we can achieve salvation only by God’s grace, through
repentance and faith; Roman Catholics support the doctrine of salvation by both
faith and good works. A third divisive issue is that of spiritual authority.
Protestantism asserts the “priesthood of all believers” and the individual’s direct
relationship to God and Jesus, in contrast to Roman Catholicism, which stands on
mediation of God’s grace through the officials of the Church. The officials them-
selves differ in many respects, such as the provision that Protestant ministers can
be married, unlike Catholic priests, who are expected to remain celibate in the
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belief that restraint of physical desires enhances spirituality. Fourth, Protestants

have radically redefined the Roman Catholic and Orthodox concept of sacra-
ments; Luther and Zwingli insisted that the only holy sacraments are those insti-
tuted by Jesus and regarded even those as instructive or commemorative rather
than as mystical vehicles for God’s grace. The sacraments and their meanings for
Protestants, Roman Catholics, and Orthodox believers will be examined in depth
later in this chapter.
The Roman Catholic Reformation

As the Protestant reformers were defining their positions, so was the Roman
Catholic Church. Because reform pressures were underway in Catholicism before
Luther, Catholics refer to the movement as the Catholic Reformation, rather than
the “Counter-Reformation,” as Protestants call it. However, the Protestant
phenomena provoked the Roman Catholic Church to clarify its own position
through councils of bishops, especially the Council of Trent (1545–1563). It
attempted to legislate moral reform among the clergy, to tighten the church
administration, and to recognize officially the absolute authority of the pope as
the earthly vicar of God and Jesus Christ. The Council also took historic stands on
a number of issues, emphasizing that its positions were dogmas, or authoritative
truths. For example, one of the fundamental doctrines of the Roman Catholic
Church is the dogma of original sin. All humans are said to be morally defective,
or “fallen,” having inherited a sinful nature from the first human ancestors. They
can be saved from this condition only by the grace of God, as mediated through
the death and resurrection of Jesus.
The Council of Trent reiterated that salvation requires “good works” as well as
faith. These works include acts of mercy, veneration of the saints, relics, and
sacred images, and participation in the sacraments. In the sacrament of the
eucharist, the Council reiterated the doctrine of transubstantiation: what
appear to be ordinary bread and wine are mysteriously transformed into the body
and blood of Christ.
In addition to the actions of the Council of Trent, the Roman Catholic Church
gradually chose more virtuous popes than some in the past, and several new
monastic orders grew out of the desires for reform. The Jesuits offered themselves
as an army for God at the service of the pope. The Society of Jesus, as the order
was formally called, was begun by Ignatius Loyola (1491–1556) in the sixteenth
century. His Spiritual Exercises is still regarded as an excellent guide to meditation
and spiritual discernment. However, it was as activists and educators in the every-
day world that Jesuits were highly influential in the Reformation, and they were
among the first to carry Roman Catholicism to Asia.
Roman Catholicism was also carried to the western hemisphere and the
Philippines by Spanish conquistadores. At home, Spain was host to a number of
outstanding mystics during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. St. Teresa of
Avila (1515–1582), a Carmelite nun, became at mid-life a dynamo of spiritual
activity, in an order of ascetic Reformed (or Discalced, which means “barefooted”)
Carmelite nuns and monks. Discalced Carmelites usually pray much, and eat and
sleep little. Despite her organizational activity, St. Teresa was able to maintain a
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calm sense of deep inner communion with God. In her masterpiece entitled The
Interior Castle, she described the state of “spiritual marriage”:
Here it is like rain falling from the heavens into a river or a spring; there is nothing
but water there and it is impossible to divide or separate the water belonging to the
river from that which fell from the heavens.69
St. Teresa’s great influence fell onto a young friend, now known as St. John of
the Cross. He became a member of one of the Carmelite houses for men; when
imprisoned by other Carmelites who opposed the reforms, he experienced visions
and wrote profound spiritual poetry. For John, the most important step for the
soul longing to be filled with God is to surrender all vestiges of the self. This state
he called the “dark night of the soul,” a relinquishing of human reasoning into a
state of not-knowing into which the pure light of God may enter without
resistance. He is still considered one of the great masters of the spiritual life.
The impact of the Enlightenment

Major potential threats to Christianity arose during the eighteenth-century
Enlightenment in Europe. Intellectual circles exalted human reason and on this
basis rejected faith in biblical miracles and revelations. Some people felt that
nineteenth-century scientific advances undermined the biblical story of the
creation of the world. However, many nineteenth-century scientists were devout
Christians who viewed the truth of science as supporting the truth of faith. There
emerged two opposing trends: a liberal one, trying to join faith with modern
knowledge, and a conservative one, emphasizing the conflict between faith and
science. Both views spread rapidly, dividing between them much of Christendom,
especially Protestantism. In 1911, “fundamentalists” in the United States pub-
lished as their uncompromising tenets the total inerrancy of the Bible, and
Christ’s literal virgin birth, substitutionary atonement, bodily resurrection,
and anticipated second coming. Meanwhile, “modernist” theologians were inter-
preting such concepts in symbolic terms, with an aversion to dogmatism.
Individuals were encouraged to judge religious beliefs by their own experience.
Undaunted, and in some cases invigorated, by these challenges to traditional
faith, Protestantism developed a strong missionary spirit, joining Roman Catholic
efforts to spread Christianity to every country, along with colonialism. As John
Wesley, the founder of Methodism, had explained:
I looked upon all the world as my parish; . . . that in whatever part of it I am, I
judge it meet, right, and my bounden duty to declare unto all that are willing to
hear, the glad tidings of salvation.70
The “social gospel” movement brought Protestant churches to the forefront of
efforts at social and moral reform. Women, long excluded from important pos-
itions in the Church, played major roles in Church-related missionary and reform
efforts, such as the abolition of slavery; they cited certain biblical passages as sup-
porting equality of the sexes. When Sarah Grimke (1792–1873) and other women
were criticized by their Congregational church for speaking publicly against slav-
ery, Grimke asserted, “All I ask of my brethren is that they will take their feet from
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off our necks and permit us to stand upright on that ground which God has
designed us to occupy.”71
Liberal trends in Protestant theology led to efforts to analyze the Bible as litera-
ture. What, for instance, were the earliest texts? Who wrote them? How did they
relate to each other? Such questions, unthinkable in earlier generations, continue
to enliven Christian theological debate.
The Second Vatican Council

In the meantime, the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches had con-
tinued to defend tradition against the changes of modern life. A general council
of the Roman Catholic hierarchs was held in 1869–1870. It found itself embroiled
chiefly in the question of papal infallibility, a doctrine it ultimately upheld. The
pope, proclaimed the bishops of the council, can never err when he speaks from
the seat of his authority (ex cathedra), on matters of faith and morals.
In 1962, Pope John XXIII, known for his holiness and friendliness, convened
the Second Vatican Council for the express purposes of updating and energizing
the Church and making it serve the people better as a living force in the modern
world rather than being an old, embattled citadel. When questioned about his
intentions, he demonstrated by opening a window to let in fresh air. With pro-
gressives and traditionalists often at odds, the majority nevertheless voted for
major shifts in the Church’s mission.
Many of the changes involved the liturgy of the mass, or the eucharist. Rather
than celebrate it in Latin, which most people did not understand, the liturgy was
to be translated into the local languages. Rites were to be simplified. Greater use
of sacred music was encouraged, and not just formal, traditional organ and choir
offerings.
For the first time the laity were to be invited to participate actively. After
Vatican II thus unleashed creativity and simplicity in public worship, entirely new
forms appeared, such as informal folk masses—with spiritual folk songs sung to
guitar accompaniment.
Another major change was the new emphasis on ecumenism, in the sense of
rapprochement among all branches of Christianity. The Roman Catholic Church
acknowledged that the Holy Spirit is active in all Christian churches, including
Protestant denominations and the Eastern Orthodox churches. It pressed for a
restoration of unity among all Christians, proclaiming that each could preserve its
traditions intact. It also extended the concept of revelation, increasing the hope
of dialogue with Jews, with whom Christians share “spiritual patrimony”72 and
with Muslims, upon whom the Church “looks with esteem,” for they “adore one
God” and honor Jesus as a prophet. Appreciative mention was also made of
other world religions as ways of approaching the same One whom Christians
call God. Specifically described were Hinduism (“through which men contem-
plate the divine mystery”) and Buddhism (“which acknowledges the radical
insufficiency of this shifting world”).73
Vatican II clearly marked major new directions in Catholicism. Its relatively
liberal, pacificistic characteristics are still meeting with some opposition within
the Church decades later. In the late twentieth century, conservative elements in
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The large and august

Second Vatican Council
convened by Pope John
XXIII in 1962 came
to historic conclusions.
Their recommendations
turned Catholicism in a
new direction, bringing
the hierarchy closer to
the common people in
a compassionate
partnership.
the Vatican began to reverse the direction taken by Vatican II to some extent, to
the dismay of liberal Catholics. In the final section of this chapter, concerning
current trends in Christianity, we will note several ways in which the renewed
conservatism in the Vatican is being expressed.
Central beliefs in contemporary Christianity

