The Learning Organization

From continuous improvement to organisational learning: developmental theory

Peter MurrayRoss Chapman
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Learning Organization, Vol. 10 Iss 5 pp. 272 - 282
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 Purpose of the paper
From continuous While acknowledging the contributions of
improvement to total quality management (TQM) techniques,
organisational learning: this conceptual paper suggests that the
holistic paradigm reflected in the TQM
developmental theory philosophy is limited by the boundaries
placed on decision makers, particularly in the
Peter Murray and way learning is enacted. The purpose of the
Ross Chapman paper is to highlight the contextual and
environmental constraints that impose
The authors restrictions on the quality of learning taking
place, and to prompt further investigations of
Peter Murray is Senior Lecturer in Human Resource
the links between continuous improvement
Management, at Macquarie University, North Ryde, New
and organisational learning. The paper also
South Wales, Australia.
presents a new holistic cycle of learning.
Ross Chapman is Associate Professor, at the University
of Western Sydney, Penrith Sth DC, New South Wales,
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Australia.
From quality control to total quality
Keywords
management
Continuous improvement, Learning cycles
The reform process in Australian
Abstract
manufacturing and that of other OECD
As a learning theory, the continuous improvement (CI) countries owes much to the adaptation of
discourse has benefited countless manufacturing overseas manufacturing techniques such as
enterprises to improve and adapt their methods of Japanese management. During the 1970s and
production. As one of the pillars of total quality 1980s, the difference between Japanese and
management, it has generally included a range of dynamic Western manufacturing was quite
concepts from high involvement teamwork and production pronounced. Japanese management made
enablers, to other social and technical capabilities such as better use of quality systems and quality
innovation techniques. Such methodologies have been control in production (Pascale and Athos,
promoted in the literature as potential manifestos that can 1981), and benefited from the early work of
transform existing capabilities from simple representations Deming (1982) who espoused many of the
of capability, to dynamically integrated ones (often labelled principles behind quality control techniques.
``full CI capacity''). The latter term in particular deserves Quality however has evolved from a narrow
more attention in the literature. Since CI techniques cannot manufacturing-based discipline to one with
be separated from organisational learning methodologies, broader implications for management
it follows that CI methods should underpin holistic learning. including quantifying the costs of quality,
This paper explores whether CI methodologies have total quality control, reliability engineering,
advanced far enough to be considered as integrated and and zero defects (Garvin, 1988). Juran (1951)
holistic in their own right. If not, it follows that new made significant advances in the quality
theories, challenges and discourses should be considered assurance area. Juran's idea that quality could
for exploration in the CI literature. be broken up into avoidable cost (defects,
Electronic access product failures), and unavoidable costs
(prevention, inspection, sampling), helped
The Emerald Research Register for this journal is
managers decide how to invest in quality
available at
improvement. From Juran's work, early
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister
concepts of continuous improvement are
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is observable. The knowledge that decisions
available at made early in the production chain had
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0969-6474.htm implications for the level of quality costs later
on in the chain was a major breakthrough.
Similarly, the ``plan, do, check, act'' cycle has
The Learning Organization
been the cornerstone of Deming's (1982)
Volume 10 . Number 5 . 2003 . pp. 272-282
# MCB UP Limited . ISSN 0969-6474 contribution. Crosby's (1980) findings that
DOI 10.1108/09696470310486629 quality is free when underpinned by
272
 From continuous improvement to organisational learning The Learning Organization
Peter Murray and Ross Chapman Volume 10 . Number 5 . 2003 . 272-282

prevention costs (e.g. prototype inspections of an integrated corporate strategy. TQM not
and tests), and failure costs (e.g. reworks, only uses the formal tools of quality
scrap), were also major advances in quality management (e.g. sampling, statistical
management. process control, zero defects, benchmarking,
Taken together, the views of Deming, run charts), but also draws on the use of
Juran, and Crosby have been institutionalised organisation-wide processes (e.g. leadership,
in manufacturing folklore. In the 1980s, a quality function deployment, strategic
number of Japanese experts made similar planning, and customer satisfaction). By
contributions including Ishikawa (1985), linking both the formal quality control
Taguchi (1986), and Imai (1986). Ishikawa processes and the broader organisation-wide
was noted for his ``seven tools'' for workers processes to the strategic issues each company
engaged in TQC including pareto charts, faces, TQM creates an interface between the
cause-effect diagrams, histograms, check corporate and business level, and the
sheets, scatter diagrams, and flow charts. operational and functional level. While
Taguchi on the other hand developed continuous improvement (CI) is often viewed
sophisticated statistical methods highlighting as a key component of TQM, the process of
the value of design experiments prior to full implementing TQM in an organisation often
production. Whereas both Taguchi and
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creates a linkage between the more

