First Lecture Basic Principles

System of Units
The principle aspects of the scientific method are accurate measurement, selective
analysis, and mathematical formulation. Note that the first and most important is accurate
measurements.
Measurement: is the process by which one can convert physical parameters to meaningful
number.
Instrument: may be defined as a device for determining the value or magnitude of a quantity or
variable.
The standard measure of each kind of physical quantity is the unit; the number of times the unit
occurs in any given amount of the same quantity is the number of measure. With out the unit, the
number of measure has no physical meaning.

Fundamental and Derived Units

To measure an unknown we must have acceptable unit standard for the property that is to
be assessed. Since there are virtually hundreds of different quantities that man is called upon to
measure, it would seem that hundreds of different standard units would be required. Fortunately,
this is not the case. By choosing a small number of basic quantities as standards, we can define
all the other in terms of these few.
The basic units are called fundamentals, while all the others which can be expressed in
terms of fundamental units are called derived units, and formed by multiplying or dividing
fundamental units. The primary fundamental units which most commonly used are length, mass,
and time, while measurement of certain physical quantities in thermal, electrical, and
illumination disciplines are also represented by fundamental units. These units are used only
when these particular classes are involved, and they may therefore be defined as auxiliary
fundamental units. Every derived unit originates from some physical law defining that unit. For
example, the voltage [volt]:
workdone Joule J Force × dis tan ce Newton × meter
volt = = = = = ⇒
ch arg e coulomb C current × time Amper × sec ond

velocity dis tan ce

mass × × meter mass × × meter
mass × acceleration × meter time time 2
volt = = =
current × time current × time current × time

meter 2
mass ×
volt = time 2
=
mass × meter 2 Kg.m 2
current × time current × time 3
=
A. sec 3
[ ]
= Kg.m 2 . A− 1 . sec− 3 basic S.I units
A derived unit is recognized by its dimensions, which can be defined as the complete algebraic
formula for the derived unit. The dimensional symbols for the fundamental units of length, mass,
and time are L, M, and T, respectively. So the dimensional symbol for the derived unit of voltage

is V=
M . L2
I .T 3
[
= M . L2 . I − 1 .T − 3 ]
Table (1) shows the six basic S.I quantity and units of measurement, with their unit symbol:

1
First Lecture Basic Principles

Table (1):

Quantity Unit Symbol

Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Electrical current Ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature Kelvin K
Luminous intensity Candela cd

Table(2) : shows the development of system of units since 1790 to our days

MKSA
Quantity Dimensional symbol British CGS CGSe CGSm MKS
S.I units
length L ft cm cm +Єo=1 cm +μo=1 m m
for for
mass M lb g g free g free kg kg
time T sec sec sec space sec space sec sec
current I Amp

The CGS electrostatic system (CGSe) used coulomb’s law for the force between two
Q1Q2
electric charges. F =k , and assume k= 1/Єo to find the basic S.I units for
r2
electric charge Q which equal (cm3/2g1/2s-1), then from electric charge all electrical units (I, V, E,
C…) are determined by their defining equations. The same things is depended in CGS
electromagnetic system (CGSm), but at this time coulomb’s law determine the force between two
magnetic poles with proportionality factor k=1/ μo to derived electromagnetic unit of
polestrength (m) which equal (cm3/2g1/2s-1) then determine all other magnetic units (B, H, Φ, …).
Rationalised system of units used (MKS) system and assignicant the value of μ0=4πx10-7 H/m,
and Єo=8.85x10-14 F/m.

Multiples and Submultiples of units

The units in actual use are divided into submultiples for the purpose of measuring
quantities smaller than the unit itself. Furthermore, multiples of units are designated and named
so that measurement of quantities much larger than the unit is facilitated. Table(3) lists the
decimal multiples and submultiples of units.

2
First Lecture Basic Principles
Table(3):

Name Symbol Equivalent

tera T 1012
giga G 109
mega M 106
kilo K 103
milli m 10-3
micro μ 10-6
nano n 10-9
pico p 10-12

Basic Definitions:
1. Speed, Velocity: the rate of change of distance with respect to time
t
∂x χ
υ= , χ = ∫ υ∂t = υ .t , υ=
∂t t
[ ] [ ]
0
υ = LT − 1 basic dimensions, υ = m sec − 1 basic S.I units