The history of Christianity is characterized more by divisions than by uniformity
among Christian groups. The Church is vast and culturally diverse, and Christian
Christianity: theologies are complex and intricate. Nevertheless, there are a few basic motifs on
Mother Teresa and which the majority of faithful Christians would probably agree today.
Sister Emmanuel A central belief is the divine Sonship of Jesus—the assertion that Jesus is the
incarnation of God. According to the Gospel of John, before Jesus’s death he told his
disciples that he would be going to “my Father’s house . . . to prepare a place for you.”
When they asked how they would find the way to that place, Jesus reportedly said:
I am the way, I am the truth and I am life. No one comes to the Father except by
me. . . . Anyone who has seen me has seen the Father. . . . It is the Father who
dwells in me doing his own work.74
Throughout most of Christian history, there has been the belief that Jesus was
the only incarnation of God. Interestingly, Thomas Aquinas argued that although
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God could become incarnate in multiple incarnations (as in Hindu belief), in fact
he chose to do so only once, in Christ. Theologian Paul Knitter is one of the con-
temporary voices calling for a less exclusive approach that still honors the unique
contribution of Jesus:
What Christians do know, on the basis of their praxis of following Jesus, is that his
message is a sure means for bringing about liberation from injustice and
oppression, that it is an effective, hope-filled, universally meaningful way of
realizing Soteria [human welfare and liberation of the poor and oppressed] and
promoting God’s kingdom. . . . Not those who proclaim “only Lord, only Lord,” but
those who do the will of the Father will enter the kingdom (Matthew 7:21–23).75
For Christians, Jesus is the Savior of the world, the one whom God sent to
redeem people from their sins and reconcile them with God. Matthew reports
that Jesus said he “did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give up his life
as a ransom for many.”76 His own suffering and death are regarded as a substitute
sacrifice on behalf of all those who follow and place their faith in him. According
to the Gospel of John,
God loved the world so much that he gave his only Son, that everyone who has
faith in him may not die but have eternal life. It was not to judge the world that
God sent his Son into the world, but that through him the world might be saved.77
According to one strand of Christian belief, humanity has a sinful character,
illustrated metaphorically in the Old Testament by the fall of Adam and Eve. We
have lost our original purity. Given free will by God, we have chosen disobedi-
ence rather than surrender to the will of God. We cannot save ourselves from our
fallen condition; we can only be forgiven by the compassion of a loving God.
However, some Christians such as Methodists and Quakers are more optimistic
about human nature.
Through fully surrendered faith in Jesus, Christians hope to be washed of their
egotistical sinfulness, regenerated, made righteous, adopted by God, sanctified,
and glorified in the life to come. These are the blessings of salvation, which
Christians feel Jesus won for them by his sacrifice.
Although Christians worship Jesus as Savior, as the incarnation of a merciful
God, they also see him as a human being showing fellow human beings the way to
God. His own life is seen as the perfect model for human behavior. Archbishop
Desmond Tutu of South Africa emphasizes Jesus’s identification with the human
condition:
God does not occupy an Olympian fastness, remote from us. He has this deep, deep
solidarity with us. God became a human being, a baby. God was hungry. God was
tired, God suffered and died. God is there with us.78
This is the central mystery of Christianity: that God became human in order to
lead people back to God.
The human virtue most often associated with Jesus is love. Many Christians
say they experience Jesus’s love even though he is no longer walking the earth
in human form. And in turn, they have deep love for Jesus. Those who are expe-
riencing problems are comforted to feel that Jesus is a living presence in their
lives, supporting them spiritually, loving them even in the darkest of times.
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Reverend Larry Howard, the African–American pastor of Hopps Memorial

Christian Methodist Episcopal Church in Syracuse, New York, declares:
We found a Jesus. A Jesus who came in the midnight hour. A Jesus that was able
to rock babies to sleep. A Jesus that stood in the midst and walked the miles when
the freedom train rode through the South all the way through Syracuse. Jesus
brought us through the mighty trials and tribulations. Why did Jesus do that?
Jesus loved us and through that love and because of that love we stand here today.
Not because the world has been so good to us. Not because we have been treated
fair. Not because we have been able to realize the dream that God has given every
man, woman, and child. But we stand here because we love Jesus. We love him
more and more and more each day.79
The basic thrust of Jesus’s message is to invite us into divine union, which is the
sole remedy for the human predicament.
Father Thomas Keating80
In addition to being the paragon of love, Jesus also provides a model of sin-
lessness. To become like God, humans must constantly be purified of their lower
tendencies. This belief has led some Christians to extremes of penance, such as
the monks who flogged themselves and wore hairshirts so that their conscience
might always be pricked. In a milder form, confession of one’s sinfulness is a sig-
nificant part of Christian tradition. There is an emphasis on self-discipline to
guard against temptations, on examination of one’s own faults, and on rituals,
such as baptism, that help to remove the contamination that is innate in human-
ity. Although one must make these efforts at purification, most Christians believe
that it is only through the grace of God—as mediated by the saving sacrifice of
Jesus—that one can be delivered from sin and rise above ordinary human nature
toward a divine state of sinlessness.
Sacred practices
Imitation of the model set by Jesus in his own life is the primary practice of
Christians. In the widely read fourteenth-century book, The Imitation of Christ,
people are encouraged to aspire to Jesus’s own example as well as his teachings:
O how powerful is the pure love of Jesus, which is mixed with no self-interest,
nor self-love! . . . Where shall one be found who is willing to serve God for
naught? 81
In addition to the inner attempt to become more and more like Jesus,
Christians have developed a variety of spiritual practices. Although forms and
understandings of the practices vary among the branches of Christendom, they
may include public worship services with sermons and offering of the sacraments,
celebrations of the liturgical year, private contemplation and prayer, and devo-
tions to Mary and the saints.
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Mother Teresa’s Missionaries of Charity

The love of which Christ spoke is not an intellectual to work without the assurance of financial backing or
abstraction. According to the diminutive nun who was physical safety, Mother Teresa emphasized that the
known around the world as Mother Teresa, love must most important thing is to pray and pray and pray;
be put into action. divine providence will always give what is needed.
Mother Teresa (1910–1997) was born in Albania, As her work expanded around the globe to 230
to a wealthy family that lost all its money when her houses on all continents, the results of her faith have
father died. She entered a convent of the Loreto been demonstrated again and again. There is no plan,
Sisters when she was no fundraising organization
eighteen, but she felt called (although the Missionaries of
to India, where she initially Charity do accept individual
taught at a girls’ school in donations). Wherever the
Calcutta. Then came an sisters go, they try to help the
even more difficult inner poorest of the poor in
calling “to be God’s love in whatever ways are needed.
action to the poorest of the In each person they care for,
poor.” At a time when India they see the face of Jesus.
was in turmoil after the In Calcutta, the Missionaries
shooting of Gandhi and the have picked up tens of
separation into Hindu and thousands of sick, starving,
Muslim states, Calcutta was and dying people from the
crowded with refugees. streets and given them tender
With no resources, Mother personal care, hand-feeding
Teresa simply walked them a special formula made
through the streets, with from soybeans. In New York
only loving care to give City, they feed the homeless,
to those who had been shop and clean for the elderly
abandoned by society, poor, and care for those with
beggars, lepers, the dying. AIDS.
She wanted to live and During a period of intense
serve the poor like Jesus, claiming nothing for herself, mortar-bombing between Christian and Muslim
not even the security of knowing where she would militia in Beirut, Mother Teresa learned that a home
sleep. She says, “There is but one person in the poor— for sixty spastic children had been stranded without
Jesus. To be able to love him with undivided love we caretakers on the Muslim side of the battle lines.
take a vow of poverty which frees us from all material When she insisted on crossing the lines to get them,
possessions. We bind ourselves to be one of [the the local clergy assured her that it was impossible.
poor], to depend solely on divine providence, to have With utter faith, she said that she had asked the Virgin
nothing, yet possess all things in possessing Christ.”82 to arrange a ceasefire, which did indeed happen the
To assist in this work, Mother Teresa eventually next day, giving her time to rescue the terrified,
received permission to found a new order, the helpless children. Within a day, the children were
Missionaries of Charity. The sisters wore simple white smiling. Mother Teresa said: “The Missionaries do
saris with blue stripes, the colors of the Virgin Mary small things with great love. It is not how much we
and the garment of Indian women; they lived in do, but how much love we put into doing it. To God
poverty, without possessions or grand institutions, there is nothing small. The moment we have given it
to help them understand the poor. In training them to God, it becomes infinite.”
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Worship services and sacraments

Christian worship typically takes place in a church building, which may be
revered as a sacred space. The late nineteenth-century Russian Orthodox saint
Ioann Kronshtadtsky (d. 1908) explained:
Entering the church you enter some special realm which is not like the visible one. In
the world you hear and see everything earthly, transient, fragile, liable to decay, sinful.
In the church you see and hear the heavenly, the non-transient, the eternal, the holy.
A temple is the threshold of heaven. It is like the heaven itself, because here is God’s
throne, the service of angels, the frequent descent of the Holy Spirit. . . . Here everything
from icons to censer and the priests’ robes fills you with veneration and prayer;
everything tells you that you are in God’s shrine, face to face with God himself.83
The word sacrament can be translated as “mystery.” In Roman Catholicism and
Orthodoxy, the sacraments are the sacred rites that are thought capable of trans-
mitting the mystery of Christ to worshippers. Roman Catholic and Eastern
Orthodox Churches observe seven sacraments: baptism (initiation and symbolic
purification from sin by water), confirmation (of membership in the Church),
eucharist (the ritual meal described below), penance (confession and absolution
of sins), extreme unction (anointing of the sick with oil, especially before death),
holy orders (consecration as a deacon, priest, or bishop), and matrimony. In gen-
eral, Protestant Churches recognize only baptism and the eucharist as sacraments
and have a somewhat less mystical understanding of their significance.
The ritual of public worship, or liturgy, usually follows a set pattern, though in
some Churches the actions of the Holy Spirit are thought to inspire spontaneous
expressions of faith.
In most forms of Christianity, the central sacrament is the Holy Eucharist (also
called Holy Communion, mass, or Lord’s Supper). It is a mystery through which
Christianity: the invisible Christ is thought to grant communion with himself. Believers are
Eucharist given a bit of bread to eat, which is received as the body of Christ, and a sip of wine
or grape juice, understood as his blood. The priest or minister may consecrate the
bread and wine in ritual fashion and share them among the people. In Roman
Catholic or Orthodox masses, the cup of wine and the bread are thought to be mys-
tically transformed by the Holy Spirit into the blood and body of Christ. They are
treated with profound reverence. In sharing the communion “meal” together, the
people are united with each other as well as with Christ. The traditional ideal was
to take communion every day and certainly every Sunday (the day set aside as the
Sabbath).
Jesus is pictured in the Bible as having set the pattern for this sacrament at
what is called the Last Supper, the meal he shared with his inner circle before his
capture by the authorities in Jerusalem. The body and blood of Christ are seen as
the spiritual nourishment of the faithful, that which gives them eternal life in the
midst of earthly life.
Mother Julia Gatta, an Anglican priest in Connecticut, describes this sacred
experience from the point of view of the clergy who preside at the liturgy:
To be the celebrant of Eucharist is, I think, the most wonderful experience on earth.
In a sense, you experience the energy flowing both ways. . . . One experiences the
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The sacrament of the