Ishikawa focused on quality control models, mechanistic and technical activities of quality
Imai elaborated on the Japanese management control, and effective continuous quality
strategy of Kaizen, a process which stressed improvement as shown in Figure 1.
that incremental improvements were equally Taken together, quality control and total
important as radical (breakthrough) quality management underpin the first phase
innovations in securing and maintaining of a learning organisation (Senge, 1990) that
competitive success. He described Kaizen as: is fundamentally about adaptive and
. . . a humanistic approach because it expects incremental learning. Total quality
everybody ± indeed, everybody ± to participate in management is not only relevant to the
it. It is based on the belief that every human
being can contribute to improving his workplace
physical production of goods and services, it
where he spends one-third of his life (Imai, also blends production techniques with social
1986, p. 227). organisation. The total quality management
concept has helped firms change from
Since the 1980s, specific advances in quality
essentially an economic paradigm to a
practices and processes (such as the
socio-technical paradigm. The latter term
continuous improvement concept developed
embraces the blending of production
by Imai), have led some to reflect on the value
techniques and quality processes, with the
of quality practices to a specific organisation
human capital necessary to improve
(Pascale and Athos, 1981). Deming's
productivity. The TQM concept appears
top-down approach and Crosby's focus on
most successful when improvements are
product defects, for example, require great
embodied in adaptive behavioural routines as
responsibility at the individual operator level,
a continuous learning journey.
but appear to stop short of providing a
broader quality management methodology
suited for the whole organisation. Scholars
generally concur that total quality is not a Contextual barriers to TQM
system but rather a state of mind, and that implementation
quality control is consistent with a holistic
Five strategic principles underpin total quality
system such as total quality management.
management:
Total quality management (TQM) has been
(1) customer focus;
defined as a structured system for creating
(2) process focus;
organisation-wide participation in planning,
(3) teamwork;
and the implementing of a continuous
(4) employee participation; and
improvement process to meet and exceed
(5) continuous improvement (Chong, 1999).
customer needs (Brower, 1994). The TQM
concept is unique because it focuses not only A consideration of each of these principles
on broad-based and long-term quality suggests that it is possible to expropriate types
perspectives, but also rapid value gains as part of learning strategies from the total quality
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Peter Murray and Ross Chapman Volume 10 . Number 5 . 2003 . 272-282

Figure 1 The implied interface between quality control and continuous quality improvement

management framework. The first of these, process. The concept of teamwork in

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customer focus, suggests that organisational particular is a behavioural routine highly