2. Acceleration: the rate of change of velocity during the time

t
∂υ υ
a= , υ = ∫ a∂t = a .t , a=
∂t 0 t

[ ]
a = LT − 2 basic dimensions, a = m sec − 2 [ ] basic S.I units

3. Momentum:
p = mass × velocity = m × υ
[ ] [
p = MLT − 1 basic dimensions , p = kgm sec − 1 basic S.I units ]
4. Force: (Newton), the rate of change of momentum during the time

F= [ ]
∂p ∂ (mυ ) , F = MLT − 2 basic dimensions, F = kgm sec − 2 basic S.I units
∂t
=
∂t
[ ]
5. Energy: (Joule), the distance integral of force
χ
E = ∫ F∂ χ = F . χ

[ ]
0
[
E = ML2T − 2 basic dimensions, E = kgm 2 sec −2 = Joule = J ]
6. Power: (Watt) , the rate of work done
∂E
P=
∂t

3
First Lecture Basic Principles

[ ] [
P = ML2T − 3 basic dimensions, P = kgm 2 sec − 3 S.I units, P = J . sec −1 ]
7. Potential of a point (voltage): work done to bring a unit charge from infinity to same
point.
workdone Joule
V= =
ch arg e coulomb
[ ] [
V = ML2 I − 1T − 3 basic dimensions, V = kgm 2 A − 1 sec − 3 basic S.I units ]
8. Electrical current: the rate of flow of charge

t
∂Q
I= , Q = ∫ I∂ t , Q = I . t
∂t 0
I = [ Amp ]
9. Resistance (ohm): the resistance of a load to the current flow when there is voltage
difference between its terminals.

R=
∂V
∂I
, [
R = ML2 I − 2T − 3 ] [
dimensions, R = kgm A
2 −2
]
sec − 3 basic S.I units

10. Capacitance (farad):

C =ε
A
d
Q −1 − 2 2 4
[
−1 − 2 2
, or C = , C = M L I T , C = kg m A sec
V
4
] [ ]
11. Electrical field:

E=
∂V
∂x
, E = MLI T [
−1 − 3 −1
, E = kgmA sec
−3
] [ ]
12. Permittivity Є: how much electrical field lines can pass through some medium

Є=
farad
m
[
−1 − 3 2 4 −1 − 3 2
, Є= M L I T , Є= kg m A sec
4
] [ ]
13. Inductance(henry):
Induce emf = inductance x rate of change of current
t i
∂i et
e = −L
∂t
, ∫ e∂t = L∫ ∂i , L=
I
[ ], [ ]
0 0
2 −2 −2
Henry = ML I T Henry = kgm 2 A − 2 sec − 2
14. Reluctance (Ѕ): the magnetic resistance to magnetic field lines in same material

S=
l
μ.A
, [ ]
S = M − 1 L− 2 I 2T 2 , S = [kg −1 m −2 A 2 sec 2 ]

4
First Lecture Basic Principles
15. Magnetic flux(Φ) weber:

φ=
mmf
S
=
N .I
S
[
2 −1 − 2
, φ = ML I T ]
2 −1
, φ = kgm A sec
−2
[ ]
16. Frequency(hertz): number of cycles in one second

f =
cycles
=
1
sec ond sec
, [ ] [
f = T − 1 , f = sec − 1 ]
17. Light speed (c):
1
a) Speed of light in free spaces c =
μ oε o
1
b) Speed of light in same medium υ=
με
c
c) Diffraction factor N =
υ
Notes that constant and numbers have no units (unit less)

5
Second Lecture Standard of measurements

Standard of Measurements

A standard of measurement is a physical representation of a unit of measurement.

A unit is realized by reference to an arbitrary material standard or to natural phenomena including
physical and atomic constants.
Standard of measurement classified by their function and application in the following
categories:
1. International standards
2. Primary standards
3. Secondary standards
4. Working standards
The international standards are defined by international agreement. They represent certain units
of measurements to the closest possible accuracy that production and measurement technology
allow. These standards are maintained at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in
America and not available to the ordinary user of measuring instruments.
The primary (basic) standards are maintained by national standards laboratories in
different parts of the world. The National Bureau of standards (NBS) in America, National
Physical Laboratory (NPL) in Britain, and Physikalisch Technische in Germany. The primary
standards represent the fundamental units and some of the derived mechanical and electrical
units. Primary standards are not available for use outside the national laboratories. One of the
main functions of primary standards is the verification and calibration of secondary standards.
Secondary standards are the basic reference standards used in industrial measurement
laboratories. These standards are maintained by the particular involved industry and are generally
sent to the national standards laboratories (primary) on a periodic basis for calibration and
comparison.
Working standards are the principal tools of a measurement laboratory. They are used to
check and calibrate general laboratory instrument for accuracy and performance or to perform
comparison measurements in industrial applications. A manufacturer of precision resistances, for
example, may use a standard resistor (a working standard) in the quality control department of his
plant to check his testing equipment.