eucharist, celebrated
here in the Philippines,
engages believers in a
communal mystical
encounter with the
presence of Christ.
Spirit in them offering their prayer through Christ to the Father. But at the same
time, you experience God’s love flowing back into them. When I give communion
to people, I am aware that I am caught in that circle of love.84
The partaking of sacred bread and wine is the climax of a longer liturgy of Holy
Communion. The communion service, often called a mass in Catholicism, begins
with liturgical prayers, praise, and confession of sinfulness. A group confession
chanted by some Protestant congregations enumerates these flaws:
Most merciful God, we have sinned against you in thought, word, and deed, by
what we have done and by what we have left undone. We have not loved you with
our whole heart; we have not loved our neighbors as ourselves.85
Catholics were traditionally encouraged to confess their sins privately to a
priest before taking communion, in the sacrament of penance, or “reconcili-
ation.” After hearing the confession, the priest pronounces forgiveness and bless-
ing over the penitent, or perhaps prescribes a penance. Orthodox Christians were
also traditionally expected to spend several days in contrition and fasting before
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receiving communion. The reason for the emphasis on purification is that during
the service the church itself is perceived as the Kingdom of God, in which every-
thing is holy. In Orthodox services, the clergy walk around the church, swinging
an incense censer to set apart the area as a sacred space and to lift the prayers of
the congregants to God.
In all Christian churches, passages from the Old and New Testaments may be read
and the congregation may sing several hymns, songs of praise or thanks-giving to
God. The congregation may be asked to recite a credal statement of Christian beliefs,
and to make money offerings. There may be an address by the priest or minister (called
a sermon or a homily) on the readings for the day. These parts of the liturgy constitute
the Liturgy of the Word, in which Christ is thought to be present as the living Word,
addressing the people through scripture and preaching. In Protestant churches, the
Liturgy of the Word is often offered by itself, without the communion service.
In both Protestantism and Roman Catholicism, there are now attempts at
updating the liturgy to make it more meaningful and personally relevant for con-
temporary Christians. One innovation that seems to have taken hold everywhere
is the “sharing of the peace.” Partway through the worship service, congregants
turn to everyone around them to hug or shake hands and say, “The Peace of
Christ be with you”—“and also with you.”
In addition to regular liturgies and the sacrament of the mass or communion,
there are special events treated in sacred ways. The first to be administered is the
Christianity: sacrament of baptism. Externally, it involves either immersing the person in water
Baptism or, more commonly, pouring sanctified water (representing purification) on the
candidate’s head, while invoking the Holy Trinity. In a recent ecumenical docu-
ment, the World Council of Churches defined the general meaning of the practice:
By baptism, Christians are immersed in the liberating death of Christ where their
sins are buried, where the “old Adam” is crucified with Christ, and where the
power of sin is broken . . . They are raised here and now to a new life in the power
of the resurrection of Jesus Christ.86
Aside from adult converts to Christianity, the rite is usually performed on
infants, with parents taking vows on their behalf. There are arguments that infant
baptism has little basis in the Bible and that a baby cannot make the conscious
repentance of sin and “conversion of heart” implied in the ceremony. Baptists and
several other Protestant groups therefore reserve baptism for adults.
A second ceremony—confirmation—is often offered in early adolescence in
Roman Catholicism and Protestantism. After a period of religious instruction, a
group of young people are allowed to make a conscious and personal commit-
ment to the Christian life.
Some Christians observe special days of fasting. Russian Orthodox Old Believer
priest Father Appolinari explains fasting as a way of soprichiastna, of becoming
part of something very large, the spiritual aura of the Lord. He says,
More and more ordinary people are seeking a comfortable life. More and more we
leave spirituality. We try to fill this vacuum with material things. I told my students
that there was a fast coming up. They groaned, “Why?” I said that we fast for
spiritual reasons. The rule is that you should fast not with a spirit of suffering but
with such elevated spirit that your soul sings.
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When we limit our physicality, as in limiting our food intake, then we grow in
our spirituality. I advise my students to notice whether their brain works better
when their stomach is full or when it is almost empty. Monks refuse physical things
in order to get spiritual benefits. We look at them and see their lives as dark, but for
them, it is light.87
The liturgical year

Just as Christians repeatedly enact their union with Christ through participation
in the eucharist sacrament, Christian churches celebrate a yearly cycle of festivals,
leading the worshipper through the life of Jesus and the gift of the Spirit. As the
faithful repeat this cycle year after year, they hope to enter more deeply into the
mystery of God in Christ, and the whole body of believers in Christ theoretically
grows toward the kingdom of God.
Christmas and Epiphany There are three major events in the church calendar,
each associated with a series of preparatory celebrations. The first is the season of
light: Christmas and Epiphany. Christmas is the celebration of Jesus’s birth on
earth. Epiphany means “manifestation” or “showing forth.” It celebrates the rec-
ognition of Jesus’s spiritual kingship by the three Magi (in the Western Church),
his acknowledgement as the Messiah and the beloved Son of God when he is bap- Young children re-enact
tized by John the Baptist, and his first recognized miracle, the turning of water the Christmas story,
into wine at the wedding in Cana. adoring Jesus as a baby.
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In early Christianity, Epiphany was more important than the celebration of

Jesus’s birth. The actual birth date is unknown, but the setting of the date near
the winter solstice allowed Christianity to take over the older “pagan” rites cele-
brating the return of longer periods of daylight at the darkest time of year. In the
Gospel of John, Jesus is “the true light that enlightens every man,”88 the light of
the divine appearing amid the darkness of human ignorance.
Advent, the month preceding Christmas, is supposed to be a time of joyous
anticipation. But in industrialized countries, it is more likely a time of frenzied
marketing and buying of gifts, symbolizing God’s gift of Jesus to the world.
In some countries churches stage pageants re-enacting the birth story, with
people taking the parts of Mary, Joseph, the innkeeper who has no room, the
shepherds, and the three Magi. Since the nineteenth century, it has been tra-
ditional to cut or buy an evergreen tree (a symbol of eternal life, perhaps bor-
rowed from indigenous ceremonies) and erect it in one’s house, decorated with
lights and ornaments. On Christmas Eve some Christians gather for a candlelit
“watch-night” service, welcoming the turn from midnight to a new day in which
Christ has come into the world. On Christmas Day, Catholic and Protestant chil-
dren are sometimes told that presents have been magically brought by St.
Nicholas, a fourth-century bishop noted for his great generosity. The exchange of
gifts may be followed by a great feast.
Easter In terms of religious significance, the most important event of the

Christian liturgical year is Easter. This is the commemoration of Jesus’s death (on
“Good Friday”) and resurrection (on Easter Sunday, which falls in the spring but
is celebrated at different times by the Eastern and Western Churches). Like
Christmas, Easter is a continuation of earlier rites—those associated with the
vernal (spring) equinox, celebrating the regeneration of plant life and the return
of warm weather after the cold death of winter. It is also related to Pesach, the
Hebrew Passover, the Jewish spring feast of deliverance.
Liturgically, Easter is preceded by a forty-day period of repentance and fasting,
called Lent. Many Christians perform acts of asceticism, prayer, and charity, to
join in Jesus’s greater sacrifice. In the Orthodox Church, the last Sunday before
Lent is dedicated to asking forgiveness. People request forgiveness from each
other, bowing deeply. In the West, Lent begins with Ash Wednesday, when many
Christians have ash smudges placed on their foreheads by a priest who says,
“Remember, man, thou art dust and unto dust thou shalt return.” On the Sunday
before Easter, Jesus’s triumphal entry into Jerusalem is honored by the waving of
palm or willow branches in churches and the proclaiming of Hosannas. His death
is mourned on “Good Friday.” The mourning is jubilantly ended on Easter
Sunday, with shouts of “Christ is risen!”
In Russia, the Great Vigil welcoming Easter morning lasts from midnight until
dawn, with the people standing the entire time. Jim Forest describes such a serv-
ice in a church in Kiev, with 2,000 people crowding into the building and as many
more standing outside:
The dean went out the royal doors into the congregation and sang out, “Christos
Voskresye!” [Christ is risen!] Everyone responded in one voice, “Veyeastino
voskresye!” [Truly he is risen!] It is impossible to put on paper how this sounds
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in the dead of night in a church overheated by crowds of people and hundreds

of candles. It is like a shudder in the earth, the cracking open of the tomb. Then
there was an explosion of ringing bells.89
Pentecost Fifty days after the Jewish Passover (which Jesus is thought to have
been celebrating at the Last Supper with his disciples) comes the Jewish cel-
ebration Shavuot (which commemorates the giving of the Torah to Moses, as well
as the first fruits of the harvest). Jews nicknamed it Pentecost, which is Greek for
“fiftieth.” Christians took over the holiday but gave it an entirely different mean-
ing.
In Christianity, Pentecost commemorates the occasion described in Acts when
the Holy Spirit descended upon the disciples after Jesus’s death and resurrection,
filling them with the Spirit’s own life and power and enabling them to speak in
foreign tongues they had not known. In early Christianity, Pentecost was an
occasion for baptisms of those who had been preparing for admission to the
Church.
The Transfiguration and Assumption Some Christian Churches also emphasize

two other special feast days. On August 6, people honor the Transfiguration of Jesus
on the mountain, revealing his supernatural radiance. On August 15, they celebrate
the Assumption of Mary, known as “The Falling Asleep of the Mother of God.”
These feasts are prominent in the Eastern Church, which generally places more
emphasis on the ability of humanity to break out of its earthly bonds and rise into
the light, than on the heaviness and darkness of sin.
Contemplative prayer
The contemplative tradition within Christianity is beginning to re-emerge. The
hectic pace and rapid change of modern life make periods of quietness essential,
if only for stress relief. Many Christians, not aware of a contemplative way
within their own Church, have turned to Eastern religions for instruction in
meditation.
One of the most influential twentieth-century Christian contemplatives was
the late Thomas Merton (1915–1968). He was a Trappist monk who received a
special dispensation to live as a hermit in the woods near his abbey in Kentucky.
Merton lived simply in nature, finding joy in the commonplace, experienced
attentively in silence. He studied and tried to practice the great contemplative tra-
ditions of earlier Christianity and reintroduced them to a contemporary audience
through his writings. In meditative “prayer of the heart,” or “contemplative
prayer,” he wrote:
We seek first of all the deepest ground of our identity in God. We do not reason
about dogmas of faith, or “the mysteries.” We seek rather to gain a direct existential
grasp, a personal experience of the deepest truths of life and faith, finding ourselves
in God’s truths. . . . Prayer then means yearning for the simple presence of God, for
a personal understanding of his word, for knowledge of his will and for capacity to
hear and obey him.90
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The Christian monk