goals and priorities should be driven by favoured in learning organisations. High
internal customers within the organisation participation is a higher-level routine of
who are ``next in line'' in the work process, as organisational learning, and team strategies
well as external customers outside the form the basis by which work structures are
organisation that purchase products and challenged (Argyris and Schon, 1978). The
services (Chong, 1999, p. 7). A customer process of TQM is a point of conflict however
service orientation means learning to value between the formulation of the theory
customers, learning from customers, and surrounding TQM and its application in
including customers in quality programmes. practice. While TQM philosophies espouse
Taken together, this means improved service. team processes, it is unclear how teams are
By comparison, process focus involves mobilised, how learning styles are assessed
managing and improving technical aspects of and matched to various types of teams, and
processes by using statistical tools to monitor how the learning agenda unfolds. While the
and analyse work processes (Juran, 1995). continuous improvement concept promotes
When an organisation can manage input and constant refinement and improvement (e.g.
output, while simultaneously balancing Deming's plan, do, check, act cycle), this is
process design, product design, and service more at a basic level of organisational learning
design, the increasingly stringent expectations ± behavioural routines and learning actions
of customers will be met (Dean and Bowen, are more consistent with an incremental
1994; Chong, 1999). step-by-step approach (Argyris and Schon,
Managing the human aspects of processes is 1978; Senge, 1990).
also important. Decisions related to job In comparison to total quality
design, how much decision making to share or management, the learning organisation is a
give away (Hackman and Wageman, 1995), knowledge-based company that continually
underpins teamwork, where learning is challenges the way it learns by constantly
internalised. Teamwork includes the scanning both the internal and external
collaboration between managers and environment (Nonaka, 1991; Argyris and
non-managers, between functions, and Schon, 1978; Stacey, 1996). At a procedural
between organisations and their suppliers level, organisational learning exposes the
(Dean and Bowen, 1994). Employee patterned structures of routines as
involvement goes beyond merely asking for one-dimensional. Whereas TQM appears to
employee ideas to the delegation of power and represent a ``complete'' change process
authority so that employees can pursue their through the five principles, it underlies modes
ideas, work with others to solve problems, and of reasoning based on scientific rationalism.
improve work systems (Blackburn and Rosen, This means that one can be entirely objective
1993; Chong, 1999). Thus, various learning about content and process, the phenomenon
practices are fundamental in the TQM under examination can be conceived in
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Peter Murray and Ross Chapman Volume 10 . Number 5 . 2003 . 272-282

advance of the improvement process, and the memories. As Hedberg (1981) suggests,
role of the change agent or manager is fairly organisations develop worldviews and
clear-cut. ideologies over time by preserving certain
Several scholars have criticised TQM on behaviours, mental maps, and norms.
the basis that it can be ``installed'' like a new Individuals may become prisoners of the
machine (Ingle and Jacobson, 1999), that systems and rules that pacify and oppress
techniques and processes can be ``picked'' learning. Indeed, a firm's orientation to goal
from a list (Morley, 1995), and that setting, reward systems, and internal work
organisations adopt some tools while processes will be influenced by culture
ignoring others. Some scholars have called (Schein, 1985), and it is possible for
this a ``sipping and tasting'' approach competing cultures to exist within the same
(Jacobson, 1996). Others suggest it should firm (Hinings and Greenwood, 1988;
not be based on change for change's sake Murray, 2001). Thus, the ability of the
(New, 1992), and that programmes of organisation to learn and adapt to its
implementation will vary depending on environment (adaptability), as well as its
differences in technical and organisation capacity to change and grow simultaneously,
priorities (Chong, 1999; Ingle and Jacobson, will often depend on cultural forces that
1999, p. 37). Although total quality undermine its capacity to learn.
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management has evolved into an entire While culture in particular has the ability to
discipline of knowledge internalised as manifest itself in the overriding ideologies and
practical strategies, a reasonable question established patterns of the day, an
relates to how an organisation can promote organisation's learning capacity will
internal adaptability and behavioural change determine its strategic direction (the second
on the one hand, and transfer the contextual barrier). Learning influences
improvements to the environment. Both strategy by providing a boundary to decision
adaptability and behavioural change are key making and a context for the perception and
processes in organisational learning (Weick, interpretation of the environment (Daft and
1979; Hedberg, 1981), but are at best only Weick, 1984). Often a firm's strategic
partially answered through TQM direction creates a momentum that is
philosophies. One can argue that there is pervasive and highly resistant to small
little point improving internal efficiencies adjustments. There appears to be a preference
unless these can be implemented in the firm's for a linear approach to TQM initiatives
environment. Other contextual barriers such where small adjustments are the norm.
as strategy, decentralisation, culture, and Strategies often appear in a step-by-step
environmental adaptability also blur the manual or flow chart, where strategies and
TQM process. It is not clear how such actions can be conceived in advance of them
barriers influence the learning journey, nor is occurring. While a ``design'' approach to
the link between individual learning and total strategy is useful, research contends that
quality management transparent. strategic drift is common with this method
Organisational learning is not simply the (Johnson, 1988), strategies are made on the
sum of individual learning (Fiol and Lyles, basis of cultural assumptions that may be
1985). It has been defined as a renewal flawed (Mintzberg, 1990; Quinn, 1980), and
process of changing behaviours to enable a strategies may be formulated in the absence of
firm to achieve both change and growth strategic intent (Hamel and Prahalad, 1989;
simultaneously (Murray, 2002), and a Barney, 1991). A focus on capabilities that
process that allows for the testing and lead to competencies that form the roots of
challenging of the decision assumptions that competitive advantage is not the driving force
drive decision models (Dodgson, 1993; of TQM.
Garvin, 1993; Argyris and Schon, 1978). For A third contextual barrier is
instance, organisations develop rich cultures decentralisation. Decentralisation throughout
over time that are deeply embedded in the organisation is often achieved through
learning systems (Schein, 1985). groups and teams. These mechanisms help to
Organisational cultures (the first contextual coordinate the diverse range of activities that
barrier) continually influence their each company faces, helping to harness the
immediate members through histories and link between structure and learning. It is not
norms, and through cognitive systems and so much ``what'' type of teams is important,
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Peter Murray and Ross Chapman Volume 10 . Number 5 . 2003 . 272-282