Electrical Standards
1. The Absolute Ampere
The international system of units (S.I) defines the ampere (the fundamental unit of
electrical current) as the constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors
of infinite length and negligible circular cross section placed (1m) apart in a vacuum, will
produce between these conductor a force equal to 2x10-7 Newton/meter.

Parallel conductors
1m

1m
F=2x10-7N

1
Second Lecture Standard of measurements

The international Ampere was then defined as that current which deposits silver at the rate of
(1.11mg/sec) from a standard silver nitrate solution. The international Ampere was superseded by
the absolute Ampere which is determined by Reyleigh current balance. The force acting on the
moving coil, and measured by balance is given by:
∂M
F = I2 Newton
∂x
where I: current in Amp in three series coils.
M: mutual inductance of the coils depends on number of turns, dimensions, and relative
positions.
∂x: element of the length a long the axis of the three coils.
If the moving coil is at a distance of half their radius from each of the fixed coil, the ∂M/∂x
depend on the ratio of: radius of fixed coil
radius of moving coil
To arm of balance

fixed coil

moving coil

fixed coil

2. Resistance Standards:
The absolute measurement of the ohm is carried out by the international Bureau of
weights and Measures and also by the national standards laboratories (NBS) maintains
(1Ω standards resistors).
The standard resistor is a coil of wire of some alloy like manganin (alloy of
Nickel, manganese, and copper) which has a high electrical resistivity and low
temperature coefficient of resistance. The resistance coil is mounted in a double walled
sealed container to prevent changes in resistance due to moisture conditions in the
atmosphere. Secondary standards and working standards are available from some
instrument manufacturers in a wide range of values usually in multiples of 10Ω.

Resistance
wire

container

2
Second Lecture Standard of measurements

3. Voltage Standards:
For many years the standards voltage was based on an electrochemical cell called the
saturated standard cell or standards cell, which also called a Saturated Weston Cell. The
Weston cell has appositive electrode of mercury and a negative electrode of cadmium
amalgam. The electrolyte is a solution of cadmium sulphate. These components of are
placed in an H-shaped glass container. There are two type of Weston cell:
a) Saturated cell which has a voltage variation of approximately (-40 μV) per 1ºC
rise.
b) The Unsaturated cell which has a negligible temperature coefficient of voltage at
normal room temperature, but saturated at 4ºC.
The voltage of the Weston saturated cell at 20 ºC is (1.01858V) absolute, and the e.m.f at
the other temperature is given by the formula:
V (t ) = V20C − 46 × 10 − 6 (t − 20 ) − 95 × 10 − 8 (t − 20 )2 + 1 × 10 − 8 (t − 20 )3
Since saturated cells are temperature sensitive, they are unsuited for general laboratory
use as secondary or working standards, while unsaturated cells are used.

Cadmium
sulphate
solution

Cadmium
sulphate
crystals
Cadmium _ + mercury
Amalgam

4. Capacitance standards:
The unit of capacitance (farad) can be measured with a Maxwell d.c commutated bridge,
where the capacitance is computed from the resistive bridge arms and the frequency of d.c
commutation. I = ω.Q , where ω is the frequency of commutator

Q V 1
C= → Q = C.V ⇒ I = ω.C.V ⇒ = = Xc
V I ωC
1
= ωC ,
R2 R4 R2 R1
At balance = , ωR3C =
R1 R3 R1 R3 R2
R1
C= , where R 2 + R3 > R1
ωR2 R3
Standards capacitors are usually constructed from interleaved metal plates with air as the
dielectric material. Smaller values are usually air capacitor, whereas the larger capacitors
use solid dielectric materials.

3
Second Lecture Standard of measurements

R1 R2
1- charge
2- discharge
G
1 ac
2

R3 R

5. Inductance Standards:
The primary inductance standard is derived from the ohm and farad rather from the large
geometrically constructed inductors used in the determination of the absolute value of the
ohm. Inductance working standards are commercially available in a wide range of
practically values, both fixed and variable.