Thomas Merton and
the Tibetan Buddhist
Dalai Lama, two great
ecumenical figures of the
20th century, met shortly
before Merton died in
1968 during his trip to
visit the monks of the
Eastern traditions.
Before he became a Christian monk, Merton had studied Eastern mysticism,

assuming that Christianity had no mystical tradition. He became friends with a
Hindu monk who advised him to read St. Augustine’s Confessions and The Imitation
of Christ. These classic works led Merton toward a deep appreciation of the poten-
tial of the Christian inner life, aligned with a continuing openness to learn from
Eastern monasticism. He died in an accident while in Asia visiting Buddhist and
Hindu monastics.
Spiritual renewal through inner silence has become an important part of some
Christians’ practice of their faith. Syrian Orthodox Bishop Paulos Mar Gregorios
of India, past-President of the World Council of Churches, concluded from the
Bible evidence that Jesus himself was a contemplative:
Christ spent seventy percent of his whole life in meditation. He would sleep rarely.
All day he gave himself to healing the sick. At night he would pray, sometimes all
night. He was not seeking his own self-realization. His meditation and prayer were
not for himself but for the world—for every human being. He held the world in
his consciousness through prayer, not with attachment but with compassion. He
groaned and he suffered with humanity. To follow Jesus in the way of the cross
means to say, “I lay aside all personal ambition and dedicate myself to God: ‘Here
I am, God. I belong to you. I have no idea where to go. It matters not what I am, so
long as You lead me.’”91
A form of Christian meditation instituted by the Franciscans and still practiced
in many Catholic and Anglican churches is the Stations of the Cross. These are
fourteen plaques or paintings placed on the walls of the church depicting scenes
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from the death of Jesus. As one sees him taking up the cross, falling three times
under its weight, being stripped of his clothes and being nailed to the cross, one
becomes painfully and humbly aware of the suffering that God’s Son experienced
in manifesting as a human redeemer.
Contemplation of the humanness of Jesus is used to help believers identify
with him and thence to aspire to his divine model. Theology professor and spiri-
tual director Kathleen Dugan says that when she teaches devotions on the deep
humanity of Jesus:
my students have difficulty assimilating it. “You mean to say that he felt sorrow like
I do?” “Yes.” “That he cried?” “Yes.” “That he felt joy?” “Yes.” The Gospel
examples show that he wept before Lazarus’s tomb. He wept at the sorrow of
Martha and Mary over their brother. He rejoiced with the couple that were being
married at the wedding of Cana. He felt terrible isolation; so many things in the
Gospels speak of that. He said on the cross, “My God, my God, why have you
forsaken me?” There is no human emotion that he did not experience. He did suffer.
Crucifixion was a long, lingering death, with great agony. Jesus is our brother, our
spouse, our son. When students think about these things, it is often transforming.
Here is a living, breathing image of what it means to be God. We are called to
imitate the saints, but primarily we are called to imitate Jesus.92
In Orthodoxy, the central contemplative practice is repetition of the Jesus
Prayer: “Lord Jesus Christ, have mercy on me” (and some add, “a sinner”).
Eventually its meaning imbeds itself in the heart and one lives in a state of
unceasing prayer. An unknown nineteenth-century Russian peasant who lived
with continual repetition of the Jesus Prayer described its results:
The sweetness of the heart, warmth and light, unspeakable rapture, joy, ease,
profound peace, blessedness, and love of life are all the result of prayer of the
heart.93
Devotion to Mary
Thus far in this chapter, little has been said about Mary, the mother of Jesus, for
she has not been in the forefront of historical theological disputes. Veneration of
Mary has come as much from the grassroots as from the top. Drawings of her
were found in the catacombs in which the early Christians met; explicit devotion
to her was well developed by the third or fourth century CE. Despite the absence
of detailed historical information, she serves as a potent and much-loved spiritual
symbol. She is particularly venerated by Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodoxy,
and Anglicans.
Some researchers feel that devotion to Mary is derived from earlier worship of the
Mother Goddess. They see her as representing the feminine aspect of the Godhead.
She is associated with the crescent moon, representing the receptive willingness to be
filled with the Spirit. In the story of the Annunciation—the appearance of an angel
who told her she would have a child conceived by the Holy Spirit—her reported
response was “Behold, I am the handmaid of the Lord; let it be to me according to
your word.”94 This receptivity is not seen as utter powerlessness, however. Mary, like
Christ, embodies the basic Christian paradox: that power is found in “weakness.”
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Whether or not devotion to Mary is linked to earlier

Mother Goddess worship, oral Christian traditions have
given her new symbolic roles. One links her with Israel,
which is referred to as the daughter of Zion or daughter of
Jerusalem in Old Testament passages. God comes to her as
the overshadowing of the Holy Spirit, and from this love
between YHWH and Israel, Jesus is born to save the people
of Israel.
Mary is also called the New Eve. The legendary first Eve
disobeyed God and was cast out of the Garden of Eden;
Mary’s willing submission to God allows birth of the new
creation, in which Christ is in all.
In the Orthodox and Catholic traditions, she is referred to
as the Mother of God. In Russia, she is also revered as the
protectress of all humanity, and especially of the Russian
people. Before he died on the cross, Jesus is said to have
told John, the beloved disciple, that thenceforth Mary was
to be his Mother. The story is interpreted as meaning that
thenceforth all humanity was adopted by Mary.
Another symbolic role ascribed to Mary is that of the
immaculate virgin. According to the gospels of Matthew
and Luke, she conceived Jesus by heavenly intervention
The Virgin of rather than human biology. Roman Catholicism asserts that at the Immaculate
Guadalupe, who Conception, she herself was conceived without any of the “original sin” exhibited
reportedly appeared in
the 16th century to an by the rest of humanity. Even in giving birth to Jesus, she remained a virgin.
indigenous convert to Orthodoxy does not insist on these doctrines, nor on the Catholic dogma that
Catholicism, speaking Mary ascended bodily to heaven after her physical death. The emphasis on vir-
the native language ginity is a spiritual sign of being dedicated to God alone, rather than to any tem-
Nahuatl, has been poral attachments.
embraced as patron
saint of the Americas. According to the faithful, Mary is not just a symbol but a living presence, like
Christ. She is appealed to in prayer and is honored in countless paintings, statues,
shrines, and churches dedicated to her name. Catholics are enjoined to repeat the
“Hail Mary” prayer:
Hail, Mary, full of grace, the Lord is with thee. Blessed art thou among women,
and blessed is the fruit of thy womb, Jesus. Holy Mary, Mother of God, pray for
us sinners, now and at the hour of our death.
Theologians point out that veneration of Mary is really directed toward God;
Mary is not worshipped in herself but as the mother of Christ, reflecting his glory.
If this were not so, Christians could be accused of idolatry.
Be this as it may, Mary has been said to appear to believers in many places
around the world. At Lourdes, in France, it is claimed that she appeared repeat-
edly to a young peasant girl named Bernadette in the nineteenth century. A
spring found where she indicated has been the source of hundreds of medically
authenticated healings from seemingly incurable diseases. In 1531, in Guadalupe
(within what is now Mexico City), Mary appeared to a converted Aztec, Juan
Diego. She asked him to have the bishop build a church on the spot. To convince
the sceptical bishop, Juan filled his cloak with the out-of-season roses to which
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she directed him. When he opened the cloak before the bishop, the petals fell
away to reveal a large and vivid image of Mary, with Indian features. The picture
is now enshrined in a large new church with moving walkways to handle the
crowds who come to see it, and the Virgin of Guadalupe has been declared
Celestial Patroness of the New World.
Sightings of Mary continue around the world. What are perceived as her eth-
ereal images have drawn crowds to worship before a large office window in
Florida, before a closed church in eastern Europe, and at a site where she report-
edly appeared two decades ago in Vietnam. In Mexico, her image is said to be seen
frequently, miraculously manifesting in everything from dented car fenders and
stovetops to garlic and fruits. In 1997, crowds worshipping what appeared to be
the apparition of Mary on the floor of a Mexico City metro station became so
thick that the authorities had to remove that section of the floor and place it out-
side in a shrine. Surrounded by blue tiles, the image—which sceptical officials
refer to as a stain from a leaking pipe beneath the floor—was ceremonially blessed
by a priest and draws queues of people who reverently touch and pray before it.
Such is the perennial appeal of the holy mother.
Veneration of saints and angels