but rather, how well they can express their rate by which they learn. It may also relate to
ideas. Hackman and Oldman (1980) found the poor integration ability of teams to
that mistakes are common in team building interpret the environment because of
and team management. Such mistakes are inadequate belief systems (Neisser, 1967;
often associated with rewarding and Crossan et al., 1993), and inadequate
recognising individuals instead of the team, knowledge and information management
not maintaining stability of membership over (Nonaka, 1991). If adaptive learning is one of
time, not providing teams with autonomy, the key activities for dealing with changes in
and not fostering interdependence among the environment (Chakravarthy, 1982), it
team members. It is widely noted that teams follows that in circumstances where the
are one of the main mechanisms used by environment is too complex and dynamic,
organisations to achieve high levels of
learning may be severely restricted or may not
sustained involvement (Nelson and Winter,
take place at all (Lawrence and Dyer, 1983).
1982; Hackman and Oldman, 1980; Imai,
But this also implies that the TQM process
1986).
may be inadequate as a methodology that is
Establishing teamwork becomes
unable to account for complex and multiple
institutionalised in routines and behaviours of
differences in various types of environment,
social activity the organisation uses to
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continually improve work practices and and for dynamic differences in learning styles
processes. Although team cultures take time within the firm. Poor learning integration for
to evolve, they help to institutionalise example will be a reflection of individual
different routines and behaviours associated cognitive structures, learning styles, power
with more efficient management action. relationships, and competency building
Although several of these characteristics are techniques.
found in the five key TQM principles listed In summary, the contextual barriers
previously, they are not always obvious to the appear to surface in the TQM literature as a
practitioner. While some team concepts such one-dimensional analysis between the object
as the type, agenda, and quality of teams are of the study (such as quality) and the person
important in the TQM literature (Pascale and or persons undertaking the improvement
Athos, 1981), the literature is less clear as to initiative (such as managers and staff). For
why some teams learn faster than others, instance, Deming's 14 obligations of
achieve better results, and negotiate change management, and Imai's notion of
more effectively than others. The latter part of incremental improvement or Kaizen, are
the paper will illustrate how individuals and examples of one-dimensional improvement
teams have several learning styles that most programmes. Similarly, Crosby's suggestion
likely account for sporadic successes in the that quality is free when underpinned by
implementation of TQM programmes. prevention costs, Juran's concentration on
Despite management's best efforts, a lack of quality planning, quality control, and quality
understanding of learning styles, as well as improvement, and Taguchi and Ishikawa's
cognitive learning differences in individuals,
emphasis on quality control models suggest
most possibly accounts for variations in
one-dimensional frameworks. Apart from
team-based learning.
the call for high levels of participation
Adaptive learning is also understood in
expressed in teamwork that is legitimised by
terms of a firm's ability to align its activities
Japanese management techniques (Imai,
with the environment (the fourth contextual
1986; Bessant and Caffyn, 1996), there is
barrier). This implies that alignment ability
will depend on the organisation's potential to little understanding how these four
learn, unlearn, and relearn (Miller and contextual barriers influence the TQM
Friesen, 1980; Hedberg, 1981). The process process. It is not clear from TQM models
of adapting means to continually scan the how a firm adapts to the environment and
environment. Making the right internal and learns from it. Nor is it clear where the
external strategic choices will ultimately ``creativity'' paradigm takes over from the
influence performance. Poor adaptive ability ``improvement'' paradigm ± how learning
for instance will expose learning styles and cognitive learning frameworks
methodologies within the organisation not influence total quality management
entirely contributable to individuals and the programmes.
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 From continuous improvement to organisational learning The Learning Organization
Peter Murray and Ross Chapman Volume 10 . Number 5 . 2003 . 272-282