6. IEEE Standards:
A slightly different type of standard is published and maintained by (Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers).
These standards are not physical items that are available for comparison and checking of
secondary standards, but are standard procedures, nomenclature, and definitions.
A large group of the IEEE standards is the standard test methods for testing and
evaluating various electronics systems and components such as:
1- Standard method for testing and evaluating attenuators.
2- Standards for specifying test equipment, like IEEE standard addresses the
laboratory oscilloscope and specifies the controls, functions, etc.
3- Various standards concerning the safety of wiring for power plants, ships,
industrial buildings.
4- The most important standards is (IEEE 488) digital interface for programmable
instrumentation for test and other equipment.

4
Second Lecture Standard of measurements

5
Third Lecture Review on measuring instrument

Review on measuring Instrument

1- Electrical and Electronic Instruments
The measuring instrument that use mechanical movement of electromagnetic meter to
measure voltage, current, power, etc. is called electrical measuring instrument, so the heart of
these instruments was the d’Arsonval meter, while any measurement system use d’Arsonval
meter with amplifiers to increase the sensitivity of measurements is called electronic
instrument.
2- Analogue and Digital Instruments
An analogue instrument are the instrument that use analogue signal (signal varying in
continuous fashion and take on an infinity number of values in any given range) to display
the magnitude of quantity under measurement.
The digital instrument use digital signal (signal which vary in discrete steps and take up only
finite different values in a given range, like binary signal which take only two levels zero and
one) to indicate the results of measurement in digital form.
3- Absolute and Secondary Instruments
In absolute instrument the measured value is given in term of instrument constants and the
deflection of one part of the instrument e.g. tangent galvanometer, and Rayliegh current
balance. In these instruments no calibrated scale is necessary. While in secondary
instruments, the quantity of the measured values is obtain by observing the out put indicate
by these instruments.
Classification of Secondary Instruments
a) Indicating Instruments
The magnitude of quantity being measured is obtain by deflection the pointer on scale, and
the output is indicate either in analogue or digital form like ammeter, voltmeter, and
wattmeter.
Three forces was acting on the pointer to deflect it in proportional to the quantity being
measured, these forces are:
i) Deflecting Force
This force gives the pointer the initial force to move it from zero position, its also
called operating force.
ii) Controlling Force
This force control and limits the deflection of the pointer on scale which must be
proportional to the measured value, and also ensure that the deflection is always the
same for the same values.
iii) Damping Force
This force is necessary in order to bring the movement system (pointer) to rise quickly
to the measured value, and then stop without any oscillation.
b) Recording Instruments
An instrument which makes a written record in any recorded medium to the quantity being
measured in order to save information and use it in anther time or anther place. Recording
instrument may record transient signal, or phenomena which can not obtain readily. This
instruments like recording devices, X-Y plotter, and oscilloscope.
c) Controlling Instruments
These instruments give an information or instruction (orders) to control on original
measured quantity or control on other devices, like a computer.

1
Forth Lecture Factors Effecting Instrument Selection

Factors Effecting Instrument selection

1- Accuracy
Its represent how closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true value of the
variable being measured.
The deviation of the measured value from the true value is the indication of how accurately
reading has been made.
2- Precision
It’s specified the repeatability of a set of reading each made independently with the same
instrument.
An estimate of precision is determined by the deviation of different reading from the mean
(average) value.
Example:
To detect the deference between accuracy and precision of measurement for some voltage, we
see the following cases:
i) V=6Volt (true or theoretical value) V=5.8Volt (measured or practical value)
This instrument is accurate
ii) V=6Volt (true or theoretical value) V=4.8Volt (measured or practical value)
This instrument is not accurate
iii) V=6Volt (true or theoretical value) V=5.8Volt (measured or practical value)
When we try to check the reading, we measured it again and again, and get the following
results: second measure for the same reading equal V=5.8Volt, third measured V=5.8Volt,
forth measured V=5.8Volt and so on.
This instrument is accurate and precise
iv) V=6Volt (true or theoretical value) V=4.8Volt (measured or practical value)
We try to check the reading, we measured it again and again, and get the following
results: second measure for the same reading equal V=5Volt, third measured V=4.6Volt,
forth measured V=5.2Volt and so on. This instrument is not accurate and not precise.
3- Range
It is defined as that region enclosed by the limits within which a particular quantity is measured.
4- Span
It is algebraic difference of the upper and lower limits of the range.
Example:
The span of (0 to10) voltmeter is Span= 10-0=10 state
But the span for (-10 to +10) voltmeter is Span= 10-(-10) =20 state
5- Loading effect
It’s the change of circuit parameter, characteristic, or behaves due to instrument operation with
out maintains.
6- Sensitivity
It’s represent the ratio of output signal to a change in input, or its represent the response output of
the instrument to a change of its input.
7- Resolution
The smallest change in input that the instrument can response to it, or the ratio of output to
smallest change in input.
8- Error
The deviation of the measured value from the true value.