Roman Catholics and Orthodox Christians honor their spiritual heroes as saints.
These are men and women who are recognized as so holy that the divine life of
Christ is particularly evident in them. After their death, they are carefully judged
by the Church for proofs of exalted Christian virtue, such as tolerance under
extreme provocation, and of miraculous power. Those who are canonized by this
process are subject to great veneration.
Each saint is a unique event, a victory over the force of evil. So many blessings can
pour from God into the world through one life.
Father Germann, Vladimir, Russia 95
Orthodox Christians are given the name of a saint when they are baptized.
Each keeps an icon of this patron saint in his or her room and prays to the saint
daily. Icons of many saints fill an Orthodox church, helping to make them fam-
iliar presences rather than names in history books. Saints are often known as
having special areas of concern and power. For instance, St. Anthony of Padua is
invoked for help in finding lost things. Relics, usually parts of the body or
clothes of saints, are felt to radiate the holiness of the saints’ communion with
God. They are treasured and displayed for veneration in Catholic and Orthodox
churches. It is said that saints’ physical bodies were so transformed by divine
light that they do not decay after death, and continue to emit a sweet fragrance.
Roman Catholics and Orthodox Christians also pray to the angels for protec-
tion. Angels are understood as spiritual beings who serve as messengers from and
adoring servants of God. They are usually pictured as humans with wings.
In popular piety, each person is thought to have a guardian angel for individual
protection and spiritual help.
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The lives of saints are

considered inspiring
models of devotion. Here
Carmelite nuns in
California view the relics
of the beloved young
nineteenth-century
French nun, St. Therese
of Lisieux (“The Little
Flower”), which were
taken on a worldwide
tour.
Contemporary trends
The year 2000 was the subject of major celebrations around the world, as the
beginning of the third millennium since the birth of Jesus. At this time,
Christianity is gaining membership and enthusiastic participation in some
quarters and losing ground in others.
The fall of communism in the former Soviet Union and its satellites has
brought reopening and renovation of many churches and a renewed interest in
spirituality throughout that large area. Orthodox Christianity has also received a
boost from the activist approach of Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew,
Archbishop of Constantinople, whose position makes him the leading voice in
Orthodoxy. He is known as the “Green Patriarch” for his environmental activism,
and has also taken an active role in improving Orthodox relations with Roman
Catholics and Protestants, and in conflict resolution in areas where people of dif-
ferent religions are at war with each other.
In Egypt, Orthodox Coptic Christians, heirs to the ancient tradition of the
Desert Fathers, have long been submerged under Muslim rule, but the monas-
teries have begun to flourish again. The 16 million Coptic Christians have their
own pope.
Roman Catholicism is experiencing divisions between conservatives and liber-
als. After the liberal tendencies of Vatican II, Pope John Paul II reaffirmed certain
traditional stands and strengthened the position of the right wing of the Church.
In a 1995 encyclical, he emphatically insisted upon what he called the fundamen-
tal right to human life as opposed to the “culture of death,” condemning abortion
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and euthanasia as “crimes which no human law can claim to legitimize” and con-
demning the death penalty.96 In 2000, Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, head of the
Vatican’s highly conservative Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith (the suc-
cessor to the Inquisition), delivered “Dominus Jesu,” a thirty-six-page document
proclaiming, “There exists a single Church of Christ, which subsists in the
Catholic Church,” which has been entrusted with “the fullness of grace and
truth.” Other Christian communities “are not churches in the proper sense” and
non-Christians are in a “gravely deficient situation” with regard to salvation.97
Despite his conservative stances, Pope John Paul II uses the latest technologies,
including a major Internet website, to spread his messages. He also travels exten-
sively, urging a return to traditional family values. In 1998 the world was stunned
to see his tremendous welcome in Cuba, which had been officially atheist for two
decades and then neutrally secular since 1991. The Young Communist League
encouraged its half a million members to see the pope in Havana, in order to “hear
the message of a man of great talent and culture who is concerned about the most
pressing problems of modern humanity.”98
On a special “Day of Forgiveness” held during the Lenten season in the mil-
lennial year of 2000, Pope John Paul II delivered a statement asking forgiveness
for the past sins of the Roman Catholic Church, including its treatment of Jews,
other Christians, other religions, women, ethnic groups, indigenous peoples,
and heretics. “For the role that each of us has had, with his behaviour, in these
evils, contributing to a disfigurement of the face of the Church, we humbly ask
forgiveness,” he said. Pope John Paul II also took a strong public stance opposing
the American-led attack on Iraq in 2003 and expressing solidarity with the people
of Iraq.
In spite of the public attention paid to the pope as a person, the priesthood is
dwindling considerably in most Western countries, partly because of the require-
ment that Catholic priests be celibate. In recent years, revelations of sexual abuses
by some priests of their parishioners—often innocent children—have rocked
people’s confidence in the priesthood. By early 2003, some 1,200 priests in the
United States had been accused of sexual abuse, and the actual number may be
greater. In the process of these revelations, the cardinal in Boston who allowed
known sex offenders to continue as priests, merely transferring them to different
parishes, had to resign his position in 2002. American bishops are trying to repair
the damage by declaring “zero tolerance” for such behaviors, but at the same
time, they have refused to deny the Catholic tradition of expecting priests to be
celibate males. Catholic theologian Father Joe Mannath explains the potential for
good or bad in the institutionalized celibacy of Catholic priests, monks, and nuns:
The Catholic Church has the largest body of full-time, life-long celibates, a veritable
force for doing good, if love is the fuel behind our celibate commitment. Our
structures, rules and routine can be used in the service of love, if we are men and
women of inner freedom, who have found meaning and joy, who radiate
enthusiasm and transparent goodness. In the hands of unloving or power-hungry
(or sexually frustrated) men and women, these same structures and rules can
become instruments of oppression. Celibates can be the most loving of people or the
most cruel. History carries examples of both. If not “maintained” (like a good road)
as a channel of God’s love, celibacy degenerates to a barren state of being merely
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Televised evangelism on unmarried. Then, our unhealthy drives will easily take over, undeterred by the
America’s Memorial balancing elements of family love and care of children. Power, jealousy, pleasure
Day, from the Crystal and superficiality can take the place of what love was meant to fill.99
Cathedral, California.
There is increased interest in participation by women (who are not allowed by
the Vatican to be priests), and widespread disregard of papal prohibitions on effec-
tive birth control, abortion, test-tube conception, surrogate motherhood, genetic
experimentation, divorce, and homosexuality.
While cautioning against a recreational view of sexuality, Sean McDonagh SSC
emphasizes that the environmental and social consequences of unlimited popu-
lation growth require a rethinking of the traditional Catholic ban on birth control:
The pro-life argument needs to be seen within the widest context of the fragility of
the living world. Is it really pro-life to ignore the warnings of demographers and
ecologists who predict that unbridled population growth will lead to severe hardship
and an increase in the infant mortality rate for succeeding generations? Is it pro-life
to allow the extinction of hundreds of thousands of living species which will
ultimately affect the well-being of all future generations on the planet? 100
The Vatican has responded to these trends by insisting on the value of tradition
and authority. But many American Catholic leaders are concerned that, in the
words of Father Frank McNulty of Newark, New Jersey, “people often do not per-
ceive the church as proclaiming integral truth and divine mercy, but rather as
sounding harsh, demanding.”101 Acting as a group, Roman Catholic bishops in the
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United States have issued statements deploring sexism as a “sin” (recommending

that spiritual positions of responsibility and authority be opened to women and
that non-sexist language be used in liturgy), supporting peace efforts, and insist-
ing on the morality of economic social justice.
In Protestantism, traditional denominations in Europe and the United States
are declining in membership. According to a Gallup poll, only a minority of the
“unchurched” actually disagree with their denomination’s teachings. They are
more likely to drop away because of apathy, a lack of services, or a lack of wel-
come on the part of the minister. In the Anglican Church, the new Archbishop
of Canterbury, Rowan Williams, is waking people out of apathy by his contro-
versial actions, such as his support for the appointment of a homosexual bishop
in New Hampshire. Opposition to this move has been so strong in Africa and
other non-Western parts of the Anglican Church that some fear that it may divide
the global Anglican Communion, which encompasses 79 million people.
Although many traditional Christian churches are losing members, other
groups and trends are taking vigorous root. These include evangelical and charis-
matic groups, non-Western Christian churches, liberation theology, feminist the-
ology, creation-centered Christianity, and the ecumenical movement.
Evangelicalism
To evangelize is to preach the Christian gospel and convert people to Christianity.
Evangelical theology, with its emphasis on experiencing the grace of God, has
been important throughout the history of American Protestantism. The current
evangelical movement has its roots in the fundamentalist–modernist controversy
of the early twentieth century.
The fundamentalists were reacting against the liberal or modern movement in
Christianity that sought to reconcile science and religion and to use historical and
archaeological data to understand the Bible. This movement had an optimistic
view of human nature and stressed reason, free will, and self-determination. In
response, a group of Christians called for a return to the “fundamentals” which
they identified as (1) the inspiration and authority of scripture (and sometimes its
inerrancy); (2) an emphasis on the virgin birth of Christ and other miracles; (3)
the deity of Christ and the bodily resurrection as a literal historical event; (4)
Christ’s atoning and substitutionary death; and (5) an emphasis on the literal and
imminent second coming of Christ. The controversy between these two groups
received its most famous public expression in the Scopes trial in 1925 when John
Thomas Scopes, a high school teacher in Tennessee, challenged a state law for-
bidding the teaching of Darwin’s theory of evolution in schools.
Beginning in the 1930s and with waves of enthusiasm in the 1950s and late
twentieth century, heirs of this movement, who can broadly be called “evangeli-
cals,” have become a vigorous movement in many Protestant denominations.
Evangelicals study the Bible together and value being “born again” in Christ.
They vary from conservative to liberal on other theological and ethical issues
(such as the literal interpretation of the Bible and involvement in social issues
such as peace movements and the alleviation of poverty).
Evangelicals’ messages now enjoy widespread visibility through international
electronic media. Television programs relayed around the world by communication
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satellites and Internet websites offer enthusiastic preaching, videotapes, audio-