From continuous improvement to improvement in UK companies have been

organisational learning similarly described:
At the outset there is enthusiasm, but little skill,
In more recent times, several scholars such as and the early days of CI development are taken
Bessant and Caffyn (1996) have conducted up with learning the basics of systematic
empirical research designed to match problem solving, and practising the use of simple
tools and techniques. Putting a workable
improved organisation performance to
program together that integrates the generation
superior behavioural routines. The research of ideas with their implementation, with
has broadened the concept of total quality recognising and rewarding the effort put in, with
management by describing the CI process as measuring and recording the improvements and
one of sustained incremental innovation identifying the next targets, is a long-term
undertaking (Bessant and Caffyn, 1996, p. 10).
(Bessant and Caffyn, 1996). Most of this
research has been conducted in UK firms, This suggests that the culture for continuous
where sets of behavioural capabilities have improvement (CI) develops over time, is
been assigned to developmental levels of established through cultural routines, and
continuous improvement. The research through behavioural change. Bessant and
contends that higher levels of continuous Caffyn's research suggests that these changes
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improvement translate into superior can be tracked by categorising them at

behavioural routines (or vice versa), with different levels of continuous improvement.
standard and structured routines, by They identified five levels of CI as
comparison, consistent with lower-level organisations progressively develop:
improvement initiatives (Bessant and Caffyn, (1) natural/background CI;
1996, p. 5). Essentially, the focus of this (2) structured CI;
approach is underpinned by the five principles (3) goal oriented CI;
of TQM including customer focus, process (4) proactive/empowered CI; and
focus, teamwork, employee participation, and (5) ``full'' CI.
continuous improvement, but the difference Each of these levels is associated with a
appears to be embodied in the way matching capability so that the capability or
continuous improvement is enacted. The behaviour would improve as each higher level
mobilisation of high levels of participation for is reached. Most of the capabilities used to
achieving innovative problem solving categorise these levels are clearly linked to
underlies the approach (Leonard-Barton, specific learning behaviours, and it is not
1992; Imai, 1986; Bessant and Caffyn, difficult to view the levels as specific levels of
1996, p. 3). learning. At the highest level (full CI), this
According to these scholars, high levels of underlies the characteristics of a learning
participation account for significant organisation (Figure 2). This paper contends
improvements in productivity, in the that it is useful to think of the levels as cycles,
implementation of advanced technologies, since one cycle of learning depends on the
and in the improvement of manufacturing other, and evidences of learning can be found
efficiencies between productivity, quality, and at each stage of the cycle. For instance, the CI
time (Bessant and Caffyn, 1996). Bessant and literature argues that firms can only advance
Caffyn (1996, p. 4) extend the more linear to a new stage after an earlier one has been
frameworks of TQM by drawing attention to achieved (Bessant and Caffyn, 1996, p. 14).
the need for high levels of participation where Murray's research contends that there are
such routines need to be built into the fabric elements of every stage in most firms
of organisational life. High performance (Murray, 1999, 2001). Generally, such
organisations have accredited much of their routines are found in various competencies.
success to high-involvement routines, but the The point is that the evidence of routines at
establishment of these will vary from each stage in a cycle of learning increases as
company to company based on their capacity firms learn new behaviours that
to learn. For example, the Toyota production challenge and improve the old routines. From
system took over 40 years to become their research of UK firms, Bessant and
embedded in the culture of the firm (Monden Caffyn (1996, p. 12) suggest that six
(1983), in Bessant and Caffyn (1996, p. 8)). behaviours (or routines) are needed to
Many programmes of continuous activate the cycle:
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Peter Murray and Ross Chapman Volume 10 . Number 5 . 2003 . 272-282