1
Fifth Lecture Types of Errors

Types of Errors
No measurement can be made with perfect accuracy, but its important to find out what the
accuracy actually is , and who different errors have enter to the measurement, so study of errors is
a first steps in finding ways to reduce them.
Errors may come from different sources and are usually classified under two main
heading:

1- Systematic Errors
These types of errors have known reasons, and we can avoided, reduce or eliminated, and
estimated it. These errors are subdivided into:
a) Gross (Human) Errors
i) Misreading of instruments and observation errors.
ii) Improper choice of instrument, or the range of instrument.
iii) Incorrect adjustment or forgetting to zero.
iv) Erroneous calculations, computation mistakes, and estimation errors.
v) Neglect of loading effects.
vi) Proper position for measuring human.

b) Instrumentation (Equipment) Errors

i) Damaged equipment such as defective due to loading effect or worn parts.
ii) Calibration errors.
iii) Bearing fraction.
iv) Component nonlinearities.
v) Loss during transmission.
vi) Proper position of equipment (vertical or horizontal).
vii) Static charge error.

c) Environmental Errors
i) Change in temperature, pressure.
ii) Humidity.
iii) Stray electric and magnetic fields.
iv) Mechanical vibration.
v) Weather variations (day, night, and four seasons).
d) Measuring Errors
Measuring human does not have enough efficiency and experience to expect the true
measurement values and the reasons of errors.
2- Random Errors
Those due to causes that can not be directly established because of unknown events that
causes small variation in measurement, quite random and unexplained. We can reduce
this type of errors after treatment the systematic errors by taking many reading for the
measuring value and apply statistical analysis to determine the best true estimate of
measurement readings.

1
Fifth Lecture Types of Errors

Example (1):
(Systematic, Human errors, the proper range of measurement)
A 0 to 150V voltmeter has accuracy of 1% of full scale reading. The theoretical (true)
expected value we want to measure it is 83V. Determine the practical (measured) value and the
percentage of error.
Sol.:
Tolerance= accuracy x VFSD
Tolerance= 1% x 150 = 0.01 x 150 = 1.5V
Measured value= true ± tolerance
Measured value= 83 ± 1.5
Measured value= 84.5V or 81.5V
The percentage error is:
true − measured
errors = × 100%
true
83 − 84.5 83 − 81.5
error = × 100% = 1.81% , or error = × 100% = 1.81%
83 83

± Tolerance ± 1.5
Or error = × 100% = × 100% = 1.81%
True 83
If we want to measured anther readings on the same range and determine the error, suggest we
take true 60V, and 30V.
For 60V the error is:

± Tolerance ± 1.5
error = × 100% = × 100% = 2.5%
True 60
And for 30V
± Tolerance ± 1 .5
error = × 100% = × 100% = 5%
True 30
So we can see that the error is increased as smaller voltage is measured, thus take the proper
range for every measured value, the range that give big deflection on the pointer as possible.

Example (2):
(Systematic, Human errors, the difference between theoretical and practical instruments)
To measured unknown resistor by ammeter and voltmeter method. A voltmeter of
sensitivity 1000Ω/V, connect in parallel with the resistor reads 100V on its 150V scale (range),
while the series ammeter read 5mA. Calculate the apparent value of the resistor, actual value, and
the error.
Sol.:
1- The apparent value of the resistor is:
V 100
Rap . = = = 20 KΩ
I 5mA

2
Fifth Lecture Types of Errors
2- The actual value of the resistor by taking the resistance of voltmeter in consider is:
Ω
RV = 1000 × 150V = 150 KΩ 100V
V
Rap. × Rv 20 × 150 V
Ract . = = = 23.05 KΩ
Rv − Rap. 150 − 20
Rx
3- The percent error is:
actual − apparent
error = × 100%
actual A 5mA
23.05 − 20
error = × 100% = 13.22%
23.05

Limiting Error
In most indicating instruments the accuracy is guaranteed to a certain percentage to a full
scale reading. The limits of this deviation from the specified value are known as limiting errors or
guarantee errors. For example, if the resistance of a resistor is given as 500Ω±10%, the
manufacture guarantees that the resistance full between the limits 450Ω and 550Ω.

