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 Research
Methods in
Biomechanics
Second Edition

D. Gordon E. Robertson
University of Ottawa

Graham E. Caldwell
University of Massachusetts, Amherst

Joseph Hamill
University of Massachusetts, Amherst

Gary Kamen
University of Massachusetts, Amherst

Saunders N. Whittlesey
University of Massachusetts, Amherst

HUMAN KINETICS
 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Robertson, D. Gordon E., 1950- author.

  Research methods in biomechanics / D. Gordon E. Robertson, Graham E. Caldwell, Joseph Hamill, Gary Kamen, Saunders N.
Whittlesey. -- 2nd edition.
   p. ; cm.
  Includes bibliographical references and index.
  I. Caldwell, Graham E., 1954- author. II. Hamill, Joseph, 1946- author. III. Kamen, Gary, author. IV. Whittlesey, Saunders N.,
author. V. Title.
  [DNLM: 1.  Biomechanics. 2.  Research Design.  WE 103]
 QP303
 612.7’6072--dc23
                 2013017879

ISBN-10: 0-7360-9340-0 (print)

ISBN-13: 978-0-7360-9340-8 (print)

Copyright © 2014, 2004 by D. Gordon E. Robertson, Graham E. Caldwell, Joseph Hamill, Gary Kamen, and Saunders N. Whittlesey

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E5144
 Dedication
To our current and former students.
Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX

Introduction Biomechanics Analysis Techniques: A Primer . . . . . . . . . . . X

Gary Kamen
What Tools Are Needed in Biomechanics? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Applications of the Principles of Biomechanics: An Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Numerical Accuracy and Significant Digits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX

Part I  Kinematics XX

Chapter 1 Planar Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX

D. Gordon E. Robertson and Graham E. Caldwell
Description of Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Degrees of Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Kinematic Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Linear Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Angular Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Suggested Readings

Chapter 2 Three-Dimensional Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX

Joseph Hamill, W. Scott Selbie, and Thomas M. Kepple
Collection of Three-Dimensional Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Coordinate Systems and Assumption of Rigid Segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Transformations between Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Defining the Segment LCS for the Lower Extremity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Pose Estimation: Tracking the Segment LCS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Joint Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Joint Angular Velocity and Angular Acceleration of Cardan Joint Angles . . . . . . . XX
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX

v
vi  } Contents

Part II  Kinetics XX

Chapter 3 Body Segment Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX

D. Gordon E. Robertson
Methods for Measuring and Estimating Body Segment Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Two-Dimensional (Planar) Computational Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Three-Dimensional (Spatial) Computational Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX

Chapter 4 Forces and Their Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX

Graham E. Caldwell, D. Gordon E. Robertson, and Saunders N. Whittlesey
Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Newton’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Free-Body Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Types of Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Moment of Force, or Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Linear Impulse and Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Angular Impulse and Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Measurement of Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX

Chapter 5 Two-Dimensional Inverse Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX

Saunders N. Whittlesey and D. Gordon E. Robertson
Planar Motion Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Numerical Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Human Joint Kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX

Chapter 6 Energy, Work, and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX

D. Gordon E. Robertson
Energy, Work, and the Laws of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Conservation of Mechanical Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Ergometry: Direct Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Ergometry: Indirect Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Mechanical Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
 Contents  | vii

Chapter 7 Three-Dimensional Kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX

W. Scott Selbie, Joseph Hamill, and Thomas Kepple
Segments and Link Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
3-D Inverse Dynamics Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Presentation of the Net Moment Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Joint Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Interpretation of Net Joint Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Sources of Error in Three-Dimensional Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX

Part III  Muscles, Models, and Movement XXX

Chapter 8 Electromyographic Kinesiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX

Gary Kamen
Physiology of the Electromyographic Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Recording and Acquiring the Electromyographic Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Analyzing and Interpreting the Electromyographic Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Applications for Electromyographic Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX

Chapter 9 Muscle Modeling

Graham E. Caldwell
The Hill Muscle Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Muscle-Specific Hill Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Beyond the Hill Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX

Chapter 10 Computer Simulation of Human Movement . . . . . . . . . . . XXX

Saunders N. Whittlesey and Joseph Hamill
Overview: Modeling As a Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Why Simulate Human Movement? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
General Procedure for Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Control Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Limitations of Computer Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
viii  } Contents

Chapter 11 Musculoskeletal Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX

Brian R. Umberger & Graham E. Caldwell
Musculoskeletal Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Control Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Analysis Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX

Part IV  Further Analytical Procedures XXX

Chapter 12 Signal Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX

Timothy R. Derrick and D. Gordon E. Robertson
Characteristics of a Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Time-Dependent Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Sampling Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Ensuring Circular Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Smoothing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX

Chapter 13 Dynamical Systems Analysis of Coordination . . . . . . . . . XXX

Richard E.A. van Emmerik, Ross H. Miller, and Joseph Hamill
Movement Coordination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Foundations for Coordination Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Quantifying Coordination: Relative Phase Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Quantifying Coordination: Vector Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Overview of Coordination Analysis Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX

Chapter 14 Analysis of Biomechanical Waveform Data . . . . . . . . . . . XXX

Kevin J. Deluzio, Andrew J. Harrison, Norma Coffey, and Graham E. Caldwell
Biomechanical Waveform Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Principal Component Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Functional Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Comparison of PCA and FDA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
 Contents  | ix

Appendix A: International System of Units (System International, SI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX

Appendix B: Selected Factors for Converting Between Units of Measure . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Appendix C: Basic Electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Appendix D: Vectors and Scalars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Appendix E: Matrices and Matrix Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Appendix F: Numerical Integration of Double Pendulum Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Appendix G: Derivation of Double Pendulum Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Appendix H: Discrete Fourier Transform Subroutine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Appendix I: Shannon’s Reconstruction Subroutine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Example Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
About the Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Preface

B
iomechanics is a highly technical field, and its movement, an area of growing interest that permits
research methods change as rapidly as does the study of muscle forces beyond that allowed by
technology. Research techniques are regularly inverse dynamics. Other chapters in part III address
replaced with new techniques because of the avail- electromyographic (EMG) kinesiology and computer
ability of faster and more sophisticated software and simulation of movement. EMG permits the monitoring
hardware. For example, 25 years ago many researchers and analysis of the active contractile characteristics of
used cinematography to record human motion; 10 years muscles, whereas computer simulations permit the study
later cinematography was almost obsolete, having been of motions without requiring that a subject perform the
replaced by VHS videography; and now, digital and motion, which allows researchers, physicians, therapists,
infrared videography have become the preferred motion or coaches to test novel motions without placing people
capture technologies. Faster computers with essentially at risk of injury.
unlimited memory can process data using more complex Part IV explores further analytical procedures that
analyses and more sophisticated statistical methods. can be applied to biomechanical data, beginning with
Given these realities, this edition has added up-to-date signal processing techniques and then moving on to
research methods to existing chapters and includes sev- two chapters new to the second edition. Chapter 13,
eral new chapters that outline advanced analytical tools Dynamical Systems Methods for the Analysis of Move-
for investigating human movement. ment Coordination, coauthored by Richard E.A. van
This text is organized into four parts. Parts I and II Emmerik, Ross H. Miller, and Joseph Hamill, outlines
retain their structure from the first edition, with part I the theories and analytic methods used to investigate
exploring planar and three-dimensional kinematics in movement in complex systems with many degrees of
research and part II examining issues of body segment freedom. This chapter focuses on how we assess and
parameters, forces, and energy, work, and power as they measure coordination and stability in changing move-
relate to two- and three-dimensional inverse dynamics ment patterns, and it examines the role of movement
analysis. Within the first two parts, chapters 2 and 7 variability in health and disease. Chapter 14, Analysis
have been extensively revised to reflect current research of Biomechanical Waveform Data, coauthored by Kevin
practices in biomechanics. Chapter 7 now reflects how J. Deluzio, Andrew J. Harrison, Norma Coffey, and
inverse dynamics analyses are carried out by the
software Visual3D, which is an example of software
that provides inverse dynamics analysis. A Visual3D
Educational Edition is provided with this book pur- Visual3D Educational Edition
chase, so that the reader can experience the process New to this edition is the access to the Visual3D Edu-
of kinematic and kinetic analysis of human motion cational Edition software, created by C-Motion. The
using Visual3D. Visual3D Educational Edition can be used to display
Part III of the text deals with the study of muscle C3D and CMO data sets, but also provides the ability to
activity and the mathematical modeling of human manipulate sample data sets to help readers understand
movement. Chapter 9, Muscle Modeling, has been kinetic and kinematic calculations and to provide experi-
updated and is bolstered by the addition of chapter ence with professional biomechanical research software.
11, Musculoskeletal Modeling. Chapter 9 retains its To download the Visual3D Educational Edition, visit http://
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xi
xii  } Preface

Graham E. Caldwell, outlines statistical tools to identify Each chapter includes an overview, a summary, and a
the essential characteristics of any human movement. list of suggested readings for those interested in learning
Biomechanists are faced with the sometimes daunting more. In select chapters, sample problems are provided
task of determining which variable or variables from to serve as learning aids, and answers are provided in
thousands of possibilities (linear and angular kinematics, the back of the text. Sections titled From the Scientific
linear and angular kinetics) best characterize a particular Literature highlight the ways in which biomechanical
motion. Techniques in this chapter can be used to select research techniques have been used in both classic and
the best combination of these factors. Human gait is cutting-edge studies in the field. The appendixes provide
used as one example of motion, but the techniques can helpful mathematical and technical references, and a
be applied to any motion. glossary provides a reference for terminology.

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