Figure 2 Adaptive learning, cycles of continuous improvement

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(1) getting the CI habit; business (Senge, 1990, pp. 7-8), and
(2) focusing CI; encourages learners to challenge, question,
(3) spreading the word; and repudiate decision-making assumptions
(4) CI on the CI system; (Fiol and Lyles, 1985; Kim, 1993; Argyris
(5) walking the talk; and and Schon, 1978).
(6) building the learning organisation. Generative learning will also be influenced
In expanding the contextual barriers by individual and organisational worldviews
discussed previously, the problem with the to the extent that organisations see what they
five cycles in Figure 2 is the emphasis on a want to see and filter out information that
process that draws on some fundamental fails to match their decision-making coping
ingredients of change while ignoring others. ability (Cyert and March, 1963). Much
Steps 1 to 3 in Figure 2 draw on adaptive recent research shows that learning styles,
learning. Adaptive learning is based on a cognitive learning abilities, as well as
firm's coping ability, that is, its capacity to generative learning abilities influence learners
select, interpret, and respond to (Crossan et al., 1993; Allinson and Hayes,
environmental stimuli both inside and outside 1996; Honey and Mumford, 1986), not
the firm (Murray, 2001; Hedberg, 1981). always in the way managers prefer (Argyris,
Underlying a firm's coping ability will be its 1993). Similarly, culture is often portrayed in
capacity to learn and change simultaneously. the CI literature as ``shared values'', ``cultural
Adaptive learning is similar to continuous fit'', and ``cultural adaptation'', yet recent
improvement in that a firm is concerned with research suggests that two or more different
gradual learning where companies improve archetypes (competing structures and
past decisions and make them better through systems) exist in most firms (Hinings and
small-scale adjustment (see Stacey, 1996; Greenwood, 1988). Competing archetypes
Quinn, 1980). Steps 4 to 5 in Figure 2 closely reflect cultural values and ideologies that
resemble Senge's concept of generative prevent new learning taking place, and deep-
learning. Generative or higher-level learning seated paradigms that inhibit change on an
requires new ways of looking at the world, ongoing basis (Johnson, 1988). Firms develop
whether in understanding customers or in and maintain learning systems that not only
understanding how to better manage a influence their immediate members, but are
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Peter Murray and Ross Chapman Volume 10 . Number 5 . 2003 . 272-282

then transmitted to others by way of learning behaviours, some which are habitual
organisation histories and norms (Fiol and (i.e. derived from individual schemas), but
Lyles, 1985). others which are consciously applied to
Figure 2 is incomplete in the sense that overcome the weaknesses of one's habitual
firms depend on learners who can exhibit approach (Sadler-Smith and Badger, 1998,
many different learning styles (Table I). p. 252). To achieve change, managers must
Indeed, if the goal of learning cycles is to go further than simply creating the illusion of
improve behavioural routines and achieve change such that managers appear to be in
shared values, then it follows that an control (Starbuck, 1983).
individual's belief system (individual schema) Capabilities have been interlinked with the
will need to be highly advanced and stages of learning in much of the continuous
continually challenged. Highly advanced improvement literature. The literature
individual belief schemas will have more suggests that capabilities are underpinned by
ability to interpret environmental stimuli behaviours that must be advanced before the
(interpretive skills) than those individuals capability can be reached. Bessant and
with less advanced cognitive schemas. The Caffyn's approach is a fairly objective one;
potential level of interpretation is a function picking from a list of behaviours and
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of the complexity of individual schemas and implementing them suggests that a firm will
the divergence among them (Crossan et al., move closer to a predefined capability. Such
1993; Neisser, 1967). Similarly, when groups an approach does not take account of learning
work to create shared meaning from their styles, organisation and individual
experiences, whether good or bad, the worldviews, and cultural systems that mirror
collective experiences translate into an the actions of a regulator that push-pull any
integrative ability, leading to greater new learning initiatives back to a state of
capability that transcends individual equilibrium. In most firms, the concept of
experiences. Managers need to understand equilibrium is represented by norms and
that individuals have varying style dispositions values, and any change in the technical or
when exposed to various problem-solving operational system is greeted with resistance
stimuli and only a small number of by the existing social system. It is not easy to
individuals have sufficient breadth (learning simply advance a group of behaviours,
versatility) to perform well in multiple roles conceived in advance, and expect them to
(Allinson and Hayes, 1996, p. 14). emerge into a set of capabilities.
To optimise the behavioural routines Instead of a one-dimensional approach to
illustrated in the continuous improvement developing capabilities, capabilities may best
cycle, managers will need to choose from a be understood in terms of teams of resources
range of possible learning behaviours that best that perform some task or activity (Grant,
suits the environment, or requirements of a 1991), as collective learning that integrates
given situation or task. Indeed, organisations multiple streams of technology (Hamel and
need to have available to them a range of Prahalad, 1989), and the ability of an