tapes, CDs, and books, prayers for those in need, and the inevitable appeals for
financial contributions to support these huge organizations, each centered on a
charismatic speaker.
On the ground, evangelicalism is also making great strides in South America,
in areas that were largely Roman Catholic as a result of colonization by Spain
centuries ago. In the early 1990s, an average of five evangelical churches were
being established each week in Rio de Janeiro, most of them in the slum areas,
offering food, job training, day care, and perhaps conversion to the very poor.
Charismatics
Overlapping somewhat with the evangelical surge, there is a rising emphasis on
charismatic experience—that is, divinely inspired powers—among Christians of
The Pentecostalist- all classes and nations. While Christian fundamentalists stress the historical Jesus,
charismatic movement charismatics feel they have also been touched by the “third person” of the Trinity,
has brought spontaneous the Holy Spirit. These include members of Protestant Pentecostal churches but
spiritual expressiveness also Roman Catholics, members of mainline Protestant denominations, and
into previously Orthodox churches who are caught up in a widespread contemporary spiritual
restrained cultures, such
as this congregation in renewal that harkens back to the biblical descent of the Holy Spirit upon the dis-
Kent, England. ciples of Jesus, firing them with spiritual powers and faith.
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Mainstream Christian churches, which have often rejected emotional spiritual

experience in favor of a more orderly piety, are gradually becoming more toler-
ant of it. Among Roman Catholics the movement is often called “Charismatic
Renewal,” for it claims to bring true life in the Spirit back to Christianity. By broad
definition, up to one-fourth of all Christians today could be considered members
of this Pentecostal-charismatic movement.102
Under the alleged influence of the Spirit, Pentecostalist-charismatics stand and
gesture as they lovingly sing praises of Jesus and God, speak in tongues, pray and
utter praises, spontaneously heal by the laying on of hands and prayer, and bear
witness to spiritual miracles. Spontaneous spiritual gestures are especially preva-
lent at large renewal sites. A reporter witnessing the gathering of 5,300 people at
the Toronto Airport Christian Fellowship described the following scene:
The ballroom carpets were littered with fallen bodies, bodies of seemingly straightlaced
men and women who felt themselves moved by the phenomenon they say is the Holy
Spirit. So moved, they howled with joy or the release of some buried pain. They collapsed,
some rigid as corpses, some convulsed in hysterical laughter. From room to room come
barnyard cries, calls heard only in the wild, grunts so deep women recalled the sounds of
childbirth, while some men and women adopted the very position of childbirth. Men did
chicken walks. Women jabbed their fingers as if afflicted with nervous disorders. And
around these scenes of bedlam, were loving arms to catch the falling, smiling faces,
whispered prayers of encouragement, instructions to release, to let go.103
Speaking of the descent of the Holy Spirit, Roman Bilas, Moscow head of the
Union of Pentecostal Christians of Evangelical Faith, says passionately,
This moment when you really feel God’s power in yourself brings so much peace
and joy within you. It transforms you and society. There comes a sense of total
forgiveness for your sins, and the ability in you to forgive others. At that moment,
you start to speak in different languages, maybe such that no one can understand.
We may also receive the gift of prophecy. . . . We check to see if the message is
consistent with the Bible. If it is, then we will listen. Otherwise, the person is told
not to speak publicly because he would create confusion in the Church.
The main thing is that the person should be filled with God’s Power. A nice-
looking car will not move unless it is fueled. God’s Power will only fill those who
are pure. That is why in the early Church people went into the wilderness to fast
and repent. Then God could fill them with His Power. Each sermon should have
this Power of God; then the people will really listen and repent of their sins.104
Cultural broadening
Although contemporary Christianity was largely shaped in Europe and its North
American colonies, the largest percentage of the Christian Church now lies outside
these areas. It has great numerical strength and vigor in Africa, Latin America, and
parts of Asia and its strength in these areas may change the face of Christianity. Some
signs of the times: instead of the old pattern in which the West sent missionaries to
spread Christianity to Asia, Africa, and South America, congregations in those areas
are now being asked to send volunteers to the West to help spread the gospel in new
missionary efforts there. Catholic prayer requests are now being “outsourced”
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through the Vatican to India from the United States, Canada, and Europe, where there
are not enough clergy to handle the requests. Churches in Europe are becoming empty
of worshippers as the people become more and more secular in their approach to life.
Christianity remains relatively vigorous in the United States, primarily because
of the growth of evangelical and charismatic churches and a linking of funda-
mentalist Christianity with right-wing political claims to patriotism and a defense
of traditional American values. By contrast, some of the most active remnants of
Christianity in Europe are involved in peace and reconciliation movements and,
like many other Christian denominations in the United States, tried to oppose the
US-led attack on Iraq. Not only in the United States but around the globe, many
fundamentalists feel they are fighting a cultural war against liberalism, secular-
ism, and materialism—within as well as beyond Christianity. Spiritually diverse,
Christianity is also politically and culturally diverse.
When Western missionaries spread Christianity to other regions, they often
assumed that European ways were culturally superior to the indigenous ways and
peoples. But some of these newer Christians have come to different conclusions.
Theologians of the African Independent Churches, for instance, reject the historical
missionary efforts to divorce them from their traditions of honoring their ancestors.
This effort tore apart their social structure, they feel, with no scriptural justification:
As we became more acquainted with the Bible, we began to realise that there was
nothing at all in the Bible about the European customs and Western traditions that we
had been taught. What, then was so holy and sacred about this culture and this so-called
civilisation that had been imposed upon us and was now destroying us? Why could we
not maintain our African customs and be perfectly good Christians at the same time? . . .
We have learnt to make a very clear distinction between culture and religion. . . .
[For instance], the natural customs of any particular nation or race must never be
confused with the grace of Jesus Christ our Saviour, Redeemer and Liberator.105
Contemporary perceptions of Jesus have been deeply enriched by those from
the inhabitants of poor Third World countries who have brought personal under-
standing of Jesus’s ministry to the outcasts and downtrodden. In Asia, where
Christians are usually in the minority, there is an emphasis on a Christ who is
present in the whole cosmos and who calls all people to sit at a common table to
partake of his generous love. In Latin America, Jesus is viewed as the liberator of
the people from political and social oppression, from dehumanization, and from
sin. In Africa, the African Independent Churches have brought indigenous tra-
ditions of drumming, dancing, and singing into community worship of a Jesus
who is seen as the greatest of ancestors—a mediator carrying prayers and offer-
ings between humans and the divine, and watchful caretaker of the people.
Liberation theology
Although many Christians make a distinction between the sacred and the secu-
lar, some have involved themselves deeply with social issues as an expression of
their Christian faith. For instance, the Baptist preacher, Martin Luther King, Jr.
Christianity: (1929–1968), became a great civil rights leader, declaring: “It was Jesus of
Martin Luther King, Nazareth that stirred the Negroes to protest with the creative weapon of love.”106
Jr. This trend is now called liberation theology, a faith that stresses the need for
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Roman Catholic
procession of the
eucharist, including
veneration of Mary,
mother of Jesus, in a
Kunama village,
Eritrea, Africa.
concrete political action to help the poor. Beginning in the 1960s with Vatican II
and the conference of Latin American bishops in Colombia in 1968, Roman
Catholic priests and nuns in Latin America began to make conscious, voluntary
efforts to understand and side with the poor in their struggles for social justice. A
biblical basis for this approach is found in the Acts of the Apostles:
The group of believers was one in mind and heart. No one said that any of his
belongings was his own, but they all shared with one another everything they
had. . . . There was no one in the group who was in need. Those who owned fields
or houses would sell them, bring the money received from the sale and turn it over
to the apostles; and the money was distributed to each one according to his need.107
The Peruvian theologian Gustavo Gutierrez (b. 1928), who coined the expression
“theology of liberation,” explains the choice of voluntary poverty as:
a commitment of solidarity with the poor, with those who suffer misery and
injustice. . . . It is not a question of idealizing poverty, but rather of taking it on
as it is—an evil—to protest against it and to struggle to abolish it.108
For their sympathetic siding with those who are oppressed, Catholic clergy
have been murdered by political authorities in countries such as Guatemala. They
have also been strongly criticized by conservatives within the Vatican. Cardinal
Ratzinger, who heads the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, has decried
liberation theology. He says that it inappropriately emphasizes liberation from
material poverty rather than liberation from sin. The movement has nevertheless
spread to all areas where there is social injustice. Bakole Wa Ilunga, Archbishop
of Kananga, the Democratic Republic of Congo (formerly Zaire), reminds
Christians that Jesus warned the rich and powerful that it would be very difficult
for them to enter the kingdom of heaven. By contrast, writes Ilunga:
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For liberation
theologians, the message
of the gospel often entails
down-to-earth physical
help to the poor.
Maryknoll lay sisters
Norma Jejia, Julia
Mamani, and Delia
Gamboa are here
lending a hand to the
families of a Peruvian
barrio.
Jesus liberates the poor from the feeling that they are somehow less than fully
human; he makes them aware of their dignity and gives them motives for
struggling against their lot and for taking control of their own lives.109
Taking control is not easy for those who are oppressed minorities. In the
United States, the church offers the large African-American community of
Christians a way of developing an alternative reality in the midst of poverty,
urban violence, and discrimination. As theologian Dwight Hopkins observes,
The black community has a long tradition of practicing faith as a total way of life.
. . . Within worship, especially, the church is noted for its uplifting preaching, singing,
shouting, dancing, and recognition of individual achievements and pain.
. . . The rituals of individual healing and celebration serve to recharge the worshipers’
energy to deal with the rigors and racism of a ‘cruel, cruel world’ from Monday through
Saturday. . . . In addition, the church has functioned as the practical organizing center of
all major aspects of group life. . . . Truly, black faith is public talk about God and the
human struggle for a holistic salvation, liberation, and the practice of freedom.110
The practical activities of the Black Church range from building shelters and
arranging jobs to treatment for addiction, campaigns against police brutality,
voter registration drives, and leadership training. Even without social empower-
ment, people often feel inwardly empowered and cherished by the presence of
Jesus in their lives.
Despite the vibrancy of the liberation theology movement, racism has not been
eradicated in Christianity. Pioneering Black theologian James H. Cone proclaims
that it is time to end the silence over this issue. Rather, he claims, “The challenge for
Black theology in the twenty-first century is to develop an enduring race critique
that is so comprehensively woven into Christian understanding that no one will be
able to forget the horrible crimes of white supremacy in the modern world.”111
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RELIGION IN PUBLIC LIFE
Archbishop Desmond M. Tutu