3
Sixth Lecture Estimation of Random Errors

Estimation of Random Errors

These errors are due to unknown causes and occur even when all systematic errors have been
accounted for. In well designed experiments few random errors usually occur, but they become
important in high accuracy work. The only way to offset these errors is by increasing the number
of readings and using statistical means to obtain the best approximation of the true value of the
quantity under measurement.
Statistical Analysis of Data
To make statistical methods useful, the systematic errors should be small compared with
random errors because statistical treatment can not improve the accuracy of measurement.

1- Arithmetic Mean(X`):
It’s the value lie in the medial number of measured variable and represents the most
accurate measured value for the true value. Arithmetic mean is given by:

X=
∑ Fi ⋅ X i , where Xi is the reading values taken, and Fi is the number that each
∑ Fi
reading is occur in the measurements, or the frequency number of each reading.
2- Deviation From The Mean(di):
Deviation is the departure of a given reading from the mean value. It’s given by:
di = X i − X
The deviation from the mean may have a positive or a negative value and the algebraic
sum of all the deviation must be zero in symmetrical curve.
3- Average Deviation(D):
The average deviation is the sum of the absolute values of deviations divided by the
number of readings
∑ Fi ⋅ d i
D= where ∑ Fi = n , and n= number of all readings
∑ Fi
4- Standard Deviation(σ):
It’s the root mean square deviation, and the standard deviation represents the variation of
the reading from the mean value. For a finite number of reading

σ= ∑ Fi .(d i ) 2
n−1
5- Variance(υ):
It’s defined as mean square standard deviation
ν =σ 2
6- Probable Error (r):
It’s the maximum chance (50%) that any given measurement will have a random error no
greater than ±r

r = ±0.6745σ

1
Sixth Lecture Estimation of Random Errors

7- Gaussian Distribution Curve:

It’s the normal distribution curve for random errors where X in the centre of this curve.
The random errors may be positive or negative with respect to X thus lie at the two side
of the curve, small errors are more probable than large errors. Gaussian curve is drawn by
the following equation:
− (X − X )
2

1
f ( x) = e 2σ 2 − ∞ < X < +∞ − ∞ < σ < +∞
σ 2π

No. of reading

X Reading values

There are two factors effecting Gaussian curve shape X and σ as shown:

σ =0.5
X=fixed,
σ =change
σ =1

σ =2

2
Sixth Lecture Estimation of Random Errors

X=change,
σ =fixed

X = −2 X =0 X =2

8- Histogram:
Graphically represent the number of observed reading against the observed value is called
the histogram and the connection between the distributions of observation is called
Gaussian curve

3
Sixth Lecture Estimation of Random Errors

No. of
reading

X-3σ X-2σ X-σ -r X +r X+σ X+2σ X+3σ Standard

50% deviations

68%

95%

99%

Example:
The following readings were recorded for voltage measurement:

10.1, 9.7, 10.2, 9.6, 9.7, 10.1, 9.6, 9.7, 10.1

Calculate:
1. Arithmetic mean (X)
2. Deviation from the mean (d)
3. Average deviation (D)
4. standard deviation (σ)
5. Variance (V)
6. probable error (±r)
Sol.:
Rearrangement the reading in two columns with its frequency or (number of
reading), thus
Reading values No. of reading di(xi-x)
10.1 3 0.3
9.7 3 -0.1
9.6 2 -0.2
10.2 1 0.4

4
Sixth Lecture Estimation of Random Errors

1- X = ∑
Fi ⋅ X i 3(10.1) + 3(9.7 ) + 2(9.6) + (10.1)
= = 9.8volt
∑ Fi 9
d 1 = 10.1 − 9.8 = 0.3volt
d 4 = 9.7 − 9.8 = −0.1volt
2- d i = X i − X
d 7 = 9.6 − 9.8 = −0.2volt
d 9 = 10.2 − 9.8 = 0.4volt

3- D =
∑ Fi ⋅ d i =
3(0.3) + 3(0.1) + 2(0.2) + (0.4)
= 0.22volt
∑ Fi 9

4- σ = ∑ Fi .(d i ) 2 3(0.09) + 3(0.01) + 2(0.04) + (0.16)

= = 0.26volt
n−1 8
5- ν = σ 2 = (0.26) 2 = 0.067volt 2
6- r = ±0.6745σ = ±0.6745(0.26) = ±0.175volt