Table I Differences in learning styles

Honey and Mumford's learning styles Kolb's learning styles
Activists: people who learn best when they can use The ability to be involved fully, openly, and without bias
trial and error to discover something in new experiences (concrete experience)
Reflectors: people who learn best when they are The ability to reflect on and observe experiences from
given adequate time to digest, consider, and different perspectives (reflective observation)
prepare The ability to create concepts that integrate reflection
Theorists: people who learn best when there is a and observation into logical theories (abstract
sound structure and a pattern or purpose ± they conceptualisation)
respond well to complex ideas or concepts that The ability to use theories to make plans and implement
stretch or question current thinking action (active experimentation) (Kolb, 1984)
Pragmatists: people who learn best when they can
be given real life practical issues to discuss and are
supplied with practical tips and suggestions
(Honey and Mumford, in Rylatt, 1994, p. 67)

279
 From continuous improvement to organisational learning The Learning Organization
Peter Murray and Ross Chapman Volume 10 . Number 5 . 2003 . 272-282

organisation to develop a competence to cultural values. Improvements in learning

continuously use learning to achieve its behaviour will enable better response time to
purpose (Dunphy et al., 1996). If learning is the environment as well since more
embedded in competencies that enable firms sophisticated learning responses challenge the
to achieve something better or different, then various forces that impede change (e.g. deeply
the development of capabilities will already be held values, old management practice).
predisposed to learning styles, cognitive Recent empirical research has found that
learning, and cultural routines. Multiple higher-level learning routines assist learners to
approaches will be needed. Scholars interpret and respond better to environmental
underplay most if not all of these approaches stimuli (Murray and Donegan, 2003).
in the CI literature. While the continuous improvement and
A multiple approach to learning will add a total quality management literature has
new dimension to the CI framework played a key part in improving and developing
discussed earlier. Murray (2002) suggests that work processes, particularly in the
a multiple approach to learning can be manufacturing area, its essential contribution
thought of in terms of unbounded learning lies in adaptive learning. The capacity to
(Figure 3). Unbounded learning means the improve past decisions and make them better
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capacity of a firm to grow and change is a useful insight in improving and adapting
simultaneously without being limited by past discoveries and decisions, and is
organisational systems and culture (Murray, particularly useful when high involvement
2002, p. 239). In Figure 3, while each routines are enacted. However, significant
learning approach depends on the other, change will come from a more holistic
learning has a reciprocal effect in that approach; multiple learning methods are
improvements and advances in one area will infinitely more valuable as old routines are
affect the other. Unbounded learning challenged and new ones created.
approaches help to foster the development of Significantly, this discussion suggests that
new individual and organisational routines new behavioural routines reflect the new
and these will be reflected in the firm's learning and that a firm's capacity to respond

Figure 3 Unbounded cycles of learning

280
 From continuous improvement to organisational learning The Learning Organization
Peter Murray and Ross Chapman Volume 10 . Number 5 . 2003 . 272-282

to change internally and adapt to change Brower, M.J. (1994), ``Implementing TQM with
externally will be greatly improved. self-directed teams'', in Costin, H. (Ed.), Readings in
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metaphor for strategic management'', Academy of
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Dean, J.W. and Bowen, D.E. (1994), ``Management theory
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Management, Sydney.
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