During the years of struggle against apartheid in As followers of that God we too must be politically
South Africa, one voice that refused to be silenced engaged. We need inner resources, however, in
was that of the Anglican Archbishop of Cape Town, order to face the political demands of our time.114
Desmond Mpilo Tutu (b. 1931). Afterward, he
served his country as Chairperson of the Truth and How has Archbishop Tutu developed his inner
Reconciliation Commission, “looking a beast resources? Through meditation, prayer, and
in the eye” to investigate abuses from all fasting. He observes the traditional daily
sides that were perpetrated during the devotions of the Anglican Church, always
apartheid era. In this capacity, he still starts meetings with prayer, and annually
refused to mute his criticisms of those takes a long spiritual retreat. He regularly
wielding power, no matter what their race prays for others, and many are also
and stature. In 1995 he proclaimed, praying for him; he asserts that
intercessory prayer has practical effects.
The so-called ordinary people, God’s His spiritual confessor, Francis Cull,
favourites, are sick and tired of corruption, describes Archbishop Tutu’s inner life as
repression, injustice, poverty, disease and the rooted in the Benedictine monastic
violation of their human rights. They are crying discipline that underlies Anglican spirituality.
out “enough is enough!” It is exhilarating when He explains:
you are able to say to dictators everywhere: You
have had it! You have had it! This is God’s world As I ponder on the prayer life of Desmond Tutu I
and you will bite the dust! They think it will not see the three fundamental Benedictine demands
happen but it does, and they bite the dust that there shall be: rest, prayer, and work and in
comprehensively and ignominiously. that order. It is a remarkable fact, and it is one
‘We will want to continue to be the voice of the reason at least why he has been able to sustain the
voiceless. It is the role of the church to be the burdens he has carried, that he has within him a
conscience of society.112 stillness and a need for quiet solitude. . . . The
“rest” of which St. Benedict speaks is not a mere
The “Arch’s” fearless stance on behalf of truth and switching off; it is a positive attempt to fulfill the
justice for the oppressed earned him the Nobel age-old command to rest in God. . . . The pattern of
Peace Prize in 1984. He confronted not only those Jesus which he follows here: “Come apart and rest
in power but also those who sought change awhile,” is an urgent need for all those who are
through violence and those in the Church who caught up in the busyness of church and world.115
witnessed the horrors of apartheid but kept silent.
He explains, “Our task is to be agents of the Desmond Tutu himself insists that spiritual practice
Kingdom of God, and this sometimes requires us to is essential in order to know and follow the will of
say unpopular things.”113 God:
The former archbishop feels that faith requires
God’s will has to do with what is right, just, decent
one to be actively engaged in politics because
and healing of the wounds of society. To know
government affects the people, but at the same
what this means we need to cleanse ourselves of
time to remain independent of political factionalism
ourselves—of our fears, greed, ambitions and
in order to freely stand for truth. He says of the
personal desires. . . . We must be vigilant in
link between religion and politics:
ensuring that the good that is within all people
Faith is a highly political thing. At the centre of all triumphs over the evil that is also there. . . . We
that we believe as Christians is the incarnation— must commit ourselves to tell the truth. We must
the participation of God in the affairs of this world. identify evil wherever we see it.116
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356 CHRISTIANITY
Feminist theology
The issue of taking control of one’s life and defining one’s identity has also been
taken up by feminists within the Christian Church. The Church institution has
historically been dominated by men, although there is strong evidence that Jesus
had active women disciples and that there were women leaders in the early
churches. Reconstructing their history in the early Christian movement and the
effects of patriarchical domination is a task being addressed by considerable in-
depth scholarship at present. The effect of the apostle Paul in shaping attitudes
toward women as he guided the developing Christian communities is one area of
particular concern. Some of the statements attributed to him in the biblical
Epistles seem oppressive to women; some seem egalitarian. He argues, for
example, that men should pray or prophesy with their head uncovered but that
women should either wear a veil or have their hair cut off:
For a man ought not to have his head veiled, since he is the image and reflection
of God; but woman is the reflection of man. Indeed, man was not made from
woman, but woman from man. Neither was man created for the sake of woman,
but woman for the sake of man. . . . Nevertheless, in the Lord woman is not
independent of man or man independent of woman. For just as woman came
from man, so man comes through woman; but all things come from God.117
Many contemporary scholars are trying to sort out the cultural and historical as
well as the theological contexts of such statements. Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza,
for example, explains:
In Bristol, England,
newly ordained priest
Reverend Susan Shipp
blesses the sacramental
offerings of bread and
wine during her first
service.
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CHRISTIANITY 357
I argue that women were not marginal in the earliest beginnings of Christianity;
rather, biblical texts and historical sources produce the marginality of women.
Hence texts must be interrogated not only as to what they say about women but
also how they construct what they say or do not say.118
Another area of feminist theological scholarship is the role models for women
offered by the Bible. A central female figure in the New Testament is Mary,
mother of Jesus. Ivone Gebara and Maria Clara Bingemer of Brazil look at Mary
from the perspective of “the great masses of Latin America, the overwhelming
majority of whom are poor, enjoy no adequate quality of life, and lack respect,
bread, love, and justice.” While acknowledging that the dogmas developed by the
Catholic Church about Mary may be inflated, they nonetheless reveal a well-
spring of hope for women and other oppressed humans:
The exaltation that understandably comes out in dogma cannot . . . hide what is
essential in God’s salvation, that is, making God’s glory shine on what is regarded as
insignificant, degrading or marginal. . . . In exalting her they exalt precisely her poverty,
her dispossession, and her simplicity. This is the only key for understanding the mystery
of God’s incarnation in human history, of which Jesus and Mary are the protagonists.
This is, moreover, the only key for understanding the mystery of the church as a
community of salvation, holy and sinful, striving amid the most diverse kinds of
limitations and problems to be a sign of the Kingdom in the midst of the world.119
A third major area of Christian feminist theology is the concept of God. The
Divine is commonly referred to as “He” or “Father,” but scholarship reveals that
this patriarchal usage is not absolute; there also existed other models of God as
Mother, as Divine Wisdom, as Justice, as Friend, as Lover. Sally McFague points
out that to envision God as Mother, for instance, totally changes our under-
standing of our relationship to the Divine:
What the father-God gives us is redemption from sins; what the mother-God
gives is life itself, . . . not primarily judging individuals but calling us back,
wanting to be more fully united with us. . . . All of us, female and male, have
the womb as our first home, all of us are born from the bodies of our mothers,
all of us are fed by our mothers. What better imagery could there be for
expressing the most basic reality of existence: that we live and move and have
our being in God?120
Creation-centered Christianity
Another current trend in Christianity is an attempt to develop and deepen its
respect for nature. In the Judeo-Christian tradition, humans are thought to have
been given dominion over all the things of the earth. Sometimes this “dominion”
was interpreted as the right to exploit, rather than the duty to care for, the earth.
This view contrasts with indigenous beliefs that the divine resides everywhere,
that everything is sacred, and that humans are only part of the great circle of life.
Some Christians now feel that the notion of having a God-given right to control
has allowed humans to nearly destroy the planet. In some cases, they are turn-
ing to indigenous spiritual leaders for help in extricating the planet from ecologi-
cal destruction. Historian and passionate earth-advocate Father Thomas Berry
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358 CHRISTIANITY
feels that “we need to put the Bible on the shelf for twenty years until we learn
to read the scripture of life.”121
A Christianity that would accord greater honor to the created world would also
tend to emphasize the miracle that is creation, thus helping to unite science and
religion. Creation-centered Christians—such as the late Jesuit priest and paleon-
tologist Teilhard de Chardin—see the mind of God in the perfect, intricate bal-
ances of chemistry, biology, and physics that allow life as we know it to exist.
Creation-centered Christianity is being passionately espoused by Matthew Fox,
whose views as a Dominican theologian were not accepted by the Vatican. He
now heads the University of Creation Spirituality in California. He opposes what
he regards as the Roman Catholic tendency to focus on the sufferings of Jesus and
thus encourage a perpetual sense of guilt, rather than Jesus’s love of all life and
his compassion for the sufferings of the weak, exploited, and oppressed.
Ecumenical movement
The restoration of religious freedom to multitudes of Christians in formerly com-
munist countries has increased the great diversity of Christian ways of worship-
Christianity: ping. Another contemporary trend is the attempt to unify all Christians around
The Living some point of agreement or at least fellowship with each other.
Cathedral—St. John Vatican II asserted that the Roman Catholic Church is the one Church of Christ, but
the Divine opened the way to dialogue with other branches of Christianity by declaring that the
Holy Spirit was active in them as well. The Orthodox Church likewise believes that it
is the “one, holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church.” Although it desires reunion of all
Christians and denies any greed for organizational power, it insists on uniformity in
matters of faith. Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches therefore do not share Holy
Communion with those outside their respective disciplines. Some Protestant denom-
inations have branches that also refuse to acknowledge each other’s validity.
In the attempt to restore some bonds among all Christian Churches, there are
dozens of official ecumenical dialogues going on. The World Council of Churches,
centered in Geneva, was founded in 1948 as an organizational body allowing
Christian Churches to cooperate on service projects even in the midst of their the-
ological disagreements. Its Faith and Order Commission links three hundred cul-
turally, linguistically, and politically, not to mention theologically, different
Christian Churches in working out the problems of Christian unity. However, the
Orthodox Church representatives are always in the minority within the Council
and therefore typically lose when decisions call for a majority vote. The consen-
sus model for decision-making has been proposed as being closer to the original
spirit of Christianity. As Father Denis G. Pereira explains:
This model may be more difficult and involve more time. But it is inspired by a spirit
of love, respect and generosity rather than suspicion and competition. The method
supposes that the Church must be always open to the Spirit of God, and that the Spirit
often speaks through the least and the last, at times even through a minority of one.122
As Christians around the world struggled to find an appropriate Christian
response to the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States, the
World Council of Churches announced a “Decade to Overcome Violence.” They
proposed that the members would be using this decade as:
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CHRISTIANITY 359
• an opportunity to discover afresh the meaning of sharing a common humanity,

to confirm our commitment to the unity of all God’s people and to the ministry of
reconciliation
• a call to repent for our own complicity in violence, and explore, from within our
faith traditions, ways to overcome the spirit, logic and practice of violence
• a forum in which to work together for a world of peace with local communities,
secular movements, and people of other faiths
• a time to analyse and expose different forms of violence and their
interconnection, and to act in solidarity with those who struggle for justice and
the integrity of creation.123
Suggested reading
Abbott, Walter M., ed., The Documents of Vatican II, New York: The America Press, 1966.
Landmark conclusions of the Council Fathers, with special emphasis on the poor,
religious unity, and social justice.
Achtmeier, Paul, J., general editor, The HarperCollins Bible Dictionary, 1966, New York:
HarperCollins, 1996. Extensive contemporary scholarship on the Bible, with its historical
contexts and modern interpretations.
Borg, Marcus, J., Meeting Jesus Again for the First Time: The Historical Jesus and the Heart
of Contemporary Faith, San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1994. An accessible and
appreciative discussion of the Jesus of history, as opposed to the Jesus of faith,
by a leading figure in the Jesus Seminar.
Bainton, Roland Herbert, Christianity, New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2000. A
contemporary survey of Christian history.
Braybrooke, Marcus, The Explorer’s Guide to Christianity, London: Hodder & Stoughton,
1998. With the sensitivity of a global interfaith leader, Rev. Braybrooke offers a succinct
introduction to Christianity for people of every faith and country.
Dawes, Gregory W., ed., The Historical Jesus Quest: A Foundational Anthology,
Westminster John Knox Press, 2000. A collection of scholarly investigations into the
life of Jesus.
Dillenberger, John and Welch, Claude, Protestant Christianity Interpreted through its
Development, New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1954. The classic history and
interpretation of Protestantism.
Fosdick, Harry Emerson, ed., Great Voices of the Reformation, New York: Random House,
1952. Extensive quotations, with commentary, from major early Protestant leaders.
Hopkins, Dwight N., ed., Black Faith and Public Talk, Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books,
1999. Taking off from James H. Cone’s influential Black Theology and Black Power, these
essays probe how people of color relate Christian understanding to economic, social, and
religious situations and ideals in today’s world.
Irvin, Dale T. and Scott W. Sunquist, History of the World Christian Movement, vol. 1: Earliest
Christianity to 1453. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 2001. An inclusive view of early
Christian history extending to inputs from and influences on the cultures and people of
Asia, Africa, and West Asia.
King, Ursula, ed., Feminist Theology from the Third World: A Reader, Maryknoll, New York:
Orbis Books, 1994. Excellent compendium of the voices of marginalized peoples, which
give a special poignance and depth of meaning to efforts to give women a voice in
shaping and interpreting Christianity.
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360 CHRISTIANITY
Pope-Levison, Priscilla and Levison, John R., Jesus in Global Contexts, Louisville, Kentucky:
Westminster/John Knox Press, 1992. Examinations of the question “Who is Jesus?” from
poor cultures and feminist perspectives.
Price, James L., Interpreting the New Testament, second edition, New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1971. An excellent survey of the literature and interpretation of the New Testament.
Robinson, James M., ed., The Nag Hammadi Library, San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1977.
A fascinating collection of early scriptures that are not included in the Christian canon.
Schüssler Fiorenza, Elisabeth, In Memory of Her: A Feminist Theological Reconstruction of
Christian Origins, New York: Crossroad, 1983, 1994. Extensive scholarship about the role
of women in early Christianity.
Theissen, Gerd, The Religion of the Earliest Churches: Creating a Symbolic World, Minneapolis,
Minnesota: Fortress Press, 1999. An excellent survey of the emergence of Christian
religion that emphasizes the development and diversity of early Christian myth, ethics,
and ritual in their socio-historical contexts.
Tugwell, Simon, Ways of Imperfection, London: Darton, Longman and Todd, 1984, and
Springfield, Illinois: Templegate Publishers, 1985. Spirituality as a whole vision of life,
as seen by a series of great Christian practitioners.
Walker, Williston, Norris, Richard A., Lotz, David W., and Handy, Robert T., A History of
the Christian Church, fourth edition, New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1985, and
Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1986. A classic history of Christianity.
Ware, Timothy, The Orthodox Church, Middlesex, England and Baltimore, Maryland:
Penguin Books, 1984, 1993. An excellent overview of the history, beliefs, and practices
of the Eastern Church.
Wilson, Ian, Jesus: The Evidence, Washington, D.C.: Regnery Publishing, 2000. Neutral
survey of historical evidence of the life of Jesus.
Key terms
gospel The “good news” that God has raised Jesus from the dead and in so
doing has begun the transformation of the world.
Common Era Years after the traditional date used for the birth of Jesus, previously
referred to in exclusively Christian terms as AD and now abbreviated to
CE as opposed to BCE (“before Common Era”).
Messiah In Christianity, the “anonted one”, Jesus Christ.
Trinity The Christian doctrine that in the One God are three divine persons: the
Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.
baptism A Christian sacrament by which God cleanses all sin and makes one a
sharer in the divine life, and a member of Christ’s body, the Church.
Eucharist The Christian sacrament by which believers are renewed in the mystical
body of Christ by partaking of bread and wine, understood as his body
and blood.
confirmation A Christian sacrament by which awareness of the Holy Spirit is enhanced.
original sin A Christian belief that all human beings are bound together in prideful
egocentricity. Described mythically in the Bible as an act of disobedience
on the part of Adam and Eve.
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CHRISTIANITY 361
Study questions
1 What are the major categories of the Christian Bible? Name one book in each category.
Explain the major types of biblical hermeneutics.
2 Why were Jesus’s teachings radical? Explain five specific examples.
3 What was the importance in the early Church of the following: Paul, Constantine, gnos-
ticism, the Trinity, the Nicene Creed, Christology, monasticism.
4 Describe the history, geography, and main principles of the Eastern Orthodox Church.
Discuss Byzantium, 1054 CE, filioque, the pope, Crusades, Russia, synod, Philokalia,
icons.
5 Describe the history, geography, and main principles of the Roman Catholic Church.
Discuss the Pope, Gregory I, the Middle Ages, Aquinas, Francis, mystics, Trent, celibacy,
Vatican II, Mother Teresa, sacraments, Merton, Mary, liberation theology, creation-
centered theology.
6 Describe the history, geography, and main principles of the Protestant Church. Discuss
Luther, Zwingli, Calvin, Anglicans, Methodists, holidays, charismatics, Tutu, fundamen-
talists, evangelicals, liberals, feminist theology, the ecumenical movement.
Refer to Pearson/Prentice Hall’s TIME Special Edition: World Religions magazine for
these and other current articles on topics related to many of the world’s religions:
• The Religious Experience: The Legacy of Abraham
• Christianity: Missionaries Under Cover; The Lord’s Business
Chapter 9 continues the study of religions originating in the Middle East and focuses on
Christianity. For further research in this area, use the tools available to you in Research
Navigator:
As you investigate Christianity, consider this question: “What ecumenical movements are having
an impact on the development of Christianity in the world today?”
• Ebsco’s ContentSelect: Search in the Religion and Sociology databases using terms
such as “ecumenical,” “world Christianity,” “Catholic Protestant.”
• Link Library: Search in the Religion database under the category: “Religions of
Mediterranean and Middle Eastern Origins: Rise of Christianity; Catholicism; Roman
Catholic Church; Vatican.” Also search under the category of “Western Christianity:
Protestantism; Episcopalians; Lutheranism.”
• The New York Times on the Web: Search in the Religious Studies and all other data-
bases for current articles on related topics.
ISBN: 0-536-98811-0

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What are some of the major events in the early development of Christianity?

What are some of the major events in the early development of Christianity?

How did interpretations of the Bible evolve over time in Christianity?

How did interpretations of the Bible evolve over time in Christianity?

CHAPTER 9

The Christian Bible

Jesus said: I am the Light that is above

The life and teachings of Jesus

“The Nativity,” Jesus’s

John the Baptist is said

From north to south,

As Jesus traveled, speaking, he is said to have performed many miracles, such

Jesus is said to have

The Good Samaritan

CE c.4 BCE–30 CE Life of Jesus

50 c.50–60 St. Paul organizes early Christians

800 800–1300 Middle Ages in Europe; centralization of papal power

1945 Discovery of the Nag Hammadi manuscripts

Jesus’s references to the kingdom, as reported in the gospels, indicate two

Challenges to the authorities

At the Last Supper, Jesus

Jesus’s Crucifixion was

Caiaphas pronounced this statement blasphemy, punishable by death according

One of the persecutors of Christians was Saul. He was a Pharisee tentmaker

Evolving organization and theology

The Nag Hammadi

as influential as the four gospels in shaping Christianity—was his interpretation

Let all that you do be done in love.

The Holy Trinity,

The Eastern Orthodox Church

The history of the Orthodox Church

The Russian Orthodox Church

Russian Orthodox Kenoticism

EASTERN ORTHODOX CHURCH

A very visible symbol of

disapproval of the official Church. Bishop Feodor, bishop of underground

The Orthodox world today

of monks declined considerably in the twentieth century when emigration of

Most icon painters,

Distinctive features of Orthodox spirituality

Christians light candles

The understanding of God is the understanding of beauty. Beauty is at the heart of

Medieval Roman Catholicism

The young Catherine

The strongest of church administrators during these early centuries was

The Rider on the White

hereditary. But it was nonetheless open to intrigue, scandal, and power-monger-

Intellectual revival and monasticism

In contrast to monks and nuns living cloistered lives, mendicant friars, or

Fourteenth-century Italy witnessed a period of unprecedented degradation

The Protestant Reformation

heaven). The Castle Church at Wittenberg housed an immense collection of

were impervious to worldly obstacles to the spread of their faith. Calvinism

belief that restraint of physical desires enhances spirituality. Fourth, Protestants

The Roman Catholic Reformation

The impact of the Enlightenment

The Second Vatican Council

The large and august

Central beliefs in contemporary Christianity

Reverend Larry Howard, the African–American pastor of Hopps Memorial